1.

What’s Work Measurement

- Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for an average
worker to carry out a specified manufacturing task at a defined level of performance
- It is concerned with the length of time it takes to complete a work task assigned to a specific job
- Designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job.
- Provides the management with a means of measuring the time taken in the performance of an
operation.
- Used to set standard times for carrying out the work and standard output level

2. Uses of Work Measurement

- To reveal the existence of ineffective time.

- To compare the efficiency of alternative methods.
- To balance the work of members of a team.
- To determine the number of machines an operator can run.
- To set the time standards to carrying out the work.
- To provide information to estimate tenders, selling prices and delivery promises.
- Helps to plan and schedule the production.
- Helps to carry out the effective utilization of available capacity.
- Used as a basis for realistic and fair incentive scheme.
- To compare the actual time and target time.
- To control the labour cost.
- To enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.
- Used as a basis for labour budgeting and budgetary control system.

3. Procedure for Work Measurement

(1) Select. The work to be studied and determine the objectives of the study
(2) Record. All the relevant data relating to circurnstances in which the work is being done, the methods to
be used. Break down the job into its elements
(3) Examine. The recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically to ensure that most effective method
and motions are being used and that unproductive elernents are separated from productive elements
(4) Measure. The time required to cornplete each element using the appropriate work measurement
techniques and calculate the time required to complete the work cycle which is known as basic time.
 (5) Compile. The standard time for the operation or work cycle. In case of stop-watch time study the
various allowances to cover relaxation, personal needs etc. are added to the basic time to estimate the
standard
(6) Define. Precisely the series of activities and method ofoperation for which the time has been compiled
and issue the time standards for the activities and methods specified.

4. Elements of Work Measurement

After collecting and recording the relevant data regarding the operation, the next step is breakdown of jobs into
elements. Element can be defined as “a distinct part of a specified job selected for convenience of observation,
measurement and analysis".

(1) Repetitive Element: A repetitive element is one which occurs in every work cycle of the job, for
example, picking up a part prior to an assembly operation
(2) Occasional Element: An occasional element is one which does not occur in every work cycle of the job,
but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals e.g., clearing swarf from the machine tool
(3) Constant Element: A constant element is one for which the basic time remains constant whenever it is
performed e.g., switch on machine
(4) Variable Element: A variable element is one for which the basic time varies in relation to some
characteristics of the product, equipment or process e.g., dimensions, weight, quality etc., for example
push trolley of castings to next shop (varies with distance).
(5) Manual Element: A manual element is an element performed by a worker, e.g., manual sweeping of
floor
(6) Machine Element: A machine element is one automatically performed by a power-driven machine, for
example, turning on an automatic machine tool.
(7) Governing Element: A governing element is one that occupies a longer time than that of any other
element which is being performed concurrently, e.g., turning diameter on a lathe, while gauging from
time to time.
(8) Foreign Element: A foreign element an element observed during a study which, after analysis, is not
found to be a necessary part of the job, for example, degreasing a part that has still to be machined
further.

5. Necessity of Breaking the Job into Elements

A detailed systematic breakdown of job into elements is necessary for the following reasons:

- To ensure that the effective time is separated from ineffective (unproductive) time
- To ensure better and accurate rating
- To identify and distinguish different types of elements
- To isolate elements involving high degree of fatigue and to allocate fatigue allowances more accurately.
- To facilitate checking of method
- To enable detailed work specification to be produced
- For compilation of standard data for the recurring elements
- To facilitate assessment of performance rate in a better way for each individual elements.

While breaking the job into measurable elements, following general rules should be followed :
(i) Each element should be as short in duration as possible and can be timed accurately and reliably.
(ii) Each element should be easily identifiable, i.e. it should have a definite starting and ending point.
(iil) Manual elements should be separated from machine elements.
(iv) Constant elements should be separated from variable elements. Constant elements are those which
are independent of size, shape, weight etc.
(v) Certain elements which do not occur in each work cycle should be separated and timed separately.
(vi) Handling time should be separated from machining time.
6. Number of Cycles to be timed

- "A work cycle is the sequence of elements which are required to perform a job or yield a unit of
production. The sequence may sometimes include occasional elements".
- A work cycle starts at the beginning of the first element of the operation and continues to the same
point in a repetition of the operation. This completes one cycle or it is the start of second cycle.
- The time required to perform each element ofan operation may be expected to vary slightly from cycle
to cycle. The existence of this variation in time for repeated trials introduces a sampling error into the
time study process.
- Commonly in industries 95% confidence level is used and the accuracy desired is +5%. It means that
chances are 95% that the average value of the element will not be having error more than 5% of the
true value.

7. What’s Time Study

- Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping device (e.g., decimal
minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape camera) to record the time
taken to accomplish a task and it is often used when
 – there are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration
– wide variety of dissimilar work is performed
– process control elements constitute a part of the cycle
- Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times and rates of working for the
elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions, and for analysing the data so as to
obtain the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level of performance.

Time Study Equipment: equipment required for time study consists of:

- Stop Watch
- Time Study board
IMP
- Time Study forms

In addition to this, in the study offce there should be :

- A small calculator ;
- A reliable clock, with a seconds hand ;
- Measuring instruments such as a tape measure, steel rule, micrometer, spring balance etc.

The Stop Watch. The two types Of stop watches commonly used for time study are :
- Flyback decimal minute stop watch.
- Non-flyback stop watch.

8. Reasons for selecting the Job for Time Study

- New Job: The job in question is a new one, not previously carried out (new product, component,
operation or set of activities)
- Change in method/material: A change in material or method of working has been made and a new time
standard is required.
- Complaint from worker: A complaint has been received from a worker or worker’s representative about
the time standard for an operation.
- Bottleneck in operations: A particular operation appears to be a “bottleneck” holding up subsequent
operations and possibly previous operations.
- New incentive scheme: Standard times are required before an incentive scheme is introduced.
- Low output: To carry out investigation when output of plant is low.
- Alternative Methods: For comparing alternative methods and find out the best one.
- Excessive cost: When the cost of particular job appears to be excessive.

9. Methods of Timing of Stopwatch

Once the elements are selected and written down on the record sheet, timing can be started. There are two
methods used for timing with stop watch - (a) Cumulative timing and (b) Flyback timing.

(a) Cumulative Timing method:

 - In cumulative timing method, the watch is started from the zero position at the beginning of the
study by moving the side slide forward.
- The stop watch is not stopped throughout the entire study. The stop watch runs continuously,
and the analyst simply records the stopwatch reading at the end of each element.
- The elemental times are obtained at the end of the study by taking the difference between
successive readings. For example, the result of a cumulative study of one cycle of job consisting
of five elements might be as follows :

(b) Fly Back or Snap Back method:

- In the fly back or snap back method, at the end of each element, the analyst simultaneously notes the
stop watch reading and brings the hands to zero position by pressing the winding knob.
- The mechanism of the watch is never stopped and as soon as the hands reach zero, the winding knob
is pressed and the hands begin rotating again.
- Since the hands are snapped back to zero at the beginning of each element, the recorded readings
represent elemental times.

10. Procedure for Time Study

The following steps are essential for carrying out the time study of any process in order to determine standard
time.

(1) Select the job for study and define the objective of the study. This needs statement of the use of results,
precision required and the desired level of confidence in the estimated time standards
(2) Analyse the operation to determine if the standard method and conditions exist and the worker is
properly trained. The method study or training of operator should be completed before starting time
study if need be
(3) Select the operator to be studied if more than one can perform the task.
(4) Record the information about the standard method, operator, operation, product machine, quality
required and working conditions
(5) Divide the operation into reasonably small elements
(6) Time the operator for each of the elements. Estimate the total number of observations to be taken.
(7) Collect and record the data of required number of cycles by way of timing and rating the operator.
(8) For each element of operation note the representative watch time and calculate the normal time
as follows:
Normal Time = Observed time x Rating Factors
Calculate normal time for the whole job by adding normal time of various elements
(9) Determine standard time by adding allowances to normal time of operation. Some allowances such as
personal allowance (20%), fatigue allowance (5%) preparation allowance (5%) are generally used or
these can be taken from the company's policy book or by conducting an independent study,
Standard time = Normal time + Allowances.

11. Various Time Estimates & Production Standards

(1) Observed or Actual Time: It is the actual time taken in completing the job or desired task. If an operator
work with 100% efficiency then observed time will be equal to standard time.

Observed time can be used in: Method study, Plant layout, Realistic setting of starting and finishing times of
operations.

(2) Normal Time: It is the productive time required to perform a job utilizing appropriate work method and
work place layout and performing at normal pace. Normal time is associated with a set of tasks and is
 determined by the actual measurement and pace adjustments. This can be computed by the following
relation:

(3) Standard Time: It may be defined as the amount of time required by an operator of average skill, who
uses an average amount of effort and is working under existing working condition using the specified
method and machines at a standard pace.

(4) Performance Rating:

- Performance level or a pace is selected as standard to perform certain task. Rating means gauging and
comparing the performance or pace rate of a worker against a standard performance level set by the
time study analyst. The analyst observes the performance, compares it with other paces and learns to
judge pace level as percent of the standard pace.
- In actual work measurement situation the time study engineer/analyst simultaneously observes the
actual time taken to perform a particular task and rates the performance. Performance rating can be
calculated as:

-
- The context of normal performance, must be such that the time standards set from it must be within the
working capacity of majority of workers in the unit. It would be of no use if working standards are too
high that only few best workers could attain them since the estimates based on their performance
would never be fulfilled.
- Similarly, low performance standards would lead to high earnings of some workers leading to
excessively high labour cost and large difference in earnings of the workers.

(5) Rating Factor: The time study analyst multiplies actual time or observed time with factor called "Rating
Factor" or "Levelling Factor" to set the normal time which a normal worker would take. This is
expressed as a percentage of the efficiency of representative worker/operator which show how efficient
an operator is in comparison to some of his fellow operators.

12. System of Rating/ Rating Techniques

(1) Speed Rating

 (2) Westing-house System of Rating
(3) Synthetic Rating
(4) Objective Rating
(5) Psychological Evaluation of Performance Rating

(1) Speed Rating:

- This rating procedure consists of judging the speed of the operator's movements in relation to a normal
pace and is noted as a factor. Rating can be applied to different elements of the job and
mathematically:

(2) Westing-house System of Rating:

A four factors system performance Rating was developed at Westing house by C. E. Bedaux. These four
factors are:
(i) Skill
(ii) Effort
(iii) Conditions
(iv) Consistency

The numerical values for each of these factors are available in tabular form. The operator was watched while
working and given a value from these tables. The observed time is then levelled by applying the values of four
rating factors. The Table gives the values of these factors.

Numerical:
 (3) Synthetic Rating:

- This system of rating was proposed by Morrow. In this system the pace rate of an operator is evaluated
with the help of predetermined motion time standards (P.M.T.S.).
- Thus the time study observer notes down the actual time of performance for the elements as done in
the previous method. Performance times for many such elements are standardised and tabulated.
These are known as 'Predetermined Motion Time Values' from this Table the predetermined
performance time for the elements are also noted down.
- The ratio of the letter to the former (average actual time ) gives the rating factor. Therefore,
symbolically,

Numerical:
 (4) Objective Rating:

- This system of rating was developed by M.E. Mundel. In this operators tempo of doing a job is taken
into account. In addition to this job difficulty or complexity is also taken into consideration.
- First of all the time study observer rates the work on the basis of his work pace of doing a work. This is
called a pace rating. After the pace rating is done, an allowance is added to the pace rating to take care
of the job difficulty.
- The following six factors constitute job difficulty:
- Amount of body used
- Foot pedals
- Bimanualness
- Eye-hand coordination
- Handling requirements and
- Weight.

Numerical:

(6) Psychological Evaluation of Performance Rating

- Many studies have shown that there is a relationship between physical work and the amount of oxygen
consumed by a worker i.e. a reliable indicator of his performance. Later it was found that the change in
heart beat rate is also a reliable measure of muscular activity. Moreover this technique is easier than
consumption of rate of oxygen.
- The procedure for this is that after an operator has worked for a specified period, he is allowed to sit on
a chair and relax. Side by side heart rate is measured and compared with earlier record till the rate
becomes stabilized.
- This comparison of the rate for different jobs and different operators would help the time study observer
to find out performance rating.
 13. Allowances

- Method study investigation tries to minimize the energy expended by the worker in performing the
operation through the development of improved methods. Even when the most practical, economic and
effective methods have been developed, the job will still require the expenditure of human effort.
- Therefore, some allowances must be provided for recovery from fatigue and for relaxation. It is also
obvious that any worker will not be able to carry out work throughout the day without interruptions. The
worker also needs some time to attend to his personal needs, and hence these allowances must be
added to the basic time in order to give the work content.
- It should be noted that the work content of a job or operation is defined as : basic time + relaxation +
allowance + any allowance for additional work.
- It is very difficult to prepare a universally accepted set of precise allowances that can be applied to
every working situation. The allowances depend upon :
(i) Factors related to individual worker.
(ii) Factors related to the nature of the work itself.
(iii) Factors related to environment.

Thus, we conclude that "Allowance is the additional time allowed to perform the work over and above the basic
time".

The allowances may be classified as :

(1) Relaxation allowances :

- Personal need allowances.
- Fatigue allowances: Basic fatigue allowances, Variable fatigue allowances.
(2) Contingency allowances
(3) Special allowances
(4) Interference allowances
(5) Process allowances.

14. Relaxation Allowances

- According to British Standard Institution (BS 3185 : 1959) "Relaxation allowance is an addition to the
basic time intended to provide the worker an opportunity to recover from physiological effects of
carrying out a specified task under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs".
- Relaxation allowances have two major components : (a) personal need allowances and (b) fatigue
allowances.

(a) Personal Need allowances: These are provided to the worker to fulfill his personal needs such as :
- getting glass of water
- washing hands
- going to the lavotary
- getting drink, tea, coffee, etc.

(b) Fatigue Allowances: Fatigue Allowances are intended to provide a workman an opportunity to recover
from physiological and psychological effects of fatigue caused by carrying out a specified task under
specified conditions.

(i) Basic Fatigue Allowance: Basic fatigue allowance is provided to the worker who performs a job seated, who
is engaged on light work in good working conditions, and who is called upon to make normal use ofmembers of
the body. Usually, it is taken as 4% of the basic time. The personal need allowances and the basic fatigue
allowances are called as fixed allowances.
(ii) Variable fatigue allowances: Variable allowances are provided to an operator who is engaged on medium
and heavy work, who performs work in a posture other than sitting and when working conditions rpr the
element are not normal and cannot be improved. Some of the factors to be taken into account for providing
variable fatigue allowances are :

- Abnormal position
- Accident hazards of the job
- Weight lifting or use of force
- Illumination of the worksite
- Ventilation
- Temperature
- Noise
- Strain (Visual, mental etc.)
- Monotony of the job.

Variable fatigue allowances therefore varies according to the conditions under which the work is performed and
to the extent to which these conditions are agreeable or disagreeable.

15. Contingency Allowances

- Contingency allowances. These allowances may occur frequently or irregularly. These allowances are
provided for small unavoidable delays as well as for occasional and minor extra work.

Some of these occurrances are :

- Tool breakage involving removal of tool from its holder, trip to tool cribe, replacing tool in its holder.
- Tool sharpening.
- Obtaining necessary gauges, special tools from central stores.
- Filling coolant reservoir from time to time.
- Consultation with foreman.

16. Interference Allowances

- This allowance is provided when two or more work elenrats occur simultaneously. For example, when
one operator looks after two or more automatic machines, the interference allowance may occur when
the cycle time of work elements differs.
- The unproductive time of the machine— the waiting time before it is attended to by the operator is
called machine interference. Ihe effect of such interference is that the work content of the job is
increased. And the amount of this increase is called as interference allowance.
- The major factors influencing interference allowance are : number of machines per operator, machine
running time, ratio of machine time to outside work, inside work etc.

17. Special Allowances

- Special allowances are provided for activities which are not normally a part or operation cycle, but
which are essential for satisfactory performance of the work. Such allowances may be permanent or
temporary. These include the following :
(a) Startup allowance.
(b) A shut down allowance.
(c) A cleaning allowance.
(d) Tool-allowance (for adjustment and maintenance of tools).
(e) Change over allowance.
(f) Implemention allowance — given to the worker to adopt a new method or process etc.
 18. Policy Allowances

- A policy allowance is an increment, other than bonus increment, applied to standard time (or some
constituent part of it, e.g. work content) to provide a satisfactory level of earning for a specified level
ofperformance under exceptional circumstances.
- The usual reason for making policy allowance is to line up standard times with the requirements of
wage agreements between employees and trade unions.
- Policy allowance is a purely management decision. It is generally same for all the operations and is
allowed as percentage of standard time.

19. What’s Work Sampling

- Work sampling is also called as activity sampling or ratio delay study. It is a work measurement
technique in which a large number of instantaneous observations are made at random intervals over a
specified period of time of a group of workers, machines and processes.
- Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the percent of observations recorded
for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or
delay occurs.
- It can also be defined as a method of finding the percentage occurrence ofa certain activity by statistical
sampling and random observations.
- Mr. Tippet defined work sampling as a method of finding the ratio of delay and work element to the total
process time by random observations.
- Work sampling thus involves the estimation of the proportions of time devoted to a given type of activity
over a certain period of time by means of intermittent, randomly spaced instantaneous observations.
- Work sampling can tell for how much time a person works and how much time he expends for his
personal needs and how much time he remains idle.

20. Principle of Work Sampling

- Work sampling relies upon statistical theory of sampling and probability theory.
- Normal frequency distribution and confidence level are associated very much with work sampling
- Statistical theory of sampling explains that adequate random samples of observations spread over a
sufficient period of time can construct an accurate picture of the actual situation in the system.
- Approximately 500 observations produce fairly reliable results and the results obtained through 3000 or
more observations are very accurate.

21. Work Sampling Procedure

The work sampling procedure can be divided into 3 phases-

(1) Preparing for work sampling
(2) Performing work sampling
(3) Evaluating and presenting results of work sampling

(A) Preparing for Work Sampling

(i) Decide the main objective of the study.

(ii) Obtain the approval of the supervisor of the departnent in which work sampling is to be
(iii) Based upon the objectives, establish the quantitative measure of activity.
(iv) Selection and training of personnel.
(v) Making a detailed plan for taking observations.
 (B) Performing Work Sampling

(i) Classify the different categories of activities (elements) to be studied: Depending upon the objectives and
the end use, one activity can be classified into certain elements.
(ii) Design the observation forms.
(iii) Determine the number of days or shifts required for study.
(iv) Develop properly randomised times of observations: Before actual observations are taken, the following
steps are important from the initial planning -
- Define and decide the areas to be studied and the time limits
- Decide the number of observations per day or per period
- Decide number of locations to be observed
- Distance between two operators.

From the random tables, take the random times at which the observation trip is to be made. Enter these times
in the observation sheet. The number of observations to be taken (sample size) are already calculated with the
help of formula for the desired accuracy.

(v) Observing activity and recording data.

(vi) Summarising the data.

(C) Evaluating and Presenting Results of Work Sampling

(i) Evaluating the validity and reliability of the data

(ii) Presenting and analysing data.
(iii) Planning for future studies.

In order to evaluate the reliability of data, control limits are used. Control limits have been found very useful.
The control chart in work sampling enables the analyst to plot the daily or cumulative results of sampling. lf
point falls outside the control limits, this indicates that some unusual or abnormal conditions are present during
study.

22. Determination of Sample Size

 23. Applications of Work Sampling

Work sampling is a relatively simple technique which can be used advantageously in wide variety of situations,
such as manufacturing, servicing and office operations. Some of the uses of work sampling are :

1. Estimation of unavoidable delay time as the basis for establishing allowances to compute standard time
2. Estimation of the percentage of time consumed by various job activities on the part of supervisor,
engineer, inspector, office personnel etc.
3. Estimation of percentage utilization of machine tools, cranes, in the heavy machine shop, fork lift truck
in a warehouse which will be helpful in the economic analysis of equipments needed.
4. To compare the efficiency of two departments.
5. To provide more equitable distribution of work in a group.
6. To aid in job evaluation.
7. For appraisal of safety performance.
8. For appraisal of organisational efficiency

24. Advantages of Work Sampling

1. The activities which are impractical or costly to measure by time study can be measured readily by
work sampling.
2. A single observer can make work sampling study of several operators or machines.
3. The cost and time involved in work sampling study is quite less as compared to that required for
continuous time study.
4. A work sampling study may be interrupted at any time without affecting the results.
5. There is less chance of obtainting misleading results as the operators are not under close observations
6. Work sampling studies are less tedious and cause less fatigue to the observer.
7. It is not necessary to use trained time study observer.
8. Stop watch or other timing devices are not required for work sampling studies.

25. Disadvantages of Work Sampling

1. Work sampling does not permit finer breakdown of activities and delays. It can't provide much detailed
information.
2. It is economical and practicable only when a large number of operators are observed, or for studying
operators or machines located over wide areas.
3. In certain kinds of work sampling studies, the record of method used by the operators is not made.
4. Therefore, whenever a method change occurs in any element an entirely new study must be made.
5. Management and workers may not understand statistical work sampling as readily as they do time
study.
 26. What’s Predetermined Motion Time System

- A predetermined motion time system (PMTS) or Elemental Motion Time System or Basic Motion Time
System is frequently used to set labor rates in industry by quantifying the amount of time required to
perform specific tasks
- The first such system is known as Methods-time measurement, released in 1948 and today existing in
several variations, commonly known as MTM-1, MTM-2, MTM-UAS, MTM-MEK and MTM-B
- Obsolete MTM standards include MTM-3 and MMMM (4M). The MTM-2 standard has also largely been
phased out by the organization, but is still used in some commercial applications.
- BS3138:1969 defines PMTS as a work measurement technique where times established for basic
human motions (classified according to the nature of the motion and the conditions under which it is
made) are used to build up the time for a job at a defined level of performance.

27. Objectives or Uses of PMTS

(i) It is very useful in Method Analysis.

(ii) It helps modiWing and improving work methods before starting the work on the job.
(iii) It sets time standards for different jobs.
(iv) It assists in constructing time formulae.
(v) It aids in the prebalancing of the manufacturing lines.
(Yi) It provides a basis for wage plans and labour cost estimation.
(vii) It facilitates training of the workers and Supervisor.

28. Advantages of PMTS

(i) It eliminates inaccuracies associated with stop watch time study.

(ii) It is superior to stop watch time study when applied to short cycle highly repetitive operations.
(iii) Time standard for a job can be arrived at without going to the place of work.
(iv) Unlike stop watch study, no rating factor is employed.
(v) PMTS data, since it is the result of very large number of observations, is more reliable and
accurate as compared to stop watch time study data.
(vi) The time and cost associated with finding the standard time for a job is considerably reduced.
(vii) Alternative methods are compared easily.
(viii) PMTS helps in tool and product design.

29. Types of PMTS

- Method Time Measurement (M.T.M.)

- Work Factor (W.F.)
- Dimensional Motion Times (D.M.T.)
- Basic Motion Time (B.M.T.)
- Motion Time Analysis (M.T.A.)