INTRODUCTION

Data: Known facts that can be recorded that have implicit meaning.
E.g. Student roll no, names, address, etc,.
Database: Collection of inter-related data stored in a secondary storage device, organized
meaningfully for a specific purpose.
DBMS: DBMS is a collection of interrelated data and a set of program to access those data.
Database System: Database and DBMS collectively known as database system.

PURPOSE OF DATABASE SYSTEM

Explain the purpose of database system.(10)

 A database management system(DBMS) is a software tool that makes it possible to
organize data in a database.
 standard acronym for database management system is DBMS, so you will often see this
instead of the full name. The ultimate purpose of a database management system is to
store and transform data into information to support making decisions.
 A DBMS consists of the following three elements:
1. The physical database: the collection of files that contain the data
2. The database engine: the software that makes it possible to access and modify the
contents of the database
3. The database scheme: the specification of the logical structure of the data stored in the
database

Functions of a DBMS:
A DBMS makes it possible for users to create, edit and update data in database files. Once
created, the DBMS makes it possible to store and retrieve data from those database files. More
specifically, a DBMS provides the following functions:
 Concurrency: concurrent access (meaning 'at the same time') to the same database by
multiple users
 Security: security rules to determine access rights of users
 Backup and recovery: processes to back-up the data regularly and recover data if a
problem occurs
 Integrity: database structure and rules improve the integrity of the data
 Data descriptions: a data dictionary provides a description of the data
 Within an organization, the development of the database is typically controlled by
database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. This ensures the database
structure is efficient and reliable.
 The database system arose in response to early methods of file –processing system.

Applications of DBMS:
a) Banking
b) Airlines
c) Universities
d) Credit card transactions
e) Tele communication
f) Finance
g) Sales
h) Manufacturing
i) Human resources
 File processing system:
It is supported by conventional OS. It stores permanent records in various files if needs
different application programs to extract records from and add records to appropriate file.
The file processing system has number of disadvantage .They are
1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency
Redundancy:
 Duplication of data in several files.
 Leads to higher storage and access
cost. Incosistency:
 Changes made in one data is not reflected in all the copies of the same data.
2. Difficult in accessing data:
 Does not allow needed data to be retrieved in convenient & efficient manner.
3. Data Isolation:
 Since data are scattered & files are in different format writing new application
programs to retrieve appropriate data is difficult.
4. Integrity Problem:
 The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain type of consistency
constraints
 .The constraints are enforced by adding appropriate code in programs.
 When new constraints are added it is difficult to change programs to enforce them.
5. Atomicity Problem:
 If any failure occurs the data is to be restored to the consistent state that existed prior
to failure .
 It must be atomic happen entirely or not at all.
6. Concurrent Anamolies:
 Interaction of multiple user to update the data simultaneously is possible and may
result in inconsistent data.
7. Security Problems:
 Not every user of database system is allowed to access data.
 Enforcing security constraint is difficult in file processing system.

Advantages of DBMS:
1. Improved security: Database security is the protection of the database from an unauthorized
access.
2. Improved data integrity: Database integrity refers to the validity and consistency of stored
data. Integrity isexpressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the database
isnot permitted to violate.
3. Data consistency: If a data item is stored more than once and the system is aware of this,
the systemcan ensure that all copies of the item are kept consistent.
4. Improved data accessibility and responsiveness: Many DBMSs provide query language
that allows users to enquire questions andto obtain the required information at their terminals,
without any need of separatesoftware.
5. Increased concurrency: Many DBMSs manage concurrent database access and ensure the
data in thedatabase is consistent and valid.
6. Improved backup and recovery services: Modern DBMSs provide facilities to minimize the
amount of processing that islost following a failure.

Disadvantages of DBMS:
1. Cost of DBMSs: The cost of DBMSs varies significantly, depending on the
environment and functionality provided
2. Complexity and Size: The provision of the functionality makes DBMS an extremely
complex piece of software. Failure to understand the system can lead to bad design
decisions.
3. 3.Higher impact of a failure: The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability
of the system. Since all users and applications rely on the availability
4. Performance: The DBMS is written to be more general in order to support applications in all
 domains. The effect is that some applications may not run as they used to.
5.
DATABASE TERMINOLOGIES

List some of the database terminologies?

Database – A collection (or list) of information. A database is comprised of one or more lists
(called tables) of data organized by columns, rows, and cells.
Tables – The view that displays the data base as a combinations of rows (records) and columns
(fields). The cells contain the bits and pieces of data for each record in each field. The first row
of a table is reserved for the field names.
Key-a key is a logical value to access record in a table. A key that uniquely identifies a record
is called as primary key.
Field names – Identify the different categories in a database. The top row is reserved for field
names. Examples of field names are First name, last name, address, city, state, zip, phone
number.
Fields – Categories in a database. Fields are displayed in columns. For Example, in a database,
the zip field contains all the zip codes from each of the records. These are the bits and pieces
of data.
Domain-domain refers to the possible values each field can contain.For example(marital status
fields may contain either married or unmarried values.)
View-view is a virtual table made up of a subset of the actual tables.
Records – Related information that is separated by columns or fields. A name and address are
considered one record in the database. A second Name and address are a different record.
Constraints-constraints are the logic rules that are used to ensure data consistency or avoid
certain unacceptable operations on the data.
Cells - The intersection of columns and rows that contain the data for each record
Index-it is the part of the physical structure.
Data – All of the records of information in a database including the field names. Data + Field
Names = Records All Records = a Database.
Information- Information is data that is processed to have a meaning.
NULL value- A field is said to be contain a null value when it contains nothing at all.
Data integrity- it describes the accuracy, validity and consistency of data.
Database normalization- it is a technique that helps to reduce the occurrence of data
anomalies and poor data integrity.
Objects – Enables you to find, view, display, and print data differently, based on your needs.
The most commonly used objects are tables, queries, forms and reports.
 Tables show all records in a spreadsheet format
 Queries allow you to ask questions of the one or more tables and show only the
information you ask for

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  Forms display one record at a time
 Reports give and organize why of presenting information.

Views of data
Levels of Abstraction

1. Physical level : Figure 1.2 shows the three level architecture for database systems.
describes how a record (E.g., customer) is stored.
2. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data.
Type customer = record
name : string;
street : string;
city : integer;
end;
3. View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide
information
(E.g., salary) for security purposes.

Figure 6: Three levels of data abstraction

Database Languages
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
E.g.
create table account (account-number char(10),balance integer)
 DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 database schema
 Data storage and definition language
 language in which the storage structure and access methods used by
the database system are specified
 Usually an extension of the data definition language
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate
data model
 DML also known as query language

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  Two classes of languages
 Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get those data
 Nonprocedural – user specifies what data is required without specifying how
to get those data
 SQL is the most widely used query language
SQL (Structured Query language)
 SQL: widely used non-procedural language
E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select customer.customer-name
from customer
where customer.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’
E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with customer-id
192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’ and
depositor.account-number = account.account-number
 Application programs generally access databases through one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system
 Application programmers – interact with system through DML calls
 Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language
 Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do not fit into the
traditional data processing framework
 Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs that have been written
previously
E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff
Database Administrator
 Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database administrator has a
good understanding of the enterprise’s information resources and needs.
 Database administrator's duties include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Specifying integrity constraints
 Acting as liaison with users
 Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements
Data Independence
• Ability to modify a schema definition in one level without affecting a schema
definition in the other levels.
• The interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so
that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

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 • Two levels of data independence
– Physical data independence
It is the ability to modify the physical scheme without causing
application programs to be rewritten. Modifications at the physical level are
occasionally necessary in order to improve performance.
– Logical data independence
It is the ability to modify the conceptual (logical) scheme without
causing application programs to be rewritten. Modifications at the conceptual
level are necessary whenever the logical structure of the database is altered.
Instances and Schemas
 Similar to types and variables in programming languages
 Schema – the logical structure of the database
 e.g., the database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts
and the relationship between them)
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema: database design at the physical level
 Logical schema: database design at the logical level
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
System Catalog (Data Dictionary)
Data dictionary is the repository of information describing the data in the database,
that is the metadata or the “data about the data”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA BASE SYSTEMS

List the characteristics of Data Base Systems?
The main purpose of going for database approach is to overcome problems faced in
traditional file-processing approach. The important characteristics of the database approach are
the following:
Self-Describing Nature of a Database System
A fundamental characteristic of the database approach is that the database system
contains not only the database itself but also a complete definition or description ofthe database
structure and constraints. This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog which is also called
meta-data.
Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction
In traditional file processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the application
programs, so any changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that
access that file. By contrast, DBMS access programs do not require such changes in most cases.
The structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the access programs.
We call this property program-data independence
Support of Multiple Views of the Data
A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different perspective
or view of the database.
Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing
A multiuser DBMS must allow multiple users to access the database at the same time.
The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to
update the same data do so in a controlled manner so that the result of the updates is correct.

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DATA MODELS
 A collection of tools for describing
 data
 data relationships
 data semantics
 data constraints
 It provides a way to describe the design of a database at a physical, logical &new level.
TYPES OF DATA MODELS
Explain the types of data models in detail.(16) (NOV/DEC 2014)
1. The Entity-Relationship Model
 The entity-relationship (E-R) data model is based on a perception of a real world that
consists of a collection of basic objects, called entities, and of relationships among these
objects.
 It uses a collection of basic objects called entities and relationship among these object ,an
entity is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguished from other object.
Entity
 An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is distinguishable from
other objects. For example, each person is anentity, and bank accounts can be
considered as entities.
Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes. For example, the attributes
account-number and balance may describe one particular account in a bank, and they
form attributes of the account entity set. Similarly, attributes customer-name, customer-
street address and customer-city may describe a customer entity.
 An extra attribute customer-id is used to uniquely identify customers (since it may be
possible to have two customers with the same name, street address, and city).
 A unique customer identifier must be assigned to each customer. In the United States,
many enterprises use the social-security number of a person (a unique number the U.S.
government assigns to every person in the United States) as a customer identifier.
Relationship
 A relationship is an association among several entities. For example, a depositor
relationship associates a customer with each account that she has. The set of all entities
of the same type and the set of all relationships of the same type are termed an entity
set and relationship set, respectively.
 The overall logical structure (schema) of a database can be expressed graphically by an
E-R diagram.

Figure 7: An ER Diagram for banking system

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2. Relational Model
 The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data.
 Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique name.
 The data is arranged in a relation which is visually represented in a two dimensional
table. The data is inserted into the table in the form of tuples (which are nothing but
rows).
 A tuple is formed by one or more than one attributes, which are used as basic building
blocks in the formation of various expressions that are used to derive a meaningful
information.
 The relational model is implemented in database where a relation is represented by a
table, a tuple is represented by a row, an attribute is represented by a column of the
table, attribute name is the name of the column such as ‘identifier’, ‘name’, ‘city’ etc.,
attribute value contains the value for column in the row.

Figure 8: Relational Model

3. Network Data Model

 In network model the data are represented by collection of records and their relationship
is represented by links.
 Network database consists of collection of records connected to one another through
links. Each records is a collection of fields or attributes & each of which contain only
one data value. a link is an associated between two records.
Example:
Customer record is defined as
Type customer =record
Customer_name:string;
Customer_street:string;
Customer_city:string;
End

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Account records is defined as
Type account=record
Acc_number : string;
Balance :integer;
End
In network model the two records are represented as

Figure 9: Network Model

The sample database shows that Johnson has account A-102 & Michael has
account A-101 &A201 & Peter Has Account a-203.

4. Hierarchical Model
 Hierarchical model consists of a collection of records that are connected to each other
through links records are organized as a collection of trees.
 The hierarchical database model looks like an organizational chart or a family tree. It
has a single root segment (Employee) connected to lower level segments
(Compensation, Job Assignments, and Benefits). Each subordinate segment, in turn,
may connect to other subordinate segments. Here, Compensation connects to
Performance Ratings and Salary History. Benefits connects to Pension, Life Insurance,
and Health. Each subordinate segment is the child of the segment directly above it.

Figure 10: A hierarchical database for a human resource system

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Other Data Models
The object-oriented data model is another data model that has seen increasing attention.
The object-oriented model can be seen as extending the E-R model with notions
object- oriented data model.
The object-relational data model combines features of the object-oriented data model and
relational data model.
Semi structured data models permit the specification of data where individual data items of
the same type may have different sets of attributes.
This is in contrast with the data models mentioned earlier, where every data item of a
particular type must have the same set of attributes.
The extensible markup language (XML) is widely used to represent semistructured data.

COMPONENTS OF DBMS
Explain the components of database in detail.(16)
 Database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the responsibilities
of the overall system.
 The functional components of the database system are,
 Storage Manager
 Query Processor
1. Storage Manager:
 It is a component of database system that provides the interface between the low-
level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.
 Storage manager translates the narrow DML statements into low-level file system
commands.
 It is responsibility for the interaction with file manager.
 Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving and updating data
is the database.
Components of storage manager are,
 Authentication & Integrity Manager
 File Manager
 Buffer Manager
 Transaction Manager

Authorization & Integrity Manager

Tests for satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of users
to access data

Transaction Manager
It ensures that database remains in a consistent state despite system failure and
the concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

File Manager
It manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures used to
represent information stored on disk.

Buffer Manager
It is responsibility for fetching data from disk storage to main memory &
deciding what data to cache in main memory.

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The storage manager implements several data structure such as,
 Data files –Stores the database itself.
 Data dictionary- Stores the metadata about the structure of the database(i.e) Schema
of the database
 Indices-It provides fast access to data items, The Database provides pointes to those
data items that hold a particular index value
2. Query processor:
It helps the database system to simplify and facilitate access to data components
of query processor are,
DDL Interpreter
Interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in data dictionary.

Figure 11: Database System Structure

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DML Compiler
Translates DML statements into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level
instruction that the query evaluation engine understands. It also performs query
optimization (i.e) it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the alternates
Query Evaluation Engine
Executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler Database
systems can be centralized as client –server .Based on this database applications are
portioned into

 Two Tier architecture

 Three tier architecture
Two-tier architecture
Application resides at the client machine where it invokes database system
functionality at the server machine through query language statements E.g. client
programs using ODBC/JDBC to communicate with a database

Three-tier architecture
Client machine acts as merely a front end and does not contain any direct
database calls .The client end communicates with an application server through
forms interface and the application server in turn communicate with the database
system to access data E.g. web-based applications, and applications built using
“middleware”

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL

Explain the Entity Relationship Model. (10) [NOV/DEC 2014]
The E-R model is a high -level data model it distinguish between basic object called
entities and relationship among those object. The E-R models employ basic concepts
1. Entity sets
2. Relationship sets
3. Attributes
Entity Sets
Entity: It is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects. An
entity has a set of properties and the values for some set of properties may uniquely identify an
entity.
Ex: Person is an entity and person_id – uniquely identifies that person.
Entity set: An entity set is a set of entity of same type that share same properties or attributes.
Ex: Student - represents the set of all students in the university.
An entity is represented by a set of attributes and each entity has a value for each of its
attributes.
Example entity set for student
Student
Roll no S_name
101 John
102 Peter
301 Saran
405 Michael

Types of Entity Set

 Strong Entity Set
An entity set that has a primary key is called strong entity set
 Weak Entity Set
An entity set that does not have a primary key is called weak entity set
 Identifying or Owner Entity set
Weak entity set must be associated with another entity set called
identifying or owner entity set. The weak entity set is said to be existence
 dependent on identifying entity set
Relationship Set
 Relationship:Association among several entities.
 Relationship set: A relationship set is a of relationships of same type. It is a
mathematical relation on n_>2 entity set. If E1,E2,……. En are entity sets, then
relationship set R is a subset of {e1,e2,…..en)|e,eE1,e2eE2,……ene En} where (e1,e2,..en) is
a relationship.

Attributes
An attribute of an entity set is a function that maps from the entity set into a domain.
For each attributes, there is a set of permitted value set of that attribute.
Types of attributes:
 Simple and composite
 Single value and multivalued
 Derived
 Descriptive
A. Simple& composite attributes:
1. Simple attributes:
Attributes that cannot be divided into subparts are called simple
attributes Ex: S.no is a simple attributes.
2. Composite attribute:
Attribute that can be divided into subparts is called as composite
attributes.

B. Single valued & multivalued attribute:

1. Single valued attribute:
The attribute that have single value for a particular entity is called single valued
attribute. Ex: student_id – refers to only one student.
2. Multivalued attributes:
The attribute that has a set of values for a specific entity is called multivalued
attributes. Ex: phone_number.
C. Derived attributes:
The value of this type of attribute can be derived from the values of other
related attributes or entities.
Example:

D. Descriptive attributes:
The attribute present in the relationship is called as descriptive attribute.
 Figure 14: ER diagram with descriptive attribute

 NULL value:

The attribute takes a NULL value, when an entity does not have a value for it.

Figure 15: ER diagram with composite, multivalued and derived attributes

In the above ER diagram

C_name& address - Composite attribute
Street - Component attribute
Phone-number - Multi-valued attribute
Age - Derived attribute

Constraints
o Mapping cardinalities o
Participation constraints
o keys
 Mapping cardinalities:
A mapping cardinality is a data constraint that specifies how many entities
an entity can be related to in a relationship set.
Types of mapping cardinalities are
- one to one
- one to many

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 - many to one
- many to many
Consider a binary relationship set R on entity sets A and B. There are four
possible mapping cardinalities in this case:
1. one-to-one (MAY/JUNE 2013)
An entity in A is related to at most one entity in B, and an entity in B is related
to At most one entity in A.

Figure 16: ER diagram for mapping cardinalities -one to one

EXAMPLE

2. one-to-many (MAY/JUNE 2013)

An entity in A is related to any number of entities in B, but an entity in B is
related to at most one entity in A.

Figure 17: ER diagram for mapping cardinalities –one to many

EXAMPLE

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 3. many-to-one –
An entity in A is related to at most one entity in B, but an entity in B is related to
any number of entities in A.

Figure 18: ER diagram for mapping cardinalities - many to one

EXAMPLE

4. many-to-many
An entity in A is related to any number of entities in B, but an entity in B is
related to any number of entities in A.

Figure 19: ER diagram for mapping cardinalities -Many to many

EXAMPLE

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Participation Constraints
1. Total Participation:
The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be total ,if
every entity in E participates in atleast one relationship in R

Example : ER diagram for total participation

Double Line indicate that from loan to borrower, each loan must have atleast
one associated customer

2. Partial Participation:
If only some entities in E participate in relationship in R ,then the participation
of entity E in relationship R is said to be partial

Example: Partial participation

Keys
It is the value of the attribute value of an entity such that they can uniquely identify the
entity.
1. Super key:
It is a set of one or more attributes, that taken collectively allows us identify uniquely a
tuple in the relation.
Example: Reg_no of students entity ie a superkey.
2. Candidate key:
Minimal superkeys are called candidate key. Candidate key – subset is not a
super key.
Ex: name & dept_name of instructor relation forms a candidate key.
3. Primary key:
It is a candidate key which acts as a principal means of identifying tuples within a
relation.
4. Foreign key:
A relation r1 may include among its attributes, the primary key of another relation r2.
This attribute is called foreign key from r1 referencing r2.
R1 – referencing relation
R2 – referenced relation

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5. Referential integrity:
It requires that the values appearing in specified attribute of any tuple in
referencing relation also appear in specified attributes of atleast one tuple in
referenced relation.

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM - SYMBOLS

Links attributes to entity set & to entity set to relationship

Example : ER Diagram corresponding to Customer & Loan

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 S

Example : ER diagram for Ternary relationship

Example : ER diagram for cardinality limit on relationship set

The edge between loan & borrower has a cardinality constraint of 1…1 means that each
loan must have exactly one customer. The limit 0..* indicates that customer can have zero or
more loans
Identifying Relationship
The relationship associating the weak entity set with the identifying entity set is
called identifying relationship

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EXTENDED E-R FEATURES
The E-R model that is supported with the additional semantic concepts called as
extended entity relationship model or EER model. The EER model includes all the concepts of
the original E-R model together with the following additional concepts.

 Specialization
 Generalization
 Attribute inheritance
 Aggregation

1. Specialization

 An entity set may include sub grouping of entities that are distinct in some way
from other entities in the set.
 The process of designating sub groupings within an entity set is called
specialization.

Ex: Specializations of person allow us to distinguish among persons according to whether

they are employee or customers.

 Specialization is defined by a triangle component IS A .its stands for customer is a

person.IS A can also referred as a super class-subclass relationship.

2. Generalization
 It is a containment relationship that exists between a higher level entity set and one or
more lower level entity set.
 Attributes that are conceptually the same had different names in the two lower level
entity set. To create a generalization, the attribute must be given in common name.

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Constraints on generalization:
 Constraint 1:
 Condition defined
 User defined
This two determines which entities can be members of given lower entity set.
 Condition defined
In lower level entity sets , membership is evaluated on the basis of whether or
not an entity satisfies an explicit condition or predicate.
Ex: For the higher level entity set account, account type attribute is set. The
account entities are evaluated based on account type. Entities that satisfy account
type= “saving” , belong to low level entity saving account. Entities that satisfy
account type =”checking” belongs to low level entity set checking account. Since
the lower level entities are evaluated on the basics of same attribute it is called as
attribute defined.

 User defined
Not constrained by a membership condition database user assign entities to a
given entity set.

 Constraint 2:
 Disjoint
 Overlapping
Disjoint:
 A disjointness constraint requires that an entity belong to no more one low level
entity set.
 Ex: Account entity satisfy only one condition either a saving account or checking
account , but cannot be both.
Overlapping:
 The same entity may belong to more than one lower level entity set within a
single generalization.
 Ex: Generalization applied to customer & employee leads to higher level entity
set person.
 Constraint 3:
 Total generalization or specialization:
Each higher level entity set must belong to an lower level entity set.
 Partial generalization or specialization:
Some higher level entity set may not belong to any lower level entity set.

3. Attribute Inheritance:
 The attributes of higher level entity are said to be inherited by lower level entity
set. Ex: Customer & employee inherit the attributer of a person.

4. Aggregation:
 The limitation of ER model is that it cannot express relationships among relationship.
One alternative for representing the relationship is to create a quaternary relationship
 Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationship are treated as higher level
entities.

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EXAMPLE: ER diagram with redundant relationship

EXAMPLE: ER diagram with Aggregation

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