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 Editorial Board
PHYSICS

1. Rajesh M
HSST Physics
Tagore HSS Vellora
Mob: 9447646382

2. Sudheer C V
HSST Physics
Chovva HSS ,Kannur
Mob: 9495707565

3. Dr.Rasheed M P
HSST Physics
Seethi Sahib HSS , Thaliparamba
Mob: 9947234807

4. Shinoj N
HSST Physics
PHSS Parassinikadavu
Mob: 9495122440

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Chapter
Chapter Name
No
1 Electric Charges and Fields

2 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

3 Current Electricity

4 Moving Charges and Magnetism

5 Magnetism and Matter

6 Electromagnetic Induction

7 Alternating Current

8 Electromagnetic Waves

9 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

10 Wave Optics

11 Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

12 Atoms

13 Nuclei

Semiconductor Electronics: Materials,Devices and Simple

14
Circuits

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 ELECTROSTATICS-CHAPTER 1
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
Topics Included
 Electric Charge
 Properties of Electric Charge
 Methods of Charging
 Coulomb’s Law
 Electric Field
 Electric Field Lines
 Electric Dipole
 Electric Flux
 Gauss’s Theorem
Electric charge ‘Q’
Electric charge is a fundamental property of a particle (just like its mass) due to which electric and
magnetic effects are produced in the matter.
 SI unit of charge is coulomb ( C )
Properties of electric charges
i) Additive property
Electric charge is additive like real numbers .That is total charge on a body is equal to the algebraic
sum of charges present at different parts of the body.
ii) Quantization of charges
Quantization of charge means that the total charge of a body is always an integral multiple of certain
smallest charge (charge of an electron)
ie Q= +ne
Where Q = Total charge on the body
n = 1,2,3,4……..
e = charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19C)
+ sign stands for loss of electron and – sign stands for gain of electron.
18
► Number of electrons constituting 1C of charges is 6.25 x 10
-19 18
{ n = Q/e = 1C/1.6 x 10 C = 6.25 x 10 }
iii) Conservation of charges
Total charge on an isolated system remains constant. This means that there is only a transfer of
charges from one body to other, but no creation or destruction of charges
Methods of charging a body
1 . Charging by friction
2 . Charging by conduction
3 . Charging by induction

1. Charging by friction : When two insulating surfaces are rubbed against each other, due to friction,
electrons are transferred from one body to other. Hence both get charged. The electric charges so
acquired are called frictional electricity or charging by friction.
► The substance which loses electrons become positively charged and which gain electrons become
negatively charged.
► When a body is charged negatively, electrons are added hence its mass increases
► When a body is charged positively, electrons are removed hence its mass decreases.

2. Charging by conduction: When an un charged conductor is brought in to contact with a charged body,
charge flows from the charged body to the uncharged body.
 During charging by conduction, both objects acquire the same type of charge.

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 3. Charging by induction: A conductor can be charged in presence of another charged body without
making a physical contact with it.
 In this process charge acquired by the conductor (called induced charges) is just opposite to the charges
on the body (called inducing charges)
 since there is no physical contact, same charged body can be used to charge a number of conductors
without losing charges on It, hence induction is preferred for charging conductors

2.Charging by conduction 3.Charging by induction

Problem 1
How many electrons are present in -1 coulomb of charge ?
Solution: q=ne (or) n= q e = 1 1.6 x 10−19=6.25 x 1018
ie , -1 C means 6.25 x 1018 electrons are excess.
Similarly +1 C means 6.25 x 1018 electrons are deficient.
Problem 2
A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 × 10-7 C.
a). Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?)
b). Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?
Solution: a) Q = 3 × 10-7 C
Q = ne
n = Q/e = 3 ×10-7 / 1.6× 10-19 =1.875×1012 , electrons transferred from wool to polythene
b) yes. There is a mass transfer from wool to polythene
Mass of electrons transferred =nme
12 -31
= 1.875×10 X 9.1×10 = 1.706×10-18kg
Point charges
When the size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance separating them, their sizes can be
neglected and the charged bodies can be treated as point charges.
Coulomb’s law OR Inverse square law in electrostatics
According to this law “The magnitude of force of attraction or repulsion between any two point
charges at rest is directly proportional to product of magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them”.
Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance r. The force between them
F α Q1 Q2 , F α 1/ r2
F α Q1 Q2
r2
F = Constant Q1 Q2
r2
In SI system F = 1 Q1 Q2
4 π ε o εr r2
Where εo → Permittivity of air or free space
εr → Relative permittivity of the medium
where the charges are placed

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► ε o = 8.854 x 10 -12 C 2N - 1 m - 2
Therefore 1/ 4 π ε o = 9 x 109
F = 9 x 10 9 Q1 Q2
εr r2
► For air or free space ε r = 1
► Since ε r > 1, Fair > Fmedium
► ε r is also called dielectric constant (K) of the medium
 For vacuum K = 1, for air k =1.008, for water K= 80
► ε r has no unit or dimensional formula.
Electric field ‘ E’
E = F
The space around a charge within which its electro static force
q
is experienced is called electric field.
► SI unit of Electric field intensity is Newton / coulomb ( N C ) or volt/meter ( V m-1 )
-1

► E is a vector quantity
► Force experienced by a charge q placed in an electric field of strength E is given by F = qE
Electric Field Lines or Electric Lines of Forces
Digramatic visualization of electric field around a charged configuration is called Electric field lines.

Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole. Figure
shows an electric dipole having charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a.

Electric dipole moment :

The strength a dipole is measured in terms of its dipole moment which is defined as the product of
magnitude of one of the charges and length of the dipole .
Ie Dipole moment P = Q 2a
► P is a vector quantity directed from negative to positive charge along the axis of the dipole
► SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb meter ( C m )
Dipole field
The electric field produced by a dipole is called dipole field. The total charge of a dipole is zero, but
the dipole field is not zero
i) Field at any point on the axial line of the dipole
E = 1 2P
4πεo r3
ii) Field at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole
E = 1 P
4πεo r3
iii) Field at any point ( general case )
E = 1 P √ 3 cos2θ + 1
4πεo r3
► E axial : E equit = 2:1

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Case 1: Field at any point on the axial line of the dipole

The electric field at P due to +q

The electric field at P due to -q

Thus the total electric field at P

On simplifying we get

For r ˃˃ a ,there for

Torque on an electric dipole placed in an uniform electric field

Consider an electric dipole of length 2a placed in a uniform electric field of strength E making an angle θ with field.
Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance between forces
τ = F ( BC )
= QE (AB sinθ )
= QE (2a sinθ )
= Q 2a E sinθ
τ = P E sinθ,
τ = P x E

Electric flux
Total number of electric lines of force passing through a given surface is called flux through it. Then flux of
electric field through the area element dS
dΦ = E dS cos θ
The electric flux through the whole surface is given by
Φ = ∫s dΦ
Φ = ∫s E dS cos θ

Φ = ∫s E . dS

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► If the field is uniform over the surface the total flux Φ = E S cos θ
 Maximum flux passes through the surface
when it is held perpendicular to the electric field( Here θ = 0 ) Φ max = E S
 No flux passes through the surface when it is held parallel to the electric field ( Here θ = 90 )
 Electric flux is a scalar quantity
 SI unit of flux is NC-1 m-2 or V m
Gauss’s Theorem
According to this Law “Total electric flux through any closed surface in frees pace is equal to 1/ εo
times the net charge enclosed within the surface”.
ie Φ = 1 Q ∫s E . dS = 1 Q
εo εo
Where Q is the net charge enclosed and εo is the permittivity of free space
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem
1.Electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged wire.

2.Electric Field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

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3.Electric Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Important Previous Questions

1. State Gauss’s Theorem. Find electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged wire.
2. Derive an expression for Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the axial line.
3. Two point charges q1 =3µC and q2 =6 µC separated by a distance 3m apart in air.Find the electrostatic
force between them.
4. Draw electric field lines around
a) An isolated negative charge
b) An electric dipole

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 ELECTROSTATICS-CHAPTER 2
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
Topics Included
 Electric potential
 Equipotential Surface
 Electric Capacitance
 Capacitance of PPC
 Combinations of Capacitors
 Energy stored in a capacitor
Electric Potential ‘V’
The work done in bringing a unit positive test charge (without acceleration) from infinite to a point
in an electric field gives the potential at the point.
Electric Potential
V = W/q
 SI unit of potential is J/C or volt ( V )
 Potential is a scalar quantity
 Potential due to an isolated positive charge is positive and negative charge is negative
Potential due to a point charge

V = 1 Q V α 1
4πεo r r
E = 1 Q V α 1
4πεo r2 r2

Equipotential surface
A surface with a constant value of potential at all points on it is called equipotential surface
Eg surface of a charged conductor
Properties of Equipotential surface
1) Potential is same at every point on the ep surface
2) Pd between any two points on the ep surface is zero
3) No work is done for moving a test charge from one point to other on an ep surface
4) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the ep surface
5) For an isolated point charge ep surfaces are concentric spheres with charge at the centre
6) For uniform electric field ep surfaces are parallel planes right angles to the lines of force

Point Charge (+q) Uniform Field An Electric Dipole

Electric Capacitance ‘C’
It is the measure of ability of a conductor to store electric charge. When some charge is given to a
conductor its potential rises. The increase in potential is directly proportional to the charge given
Ie Q α V
Or Q = C V or C = Q / V
Where C is a constant called electrical capacitance or capacity of the conductor
 SI unit of capacitance is ‘farad’ ( F )

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Capacitor
Capacitor is a device used to store large amount of electric charge in a very small space It consists of two
conducting plates separated by a dielectric medium or Air.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor ( PPC )

Combination of capacitors
Capacitors can be combined in two ways
1) Series Combination
In series combination charge on each capacitor
is same but potential across each capacitor is different.
So Net applied voltage V = V1+V2+V3 ………(1)
We have V=Q/C
There for (1) Q/Cs = Q/C1 +Q/C2 +Q/C3 ….(2)
Q/Cs = Q[1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3 ]

1/Cs = [1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3 ]

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 2) Parallel Combinations
In parallel combinations Potential on each capacitor is same Charge is different.

Total Charge from Source Q =Q1+Q2+Q3

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Important Previous questions:

1) Explain the Series/Parallel combination of 3 capacitors of capacitances C1,C2 and C3

2) Derive an equation for energy stored in a capacitor.
3) Give any 2 properties of equipotential surfaces.
4) Derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor.
5) Draw equipotential surface around
a) An isolated positive charge
b) An electric dipole
c) An uniform electric field

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 Chapter 3
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Ohm’s Law
At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between the ends of the conductor V ∝ I
V = RI R is called the resistance of the conductor

𝑽
𝑹= The SI units of R is ohm (Ω.)
𝑰

Conductance (K)
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance
1
𝐾= unit :mho ( Ω-1) siemens
𝑅

Connection Diagram to study Ohm’s Law Voltage –Current Graph (V-I Graph)
Slope = AB/BC
Slope = 𝐕/𝐈 = R
Key Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance.
Rheostat
Its reciprocal gives conductance

Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends

i)Length of the conductor R α l
ii) Area of cross section of the conductor R α A
iii) Material of the conductor
iv) Temperature
Resistance of a particular conductor at constant temperature depends only up on length and area
𝑙 𝒍 𝑹𝑨
Rα R=ρ ρ is called Resistivity Unit Ω m ρ=
𝐴 𝑨 𝒍
Resistivity is independent of length, area, size and shape.it depend only material of conductor and
temperature
Conductivity (σ)
𝟏
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity 𝛔=𝛒 unit Ω -1 m-1 or mho m-1
Electric Power

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Resistors in Parallel

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Kirchhoff’s Rules
(a)Kirchhoff’s First Rule - Junction Rule: ΣI=0
Kirchhoff’s junction rule is in accordance with law of conservation of charge.
(b)Kirchhoff’s Second Rule –Loop Rule: Σ IR = Σ E
Kirchhoff's second law is based on the law of conservation of energy.
Wheatstone Bridge

For a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge , the resistors are such that the current through the galvanometer
Ig = 0.
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junction B & junction D
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟒 -------------(1)
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟑 -------------(2)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ABDA
𝐈𝟏 𝐑𝟏= 𝐈𝟐𝐑𝟐----------------(3)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop CBDC
𝐈𝟑 𝐑𝟑= 𝐈𝟒 R𝟒 ---------------(4)

This is the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection

Meter Bridge
Meter Bridge is an electrical device to measure an unknown resistance and resistivity
It works on the principle of balanced Wheatstone Bridge.

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 R= unknown resistance of the wire
S = known resistance from resistance box
r= resistance per unit length of the wire
𝓁 = balancing length

To Find The resistivity of the wire by Metre Bridge

R= resistance of the wire

r= radius of the wire
L= length of the wire

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a long piece of uniform wire of few meters in length across which a standard cell is
connected.
Principle of Potentiometer
The potential difference between two points of a current carrying conductor of uniform
thickness is directly proportional to the length of the wire between the points
ε ∝ 𝓁
Potentiometer is used,
1. To compare the emf of two cells
2. To measure the internal resistance of a cell

1.Comparison of emf ’s of two cells

Let the primary key is closed.

Let l1 be the balancing length for for cell ε1.
ε 1 ∝ 𝑙1
Let l2 be the balancing length for for cell ε2.
ε 2 ∝ 𝑙2

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2.Measurement of internal resistance of a cell

The primary key K1 is closed and K2 is open,

𝛆 ∝ 𝒍𝟏 -----------------------(1)
Now K2 is closed,
V ∝ 𝑙2 ------------------------(2)
𝛆
We have equation of internal resistance 𝒓 = 𝑹( − 𝟏)------------------------(3)
𝑽
From equation (1) and equation (2)
𝛆 𝒍𝟏
= --------------------(4)
𝑽 𝒍𝟐
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3) , we get

𝒍𝟏
𝒓 = 𝑹( − 𝟏)
𝒍𝟐

Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement of emf of a cell?
As potentiometer uses null deflection method, it does not draw current from the cell at the
balance point. Therefore, potentiometer measures the actual emf of the cell.
But The voltmeter always draws current from the cell and measures the terminal voltage of the
cell and not the emf. So potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement.

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 CHAPTER 4
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Topics Included
 Magnetic Field
 Magnetic Lorentz force
 Lorentz force
 Biot–Savart law
 Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop
 Ampere’s circuital law
 Moving Coil Galvanometer (MCG)
 Conversion of galvanometer in to ammeter
 Conversion of galvanometer in to voltmeter
Magnetic Field ‘B’
It is the space around a magnet or a current carrying conductor or a moving charge with in which its
magnetic effect can be experienced.
Magnetic Lorentz force
Force experienced by a charged particle moving through a magnetic field is called Magnetic Lorentz
force ,which is given by
F = q(vxB)
The magnitude of the force is given by
F = q v B sin θ
where q → magnitude of the charge
v → velocity of the particle
B → strength of magnetic field
θ → angle between direction of motion (v) and direction of magnetic field (B)
 The direction of the force is perpendicular to both velocity and magnetic field
Case I : If θ = 0 or 180, then F = 0 path of the particle is straight line
Case II : If θ = 90 ,then F = q v B sin90 ,F = q v B ( maximum force ). the path of the
charged particle is circular.
Case III : When the charged particle is moving inclined to the magnetic field (θ ≠ 0 , 90 ,180 )
the path of the particle is helical.
Case IV : If the charged particle is at rest ( v = 0 ) then F = 0
Direction of Magnetic Lorentz force
Fleming’s right hand palm rule
If the thumb of the right hand point in the direction of v, the fingers in the direction
of B, and the force F is directed perpendicular to the right hand palm.

Lorentz Force
Force experienced by a charged particle moving through an electromagnetic field is called Lorentz
force.
F = qE + q(vxB)

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Magnetic field due to a current element-Biot –Savart Law
Consider a conductor XY of finite length carrying current I. To find the strength of magnetic field at a
point p at a distance r, consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor.
According to Biot –savart„s law “The strength of Magnetic field at p due to this current element is
dB α I
dB α dl
dB α sin θ
dB α 1/r2
in general, dB α I dl sinθ
r2
dB= μo I dl sinθ
4π r2 μo = 4π x 10-7 is a constant called permeability of air or free space.
In vector form
dB = μo I (dl x r)
4π r3

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Amperes circuital law
“ The line integral of magnetic field around any closed loop (path) is equal to μo times net current
enclosed by the path”.
∫ B.dl = μo I
Where I refer to current enclosed by the path
Moving coil galvanometer
It is a device used to measure or detect small current in an electric circuit
Principle : It is based on the fact that a current carrying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole and experience
torque when placed in an external magnetic field .
NIAB = kΦ
I = kΦ
NAB

Now k / NAB is a constant called Galvanometer constant G

therefore I =G Φ
IαΦ

Conversion of galvanometer in to ammeter

Ig = IS / G+S

Conversion of galvanometer in to voltmeter

V = Ig ( R + G )

Important Previous Questions.

1. State Biot-Savart law. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to a circular current carrying coil at a
point on the axis of coil.
2. State Ampere‟s circuital law.
3. How can we convert a moving coil galvanometer in to ammeter and voltmeter.
4. What is the path of charged particle when it moves perpendicular with magnetic field?

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 CHAPTER-5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Topics

• Magnetic dipole
• Magnetic dipole moment.
• Gauss’s Law in magnetism.
• The earths magnetism
• Magnetisation.
• Magnetic intensity.

Important points.
1. Magnetic dipole : Two unlike poles of equal strength separated by a small distance.
2. S.I. unit of pole strength (p) is Am .It is a scalar quantity.
3. Magnetic dipole moment (m) = pole strength(p) x distance between poles (2L)
m = p 2L
4. S.I. unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2. It is a vector quantity.
5. Gauss’s theorem : The total magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
Σ B. ΔS = 0
6. The Earth’s magnetism
Dynamo effect : The source of earth’s magnetism may be the circulating electric current produced
by the motion of metallic fluids in the outer core of the earth. This is known as
dynamo effect..
The elements of earth’s magnetism
a) Magnetic declination: It is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian
at a place.
b) Angle of dip or Inclination (δ) : The angle made by the direction of Earth magnetic field
with horizontal at a place is called angle of dip.
Angle of dip at the equator is 0ᵒ and angle of dip at the pole is 90ᵒ.
c) Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (BH)
It is the component of earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal.

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 From fig, Vertical component , BV = B sinδ
Horizontal component , BH = B cosδ

Tan δ = BV
BH
Earth’s total field B2 = BV2 + BH 2
B = √ BV 2 + BH2

7. Magnetisation M of a sample to be equal to the net magnetic moment per unit volume . M = m.
V
8. Magnetic intensity H = B.
Μ
Important Questions:

1. State gauss’s law for magnetism.

2. The value of angle of dip at the magnetic pole of the Earth is
i) 0ᵒ ii) 90ᵒ iii) 30ᵒ iv) 45ᵒ
3. If the horizontal and vertical component of earth’s magnetic field are equal at a place , find the angle
of dip.?
4. S.I. unit of magnetic induction is ..................
**************

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 Chapter 6
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic flux ϕ

ϕ = NBA Cos θ

N- no of turns of coil,
B – magnetic field,
A – Area of coil
θ - Angle between B and A unit Weber (Wb)

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction

I Law: The definition of electromagnetic induction- Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes
an emf is induced at the two ends of the coil. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction, emf so
generated is called induced emf.
II law: the magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.

Lenz’s Law
The direction of induced current is such that which is always opposing the cause producing it.
Lenz’s Law is in accordance with law
of Conservation of Energy

Motional emf
When a conductor of length 𝓁 moving with velocity v perpendicular to magnetic field B , an emf is
induced at two ends of the conductor. It is called motional emf
ε =B 𝓁 v
Eddy Currents
When bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux, a circulating induced currents are
produced in them. These currents are called eddy currents.

Applications of Eddy current

1. Magnetic breaking in Trains
2. Electromagnetic Damping
3. Induction Furnace
4. Electric power meters

Self-Induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil itself when current through the coil changes
is called self induction
The magnetic flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the coil.
𝜙α I
𝝓=LI L is called self-inductance of the coil. Its unit is Henry (H)

When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced in the coil. This
induced emf is also called back emf
𝒅𝛟 𝒅𝑰
𝛆 = − 𝒅𝒕 𝝓=LI 𝛆 = − 𝐋 𝒅𝒕

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Self Inductance of a Solenoid
Consider a solenoid of cross sectional area A and length 𝓁, having n turns per unit length and N no of
turns, N=n 𝓁 or n=N/𝓁
if I be the current flows through the solenoid
The magnetic flux linked with solenoid
𝝓 = L I -----------------------(1)

Also we have 𝝓 = NBA Cos θ here θ=0 and Cos θ=1 and inside solenoid B = 𝜇0 n I

𝝓 = N (𝜇0 n I) A ------------(2)

From equations (1) & (2) LI = N (𝜇0 n I) A

L = 𝜇0 N n A ------------(3)

Put N=n 𝓁 in equation (3) L = 𝜇0 n2 A 𝓁 -----------------(4)

Put n=N/ 𝓁 in equation (3) L = 𝜇0 N2 A /𝓁 --------------------(5)

Equations (3),(4) & (5) are different forms of self inductance of solenoid

Mutual induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil by varying the current through a neighbouring
coil is called mutual-induction
The magnetic flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the neighbouring coil.
ϕαI
ϕ=MI M is called mutual-inductance of the coil

When the current in the neighbouring coil is varied, the flux linked with the first coil changes and an emf is
induced in the coil.
𝒅𝑰
𝛆=−𝐌
𝒅𝒕

Mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoids

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Energy stored in an inductor
Small work done dw =P dt ---------------------(1)

𝑑𝐼
(electric Power P = ε I & Induced emf ε = − L 𝑑𝑡 )

𝑑𝐼
dw = (L 𝑑𝑡 𝐼 )𝑑𝑡

dw = L I dI ----------------------------(2)

Total work done W = ∫ 𝑑𝑤

W = 𝐿 ∫ I dI -------------------------(3)

𝐿 𝐼2
W = 2 -----------------------------------(4)
This work done is stored in the magnetic field of inductor as potential energy

𝑳 𝑰𝟐
Energy stored in an inductor U=
𝟐

Ac Generator
An AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in form of
alternative emf or alternating current. AC generator works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction
When coil rotates with constant angular ferquency ω
magnetic flux linked with coil changes and induced emf is
produced.
𝑑ϕ
ϕ = NBA Cos θ θ = ωt ε=−
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(Cos ωt)
ε = −N𝐁𝐀
𝑑𝑡

ε = N𝐁𝐀ω 𝐒𝐢𝐧 ωt

ε = v & NBAω = V0—Peak value of alternating voltage

V=V0 Sin ωt

Graphical representation of Alternating Voltage

Alternating
voltage

V0

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 CHAPTER-7
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Topics
• AC Voltage applied to a Resistor.
• Representation of AC Current and Voltage by rotating vectors – PHASORS.
• AC Voltage applied to an Inductor.
• AC Voltage applied to a Capacitor.
• AC Voltage applied to a series LCR Circuit.
• Power in an AC circuit and the power factor.

Important points.
1. The rms current ( Root Mean Square Current) or Effective Current:
I rms or I = im
√2
The rms voltage , V rms or V = Vm
√2
2. AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor :

Vm sin ωt - i R = 0
Vm sin ωt = iR
i = Vm sin ωt
R
i = i m sin ωt
where i m = Vm is called maximum value of current or peak value of current.
R
Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt

Phasor diagram

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3. AC Circuit containing an Inductor:

v m sin ωt – L di = 0
dt
Vm sin ωt = L di
dt

di = Vm sin ωt
dt L

di = Vm sin ωt dt
L
i = Vm ∫ sin ωt dt
L

i = − Vm cos ωt
ωL
i = im sin (ωt − π/2 )
where im = Vm is the peak value of current.
ωL
In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 .

Inductive Reactance (XL ):

The current amplitude, im = Vm

ωL
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance,
denoted by XL
XL = ωL =2πfL
Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt

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Phasor diagram

4. AC Circuit containing Capacitor :

Vm sin ωt - q = 0
C
Vm sin ωt = q
C
q = CVm sin ωt
i = d (CVm sin ωt)
dt
i = C Vm ω cos ωt
i = C ω Vm cos ωt
i = im cos ωt
i = im sin (ωt + π/2 )
im = Vm is the peak value of current.
(1/ωC )
In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2.
The quantity (1/ωC) = X C is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
reactance.
X C = (1/ωC) = 1
2πfC

Graphical representation of v and i versus ωt :

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Phasor diagram :

5. AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit:

VR be the potential difference across R , and in phase with I.

VC be the potential difference across C , which lags the current I by π/2 or 90ᵒ
VL be the potential difference across L , which leads the current I by π/2 or 90ᵒ

Vm 2 = VR 2+ ( VC − VL ) 2
Vm 2 = (im R) 2 + (im X C − im X L ) 2
Vm 2 = im 2 [(R) 2 + ( X C − X L ) 2 ]
im 2 = Vm2
(R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2

im = Vm2

√ (R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2

im = Vm2
Z
The quantity √ (R) +( X C − X L ) is analogous to resistance and is called impedance Z in an
2 2

ac circuit.

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 Impedance, Z = √(R) 2 +( X C − X L ) 2
Impedance Triangle

The phase difference φ between voltage and current is ,

φ = tan −1 X C − X L
R

6. Resonance
When X C = X L, Z = R and φ = 0. This is condition for resonance.
Resonance frequency f = 1
2π√(LC)
7. Power in an AC circuit
Power In AC Circuit , P = V I
P = Vm sin ωt x im sin (ωt + φ)
P = Vrms Irms cos φ
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.

Important questions:

1. A series LCR circuit connected to an AC source .

i) Write an expression for impedance offered by the circuit .
ii) Draw an impedance diagram and write the expression for the power factor from the diagram.
2. i) What are the condition for resonance in a series LCR circuit. Write the expression for
resonance frequency.
ii) At resonance in an LCR circuit the emf and current are .............
3. The S.I. unit of inductive reactance is...........
************

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 CHAPTER-8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Topics
• Displacement current.
• Electromagnetic waves.
Important points.

1. Displacement current:
Displacement current is that current which comes into play in vacuum or dielectric when electric
field is changing with time.
Id = ɛ0 dφ
dt
Maxwell introduced the idea of displacement current for the consistency of Amperes equation.

Characteristics of displacement current :

i) Id = 0 in a conductor
ii) Id not equal to zero in vacuum and dielectric
iii) In series circuit Id = Ic where Ic is the conduction current.
iv) Id is produced by the rate of change of electric field.

2. Electromagnetic waves:
Oscillating charges can produce electromagnetic waves
For a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along x- direction is represented by
Ex = E0 sin (kz – wt )
Magnetic field along y-direction is given by
By = B0 sin (kz – wt )
Properties

Velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is given by

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

a) Radio waves
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires. They are used in radio and
television communication systems. Used in mobile communication.
b) Micro waves
Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft
navigation ,Microwave ovens , communication satellite, cell phone network, etc.
c) Infrared waves
Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. Infrared lamps are used in physical
therapy. Infrared rays are widely used in the remote switches of household electronic systems such as
TV, video recorders etc. Used to take photographs in darkness. Used in solar water heaters
d) Visible light
It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. Visible light emitted or reflected
from objects around us provides us information about the world.
e) UV rays
Sun is an important source of ultraviolet light. UV lamps are used to kill germs. Used for eye
surgery , preserve food etc.
f) X- rays
X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of
cancer. Used for study of atomic structure. Used to detect fractures.
g) Gamma rays
They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum .They are used in medicine
to destroy cancer cells, radiation therapy. Used for inspection of material.

Important Questions

1. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic wavelength

i) X -rays ii) γ -rays iii) β- rays iv) Microwaves.
2. An electromagnetic wave propagates through a medium of permittivity ɛ and permeability μ.
What is the speed of this wave through the medium ?
3. A typical plane electromagnetic wave propagatimg along Z- direction is shown in figure.

Write the equation for electric and magnetic fields

***********

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 CHAPTER-9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Topics
• Laws of Reflection.
• Refraction of light by spherical mirrors.
• Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature.
• The mirror equation.
• The linear magnification.
• Laws of refraction.
• Refraction at a spherical surface.
• Lens makers formula.
• Power of a lens.
• Refraction through a prism.
• Simple microscope.
• Compound microscope.
Important points.

1. Laws of reflection:
i) The incident ray , reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in a same plane.
ii) The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. i = r.

2. Reflection of light by spherical mirrors :

3. Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature.

From ΔMDC , tanƟ = MD -------------- (1)

DC
ΔMDF , tan2Ɵ = MD -------------- (2)
DF
(1) 1 = DF = f . ;
(2) 2 DC R
R = 2f or f = R .
2
4. The mirror equation : 1. + 1. = 1.
u v f

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5. Linear magnification : m = – v
u
6. Laws of Refraction:
i) The incident ray , refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence lie in the
same plane.
ii) Snell’s law : The ratio of sin of angle of incidence to the sin of angle of refraction is a constant for
a given pair of media and for a given colour of light.
Sin i = n2
sin r n1
If c is the velocity of light in vacuum and v is that in a medium, the absolute refractive index of
the medium is n = c.
v
7. Refraction at a spherical surface :

Fig shows formation of image I of an object O on the principle axis of a spherical surface with
centre of curvature C and radius of curvature R.
By snell’s law , n1 sin i = n2 sin r

For small angles , n 1 i = n2 r

For Δ ONC , i=∞+γ
For Δ NCI , γ=r+β or r=γ–β
n1 ( ∞ + γ ) = n2 (γ – β )

n2 β + n1 ∞ = ( n2 – n1 ) γ
From Δ OMN , tan∞ = ∞ = NM = NM
OM u
From Δ MNC , tanγ = γ = NM = NM
MC R
From Δ MNI , tanβ = β = NM = NM
MI v
n2 + n1 = ( n2 - n1 )
v u R
Applying sign convention u = -ve , v = +ve and R = +ve we get ,

n2 – n1 = ( n2 – n1 )
v u R

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8. Lens makers formula :

For refraction at first surface APB, we get n2 – n1 = ( n2 – n1 ) --------- (1)

v’ u R1

v’ = PI’ and R1 = Radius of curvature of 1st surface.

For refraction at second surface AP’B, we get n1 – n2 = ( n1 – n2 ) --------- (2)

v v’ R2
v = PI nd
and R2 = Radius of curvature of 2 surface.

Adding (1) + (2) , we get n1 [ 1 – 1 ] = ( n2 – n1 ) [ 1 – 1 ]

v u R1 R2
Dividing both sides by n1 , we get,
1 – 1 = ( n2 – 1 ) [ 1 – 1 ]
v u n1 R1 R2
Let the lens be placed in air , n1 =1 and n2 = n.

1 – 1 = ( n – 1 ) [ 1 – 1 ] ---------- (3)
v u R1 R2
When u = ∞ , then v = f
1 = (n –1) [ 1 – 1 ] ------------------ (4)
f R1 R2
This is the Lens makers formula.
Compairing (3) and (4) , we get 1 – 1 = 1 .This is the lens formula.
v u f
9. Power of a lens
Power of a lens is defined the reciprocal of its focal length expressed in metre..
P= 1 S.I. unit of power is dioptre (D).
f

10. Refraction through a prism.

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 In the quadrilateral AQNR,

From Δ QNR ,

From the above equations, r1 + r2 = A ---------- (1)

Deviation , d = ( i1 – r1 ) + (i2 – r2 )
= ( i1 + i2 ) – ( r1 + r2 )
d = ( i1 + i2 ) – A
A + d = i1 + i2 --------- (2)
At minimum deviation position, (i.e., d = D )
i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r
Equation (1) becomes, 2 r = A or r = A
2
Equation (2) becomes, A + D = 2i or i = A + D
2
Refractive index , sin A + D
n = 2
sin A
2
i – d curve

12. Microscopes
I. Simple microscope:

The object to be magnified is placed in between the principle focus and the optic centre of the
lens. A magnified , virtual erect image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision(D).

Magnifications, m =1- V
f
At the least distance of distinct vision , V = - D

Magnification , m= 1+ D
f

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II. Compound microscope :

Magnification due to objective , m0 = L where L – distance between objective and

f0 eyepiece.
f0 - focal length of objective.

As the first image is near the focal point of eyepiece , the magnification due to eyepiece is
me = 1 + D
fe
When the image is formed at infinity ,
me = D
fe
Total magnification, m = m0 x me
m = L x D
f0 fe
Important Questions :
1. Consider refraction of light at a spherical surface separating two media of refractive indices n1 and
n2 (n2 > n1 ). With the help of ray diagram show the formation of image of point object placed in
the medium of refractive index n1 .
2. i) Define power of a lens. What is its unit ?
ii) Derive the lens makers formula.
3. i) Draw the diagram showing the path of a monochromatic light through a triangular prism.
ii) What do you mean by angle of minimum deviation ?
Iii) Arrive at the expression sin A + D
n = 2
sin A
2
4. Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of image by a compound microscope. Derive
expression for its magnification.
5. Draw ray diagram of simple microscope that uses a single convex lens. Derive an expression for its
linear magnification.
*************

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 CHAPTER 10
WAVE OPTICS
Topics Included
 Wavefront
 Huygen’s Principle
 Superposition Principle
 Coherent Sources of light
 Interference Of Light
 Young’s double slit experiment
 Polarization
 Law of Malus
 Polarization by Reflection
 Brewster’s Law
 Polarization by Scattering
Wavefront
When a wave propagates through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean
position. The locus of all particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at a given instant constitute a
wave front.
Wave fronts are of three types

Huygen’s Principle
According to this principle
1) “Each point of the given wave front is a source of
secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets from these
points spread out in all direction with speed of the wave”.
2) “The position of a wave front after a time t is given
by the forward envelop of these secondary wave lets”.

Superposition Principle
When two or more wave propagates through a medium simultaneously; the resultant displacement of a
particular point in the medium at any instant will be the vector sum of displacement due to individual waves
ie Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
a) Constructive Superposition
Crest of one wave falls on crest of other ( or trough on trough )
the amplitude and intensity of resultant wave increases.
b) Destructive superposition
Here crests of one wave falls on trough of other,
the amplitude and intensity of resultant wave decreases.
Coherent sources of light
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same frequency, (wave length), and
nearly same amplitude also the waves must be in the same phase or must have constant phase difference.

Interference
The phenomenon of re distribution of energy due to the super position of light waves from two coherent
sources is called interference.

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Young’s double slit experiment

Condition for constructive interference

Phase difference Φ = 2 n π
Path difference δ = n λ
Where n = 0,1,2,3, ……
Amplitude of resultant wave
Expression for fringe width
β = λ D /d
R max = (a + b )
Intensity of Resultant wave Expression for fringe
I max = (a + b ) 2
Condition for destructive interference
width
Phase difference Φ = (2 n + 1) π β = λ D /d
Path difference δ = (2n + 1) λ
Where n = ,1,2,3, …… 2
Amplitude of resultant wave
R mini = (a - b )
Intensity of Resultant wave
I mini = (a - b ) 2
Polarization
When un Polarised light is allowed to pass through certain crystals like Tourmaline, calcite etc.. the light
emerging from the crystal contains electric field vectors vibrating in a single plane (Polarised light) this
phenomenon is called Polarizations.

Law of Malus
“The intensity of polarized light transmitted through the analyzer varies as the squire of cosine of angle
between the pass axis of polarizer and analyzer”. Let
I → intensity of light transmitted through the analyzer
Io → the intensity of light falling on analyzer
θ → angle between the pass axis of polarizer and analyzer
I ά cos2θ
I = Io cos2θ
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Polarization by Reflection
When an un polarised light is reflected from
a transparent medium, depending upon the
angle of incidence the reflected light may be
completely polarised or un polarised or partially
polarized. For a particular angle of incidence
called Polarizing angle or BREWSTER’S angle,
the reflected light is completely polarized

Brewster’s Law
When an un polarised light is reflected from
a transparent medium of Refractive Index n
at polarizing angle ip then
n= tan ip
Polarization by Scattering
When sun light is incident on small particles
like dust, air molecules etc...,
(having smaller size compared with wave length of light)
It is absorbed by the particles and then re emitted
in all direction. This process is called scattering.
When this scattered light is seen in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of incident beam
it is found to be plane polarized

Important Previous Questions

1. State Huygen’s Principle
2. Define Interference of light. Give the expression of fringe width.
3. Define polarization.
4. State Malu’s Law
5. State Brewster’s Law
6. Explain Polarization by scattering.

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 Chapter 11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Different methods to emit electrons from metal surface

1.Thermionic emission 2.Field emission 3.Secondary emission 4.Photo-electric emission
Photo electric effect
The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from metal surface when light of suitable
frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect
Threshold frequency (υo)
The minimum frequency of incident radiation to emits electron from metal surface.
Work Function (ϕo)
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal surface is called
work function. ϕo = hυo
Effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current

The photoelectric current increases with

intensity of incident light

Effect of potential on photoelectric current

Potential – photo current graph (for different intensities I1,I2 &I3 with fixed frequency)

The photoelectric current increases with increase

in the potential applied to the collector.
Stopping potential doesn’t change with intensity of
incident radiation.

Potential-photo electric current graph (for fixed intensity with different frequencies υ1,υ2 & υ3)
Stopping potential changes with change in frequency of
incident radiation
Stopping potential is directly proportional to fre quency

Stopping potential – frequency Graph

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EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
Kmax=Maximum Kinetic Energy of ejected electron

h 0 + Kmax Kmax = h– 0 0= h= work function of metal

henergy of incident radiation

De Broglie Wavelength

The De Broglie Wavelength Of The Electron

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT- Proof of wave nature of electron through electron
diffraction.

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