Advanced Electrical circuits

Analysis

Prepared by:
Prof. Dr. Sayed Aboelsoad Ward
Faculty of Engineering
Delta University

References

Circuit Analysis – Theories and Practice

Robinson & Miller

Chapter (15): AC Fundamentals

Chapter (16): R, L, and C Elements and the Impedance Concept
Chapter (17): Power in AC Circuits
Chapter (18): AC Series-Parallel Circuits
Chapter (19): Methods of AC Analysis
Chapter (20): AC Network Theorems
Chapter (21): Resonance
 Chapter (15): AC Fundamentals
¾ Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

¾ In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in

magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.

Chapter (15): AC Fundamentals

¾ Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.

Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

¾ Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic signal.

¾ Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used

to indicate that the voltage varies with time.
 Sinusoidal ac Current

¾ During the first half-cycle, the ¾ During the second half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive voltage polarity reverses
¾ Therefore, the current is in the ¾ Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction. counterclockwise direction.

¾ Since current is proportional to voltage, its

shape is also sinusoidal

Generating ac Voltages (Method A)

¾ One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field

¾ The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut

¾ its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field.
 Generating ac Voltages
¾ Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,

¾ Often we need to scale the output voltage in time.

Time Scales ¾ The length of time required to generate one cycle depends
on the velocity of rotation.
600 revolutions in 1 minute = 600 rev / 60 s
= 10 revolutions in 1 second.

The time for 1 revolution = one-tenth of a second

= 100 ms

Generating ac Voltages (Method B)

¾ AC waveforms ma
may also be created electronicall
electronically using
sing ffunction
nction (or signal)
generators.
¾ With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.

¾ The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,

including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
¾ Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic
 Instantaneous Value

¾ As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

¾ The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts 9 at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
¾ The cycle time of 6 ms. 9 at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.

Voltage and Current Conventions for ac

¾ First, we assign reference polarities for the source and a reference direction for
the current.
¾ We then use the convention that, when e has a positive value, its actual polarity is the
same as the reference polarity, and when e has a negative value, its actual polarity is
opposite to that of the reference.
¾ For current, we use the convention that
when i has a positive value, its actual
direction is the same as the reference
arrow,
¾ and when i has a negative value, its actual
direction is opposite to that of the
reference.
 Voltage and Current Conventions for ac

Attributes of Periodic Waveforms

¾ Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
9 Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

¾ Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

¾ In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms

Frequency Ranges:
¾ The range of frequencies is huge.
9 Power line frequencies, for example, are 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz
in many other parts of the world.
9 Audible sound frequencies range from about 20 Hz to about 20 kHz.
9 The standard AM radio band occupies from 550 kHz to 1.6 MHz
9 The FM band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
9 TV transmissions occupy several bands in the 54-MHz to 890-MHz range.
9 Above 300 GHz are optical and X-ray frequencies.

Attributes of Periodic Waveforms

¾ Period: ¾ The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

¾ It is the inverse of frequency.

¾ The period of a waveform can be measured between any two

corresponding points ( Often it is measured between zero points because
they are easy to establish on an oscilloscope trace).
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.

Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

The Basic Sine Wave Equation

The voltage produced by the previously described generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and

• α : the instantaneous angular position of the
coil.
¾ For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)
¾ Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.
 Angular Velocity (ω)
The rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity

If the coil rotates through an angle of 30° in one second, its

angular velocity is 30° per second.
¾ When you know the angular velocity of a coil and the length of time that it has
rotated, you can compute the angle through which it has turned using:

Radian Measure
¾ In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,
¾ Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:
 Relationship between ω, T, and f
¾ Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

¾ Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

¾ We could replace the angle α as:

Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

¾ If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0 s, it has a phase shift.
¾ Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right
 Introduction to Phasors
¾ A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used
to represent sinusoidally varying quantities.
¾ To get at the idea, consider the red line of length Vm shown in Figure :

The vertical projection of this line (indicated in dotted red) is :

v=
¾ By assuming that the phasor rotates at angular velocity of ω rad/s in the
counterclockwise direction

Introduction to Phasors
 Introduction to Phasors

Shifted Sine Waves Phasor Representation

 Phasor Difference
¾ Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

¾ The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.

AC Waveforms and Average Value

¾ Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we need one single numerical
value that truly represents a waveform over its complete cycle.

Average Values: ¾ To find the average of a set of marks for example, you
add them, then divide by the number of items summed.
¾ For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same.
You can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle,
then divide by the number of points used.
¾ The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area
 AC Waveforms and Average Value

¾ To find the average value of a waveform, divide the area under the waveform by
the length of its base.
¾ Areas above the axis are counted as positive, while areas below the axis are
counted as negative.
¾ This approach is valid regardless of waveshape.

¾ Average values are also called dc values, because dc meters indicate average
values rather than instantaneous values.

AC Waveforms and Average Value