Welding Metallurgy 2

Heat Affected Zone Welding Concerns

Changes in Structure Resulting in Changes in Properties - Cold Cracking Due to Hydrogen

Two major concerns occur in the heat affected zone which effect weldability these are, a.) changes in
structure as a result of the thermal cycle experienced by the passage of the weld and the resulting
changes in mechanical properties coincident with these structural changes, and b.) the occurrence of
cold or delayed cracking due to the absorption of hydrogen during welding.

First let’s review the thermal cycles experienced in the heat affected zone as a result of the passage of
the weld. The figure illustrated here shows the temperature vs time curve at various distances from
the weld metal. Note that almost every thermal cycle imaginable occurs over this short distance of the
heat affected zone. Thus a variety of structural and property variations are expected.
Look At Two Types of Alloy Systems

There are two types of alloy systems which we will consider, those which do not have an allotropic
phase change during heating like copper, and those which have an allotropic phase change on heating
like steel. We will first consider those materials which do not have an allotropic phase change. The
top schematic illustrates this type of material. We will however consider that this material has been
cold worked (not the elongated cold worked grains present in the base material (region A). The weld
metal is represented by region C, and the heat affected zone is region B.

Note that the heat of welding has effected the structure of this material even though there are no
allotropic transformations. Recall that cold worked structures undergo recover, recrystalization and
grain growth when heated to ever increasing temperatures. So it is in this material. As we traverse
from the cold worked elongated grains in the unaffected base metal, we come to a region where the
cold worked grains undergo recovery and then shortly there after they recrystalize into fine equiaxed
new grains. Traversing still closer to the weld region we note grain growth where the more favorably
oriented grains consume neighboring grains and grain growth occurs. The grains within the weld
epitaxially nucleate from the grains in the heat affected zone at the fusion boundary, and grain growth
continues into the solidifying weld metal making very large grains.
Cold Worked Alloy Without Allotropic Transformation

One of the factors that occur when cold worked grains recrystalize and grain grow occurs we have
already discussed, and that is the material softens. Thus the heat affected zone and weld metal will
not hold the same strength level as the cold worked base metal. Another consequence of increased
grain size is perhaps equally important and that is that the larger grains are more brittle. A “Charpy”
impact test is used to determine how much impact energy a structure will absorb over various
temperature ranges. Note that the larger grain size material will become brittle and not absorb much
of an impact load even at temperatures around room temperature and above.

A second way of strengthening materials without allotropic phase changes is by precipitation

strengthening. (The first we just discussed was cold working). Recall that in precipitation
strengthening, the base metal is solutionized, rapidly cooled and then aged at some moderately
elevated temperature to promote precipitate formation. There are two ways that precipitation
hardened material can be welded. One is to weld on the full hard, that is the already aged base metal.
The second is to weld on material which has been solution annealed and rapidly cooled, but not yet
given the ageing heat treatment. In either case, when welding, the heat affected zone will see some
additional time at temperature (varied temperature over the distance of the HAZ) as illustrated above,
and this will effect the aged or overaged condition of the precipitates.

Annealed upon Cooling

When welding on the already aged (full hard) material, the unaffected base metal will have aged
precipitates that are just the right size for strengthening. The heat affected zone, on the other hand,
will experience some additional heating. In the region farthest from the weld the heat will be
sufficient to overage the precipitates with the resulting loss in strength. In regions closer to the weld,
the heat will be so excessive that the temperature will exceed the two phase region and the single
phase solutionizing region on the phase diagram will be entered. Again, a loss in strength will occur,
but this region at least might be able to be re-aged to recover some strength.

Precipitation Hardened Alloy Welded in Full Hard Condition

Here are presented hardness traverses of welds made in the pre-weld full hard material. Note the
softening as mentioned previously in the as-welded condition. Note that heat input also has an effect
on the extent of softening in the as welded condition. In some cases, a post-weld aging treatment can
restore hardness in some of the regions of this weld, but it never fully erases the effect of the weld
overaging.

Precipitation Hardened Alloys Welded in Solutioned Condition

On the other hand, welding precipitation hardened material in the solution condition with a low heat
input, only slightly ages the material in the heat affected zone. Subsequent post-weld ageing
strengthens the entire weld region (only a slight overaging occurs in the slightly ages regions from the
weld). With high heat input, however, the case is somewhat different as moderate again occurs on
welding and post-weld treatment only serve to accentuate the overaging process. So care must be
exercised when establishing a welding procedure for welding the precipitation hardened alloys.

Precipitation hardened austenitic stainless steel is used for high strength applications like rocket
components etc. Reviewing the various procedures for welding precipitation hardened steels,
what procedure would you recommend? Does it make any difference that this is austenitic
stainless steel and not just plain carbon steel?
Let us now turn our attention to the materials which do have an allotropic phase change during
heating. A typical material like steel is ferrite at low temperatures and transforms to austenite when
heated. Each time the material goes through one of these phase changes, new finer equiaxed grains
grow starting from the grain boundaries of the previous grains present. So in the case of cold worked
steels in the base metal, the elongated cold worked grains will undergo recovery, recrystalization and
grain growth just as discussed above. But now the recrystallized grains at higher temperature will
undergo the allotropic phase change, reducing the grain size again which then is followed by grain
growth at still higher temperature (nearer the weld). This variation in grain structure is schematically
shown in the lower figure above.

Steel Alloys With Allotropic Transformation

This illustration shows the various regions in the heat effected zone and what microstructure would be
predicted as related to the iron-carbon phase diagram. Note that at the far extent of the weldment in
the base metal, ferrite and cementite arte expected. Closer to the weld some dual phase ferrite
austenite will occur at temperature of welding. Closer yet we would expect single phase austenite,
and then maybe some austenite of delta ferrite and liquid mixtures until at the maximum temperature
the liquid phase would be present as the welding arc traverses. These are the structures at
temperature, but we now must consider what happens during cooling.

As we saw, the cooling rate can depend upon the preheat and the heat input. Many codes
actually specify the range of heat inputs that can be used to weld certain materials. We had an
equation to determine the heat input before. What is it? What processes have the highest Heat
Inputs? The lowest?

Hydrogen Cracking

• Hydrogen cracking, also called cold cracking, requires all three of these factors

– Hydrogen

– Stress

– Susceptible microstructure (high hardness)

• Occurs below 300°C

• Prevention by

– Preheat slows down the cooling rate; this can help avoid martensite formation and
supplies heat to diffuse hydrogen out of the material

– Low-hydrogen welding procedure

• As has been discussed, the cooling rate in the HAZ of steel may be sufficiently high as to
produce martensite. In combination with hydrogen and stress, a high-hardness martensitic
microstructure can result in hydrogen cracking. Hydrogen-induced cracking may be avoided
by elimination one of its three requisites: hydrogen, stress, high hardness microstructure.
Hydrogen can come from moisture; therefore, electrodes and flux must be dry. Paint, oil, or
heavy oxide layers may also be sources of hydrogen.

• Hydrogen cracking can be detected by ultrasonic methods; surface cracks may be detected
visually or with penetrant methods. Small cracking areas may be cut out and repair welded.
Extensive cracking may result in scrapped parts.

How does the hydrogen get into the heat effected zone where the cold cracking is often observed?
Liquid metal can absorb more hydrogen than solid austenite, and austenite more than ferrite. When
welds are made on wet material or with wet electrodes, the hydrogen is absorbed into the liquid. As
the liquid solidifies, if forces some of the hydrogen which it is trying to get rid of into the surrounding
hot austenite. If there is still too much to be absorbed even in a supersaturated solid, some hydrogen
porosity may form in the weld metal, a sure sign that poor procedures were followed.
During cooling, the cooler material tries to push hydrogen out while at the same time the solidifying
weld metal tries to push hydrogen out. Note that the large grained region of the HAZ which just may
have the hardest most susceptible martensitic microstructure thus acquired hydrogen from both
directions and a supersaturated condition exists there.
Why Preheat?

• Preheat reduces the temperature differential between the weld region and the base metal

– Reduces the cooling rate, which reduces the chance of forming martensite in steels

– Reduces distortion and shrinkage stress

– Reduces the danger of weld cracking

– Allows hydrogen to escape

• If the cooling rate is slowed sufficiently, martensite is not formed. The application of preheat
before welding slows the cooling rate after welding. Preheat, as the name implies, involves
heating up the plate to be welded to a specified temperature prior to welding. Thus, after
welding, the temperature differential between the weld and the surrounding plate is less. This
acts to slow the cooling rate and avoid the formation of martensite.

• By reducing the temperature differential between the weld and the surrounding plate, preheat
also helps to reduce shrinkage stress and distortion. Since steels are susceptible to hydrogen
cracking, the preheat also provides energy for hydrogen to escape from the metal. Hydrogen
is introduced into the metal from several sources: moisture in the shielding gas or flux,
degreasing agents that were not properly removed prior to welding, moisture in the air.

Using Preheat to Avoid Hydrogen Cracking

• If the base material is preheated, heat flows more slowly out of the weld region

– Slower cooling rates avoid martensite formation

• Preheat allows hydrogen to diffuse from the metal

T base Cooling rate µ (T - Tbase)3

Cooling rate µ (T - Tbase)2

T base
If the cooling rate is slowed sufficiently, martensite is not formed. The application of preheat before
welding slows the cooling rate after welding. Preheat, as the name implies, involves heating up the
plate to be welded to a specified temperature prior to welding. Thus the temperature differential
between the weld and the surrounding plate is less. This acts to slow the cooling rate and avoid the
formation of martensite. Preheat has the added benefit of reducing residual stress and distortion by
reducing the temperature differential between the weld and the surrounding plate.

In a manufacturing operation, the time, equipment, and energy costs associated with preheat detract
from the overall productivity of the welding operation. Also, in confined spaces, high preheat
temperatures, as high as 500°F for some steels, are a major source of discomfort for the welder.
Nonetheless, based on composition and other factors, preheat is required for many steels. Ensuring its
proper application and control can be a daunting task; however, the alternative to proper preheat is
clear - scrapping parts after welding.

Why Post-Weld Heat Treat?

• The fast cooling rates associated with welding often produce martensite

• During postweld heat treatment, martensite is tempered (transforms to ferrite and carbides)

– Reduces hardness

– Reduces strength

– Increases ductility

– Increases toughness

• Residual stress is also reduced by the postweld heat treatment

• If martensite is produced in the HAZ, its poor mechanical properties can be remedied through
a post-weld heat treatment. Heating the martensite to an elevated temperature, but not high
enough to change it back to austenite, allows some of the carbon to form iron carbide. This
process is referred to as tempering. It reduces the hardness and increases the ductility of the
martensite. Although the strength may be somewhat reduced, the toughness increases. Post-
weld heat treatment also helps to reduce any residual stress left behind from the welding
process.

• Some compositions of steel were designed to always form martensite on cooling in order to
take advantage of its high strength. These steels are generally postweld heat treated in order
to increase the ductility of the martensite.

Postweld Heat Treatment and Hydrogen Cracking

• Postweld heat treatment (~ 1200°F) tempers any martensite that may have formed

– Increase in ductility and toughness

– Reduction in strength and hardness

• Residual stress is decreased by postweld heat treatment

• Rule of thumb: hold at temperature for 1 hour per inch of plate thickness; minimum hold of
30 minutes

• If martensite is produced in the HAZ, its poor mechanical properties can be remedied through
a post-weld heat treatment. Heating the martensite to an elevated temperature, but not high
enough to transform it back to austenite, allows some of the carbon to form iron carbide. This
process is referred to as tempering. It reduces the hardness and increases the ductility of the
martensite. Although the strength may be somewhat reduced, the toughness increases. Post-
weld heat treatment also helps to reduce any residual stress left behind from the welding
process.

• As with the preheat process, the time, equipment, and energy costs associated with postweld
heat treatment detract from the overall productivity of the welding operation. Temperbead or
 controlled deposition welding sequences have been designed that are self-tempering. In these
processes, the heat from subsequent welding passes tempers the martensite produced by prior
passes. Such processes have been used successfully for many years, particularly for weld
repair. These processes do require special welder training and have limited use with some of
the more hardenable materials (higher alloyed steels such as 2.25Cr-1Mo) when it comes to
meeting code requirements for harsh service environments.

Lamellar Tearing

• Occurs in thick plate subjected to high transverse welding stress

• Related to elongated non-metallic inclusions, sulfides and silicates, lying parallel to plate
surface and producing regions of reduced ductility

• Prevention by

– Low sulfur steel

– Specify minimum ductility levels in transverse direction

– Avoid designs with heavy through-thickness direction stress

In the processing of steel, sulfur combines with manganese to form MnS inclusions in the ingot.
When the ingot is rolled, these inclusions elongate into what are referred to as stringers. The strength
of the steel in the direction transverse to these stringers is reduced. The stress produced by welding
can cause cracks if the weld is made in the rolling direction, parallel to the stringers. Small regions
can be cut out and replaced with weld metal. Large regions may result in scrapping the part.

Improve Cleanliness
Improve through thickness properties
Buttering

This illustrates how the rolled out inclusions (mainly MnS) can de-bond from the base metal
matrix and under the action of short transverse (through thickness) stresses they can actually link
to form a stepped like fracture. Improving cleanliness of the steel during steel processing, and
improving through thickness properties by steel making processed line calcium or rare earth
treatment which produces inclusions which to not roll out a long stringer during plate processing
can help. Also laying a weld bead on top of the plate which has lower strength and improved
ductility before welding the attachment can help by letting the weld bead take the shrinkage
stresses rather than transmitting them into the base plate.