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QUANTUM MECHANICS
– APPLICATIONS OF
SCHRODINGER WAVE
EQUATIONS

KONERU LAKSHMAIAH EDUCATION FOUNDATION

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
B.Tech., (Physics)
II YEAR
4th SEMESTER
How to Use Self-Learning Material?

The pedagogy used to design this course is to enable the student to assimilate the concepts with
ease. The course is divided into modules. Each module is categorically divided into units or
chapters. Each unit has the following elements:

Table of Contents: Each unit has a well-defined table of contents. For example: “1.1.1. (a)”
should be read as “Module 1. Unit 1. Topic 1. (Sub-topic a)” and 1.2.3. (iii) should be read as “Module 1. Unit
2. Topic 3. (Sub-topic iii).

Aim: It refers to the overall goal that can be achieved by going through the unit.

Instructional Objectives: These are behavioral objectives that describe intended

learning and define what the unit intends to deliver.

Learning Outcomes: These are demonstrations of the learner’s skills and experience
sequences in learning and refer to what you will be able to accomplish after going
through the unit.

Self-Assessment Questions: These include a set of multiple-choice questions to be

answered at the end of each topic.

Did You Know?: You will learn some interesting facts about a topic that will help you
improve your knowledge. A unit can also contain Quiz, Case Study, Critical Learning
Exercises, etc., as metacognitive scaffold for learning.

Summary: This includes brief statements or restatements of the main points of unit and
summing up of the knowledge chunks in the unit.

Activity: It actively involves you through various assignments related to direct application
of the knowledge gained from the unit. Activities can be both online and offline.

Bibliography: This is a list of books and articles written by a particular author on a

particular subject referring to the unit’s content.

e-References: This is a list of online resources, including academic e-Books and journal
articles that provide reliable and accurate information on any topic.

Video Links: It has links to online videos that help you understand concepts from a
variety of online resources.
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QUANTUM MECHANICS

MODULE - 2

APPLICATIONS OF
SCHRODINGER WAVE
EQUATION
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Module Description

The module focused on introducing the wave function and its physical significance. The wave
functions represent the probability of finding a particle according to quantum mechanics. The
module also describes the Schrodinger wave equations with respect to the time-independent and
time-dependent parameters wherein the relationship between Hamiltonian and Energy operator
is established. The module finally describes and focused on the applications of Schrodinger wave
equations. At last, the module explains the normalization of wave function, energy of the particle
in a one-dimensional potential well or particle in a box, particle in a finite potential well, and the
phenomenon of potential barrier and tunneling effect

Unit 2.1 Wave function and its significance

Unit 2.2 Schrodinger wave equations

Unit 2.3 Applications of Schrodinger wave equations

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Unit Table of Contents

Unit 2.1

2.1. Wave functions and its significance

Aim
Instructional Objectives
Learning Outcomes

2.1.1. Probabilistic interpretation of wave function

Self-Assessment Questions

2.1.2. Normalized wave function

Self-Assessment Questions

2.1.3. Physical significance of wave function

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits

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AIM

This unit describes and enables the students to understand the interpretation and physical
significance of wave function used to derive Schrodinger wave equations and its
applications. The student will have thorough knowledge on the importance of wave
function which represents the probabilistic nature of particle.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

In this unit, the students will be able to:

• Know the importance of wave function

• Understand the physical significance of wave function
• Able to have enriched knowledge to interpret the wave function

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:

• Familiarize with the information on wave function

• Know the significance of wave functions
• Learn about the normalized wave function and its importance

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2.1.1. Probabilistic interpretation of wave function

In quantum mechanics wave function  is an important quantity and has no physical interpretation.

2
However, at a specific time and position is proportional to the probability of finding the particle
there at that time. Linear momentum, angular momentum, and energy of the body are the quantities
that can be obtained from  .

p
2

Wave functions are usually complex with both real and imaginary parts. However, the probability is
a positive real quantity.
 for complex  =  *
2
The probability density
which is the product of  and its complex conjugate  *. Every complex function  can be written
in the form

 =A + iB

Where A and B are the real function. The complex conjugate  * of  is

 * = A – iB
Therefore,
 =  * = A2 – i2B2 , but i2 = -1
2


2
Or = A2 + B2

 =  * is always a positive real quantity.

2
Hence

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Self-Assessment Questions

1. The product of wave function and its complex conjugate is known as

A. Charge density
B. Probability density
C. Mass density
D. Current density

2. When the wave function is normalized then _______

A. * = 1
1
B. ∫0  ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
1
C. ∫−1  ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
+
D. ∫−  ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1

3. Probability density is represented by ________

A. (x) l
B. (x) l2
C. (x) l1/2
D. (x) l-2

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2.1.2. Normalized wave function:

  
2 2
Since is the probability density of finding the body described by , the integral of over
entire space must be finite because the body is somewhere after all. In case if,

 dv  0
2


where dv is small volume element given by dv = dxdydz
It means particle does not exist, which is totally unphysical. So, if  is to be describe a real body,
the above integral must be finite.


2
It is usually convenient to have be equal to the probability density P d of finding the particle
described by  rather than merely proportional to P. Therefore, we can write,



 P dv  1
d

Because the particle exist somewhere at all times, it implies that



 dv  1
2



The wave functions which obey the above equation are called as normalized wave functions.

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Self-Assessment Questions

4. The total probability of finding the particle in space must be _______

A. infinity
B. zero
C. double
D. unit

5. The normalized wave function must ______ norm

A. finite
B. infinite
C. zero
D. complex

6. The operator operating on the wave function should always standing on _____ side
A. Left
B. Right
C. Up
D. bottom

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2.1.3. Physical significance of wave function

The wave functions  having the following properties are admissible as mathematical
reorientations of real bodies.

1.  must be continuous and single valued.

  
2. , , must be continuous and single valued everywhere.
x y z
3.  must be normalized, which means  must go to 0 as x  , y  , z   in
  dv over all space to be a finite constant.
2
order that

A well-behaved normalized wave function of a specific system determines the probability

distribution function for that function. This probability density is not directly observed experimentally
for a single particle. So the well-behaved function is the mathematical representation of a physical
system.

If  is normalized wave function, then



 dx  1
2



In Quantum Mechanics, the physical significance of wave equation is well defined. According to the
de Broglie matter waves, every particle is associated with a wave called matter waves. The
displacement of the matter waves is represented with a wave function 

Ψ = Ψ o e−iωt
Ψ ∗ = Ψ o e+iωt complex conjugate of Ψ
1

∴ ∫ ΨΨ ∗ dΨ ⟹ probability density
−1
↓ probability of finding the particle in a particular region

∫ ΨΨ ∗ dΨ = |Ψ|2
−1

|Ψ|2 = 1 → probability density max

the probability finding the particles in a region is maximum

|Ψ|2 = 0 → there is no particle in that region

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Self-Assessment Questions

7. Any wave function having symmetry property is said to be of _____ parity.

A. Odd
B. Even
C. Zero
D. Infinite

8. If there exist only one eigen function corresponding to a given eigen value, then the
eigen value is called _______
A. Non-degenerate
B. Degenerate
C. Discrete
D. Continuous

9. An acceptable wave function must be _____

A. Single valued
B. Finite
C. Continuous
D. All the above

Summary
A well-behaved normalized wave function of a specific system determines the
probability distribution function for that function. This probability density is not directly
observed experimentally for a single.

In Quantum Mechanics, the physical significance of wave equation is well defined.

The wave function is a single-valued, must be continuous and finite value.


2
at a particular time is proportional to the probability of finding the body there at
that time. The product of wave function and its conjugate complex represents the
probability density of a particle.

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Terminal Questions

1. Describe the conditions for normalization of wave function.

2. Explain the physical significance of wave function.

3. Discuss the probabilistic interpretation of wave function with necessary equations.

Answer Keys

Self-Assessment Questions

Question No: Answers

1 B
2 D
3 B
4 D
5 A
6 A
7 B
8 A
9 D

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

External References

1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition, pp.
1-536.

2. French, Taylor and Edwin (1978) An introduction to Quantum Physics, W.W. Norton &
Company, 2nd Edition, pp. 1-628.

3. David Griffiths (2005) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2 nd edition, Pearson Prentice

Hall, pp. 1-586

4. Binney James, David Skinner (2014), The Physics of Quantum Mechanics, 1 st edition,
Oxford University Press, pp. 1-475.

e-References

 http://www.issp.ac.ru/ebooks/books/open/Theoretical_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mecha

nics.pdf

 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-03170-4

 http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books.html

 https://www.fisica.net/mecanica-quantica/Phillips%20-

%20Introduction%20to%20Quantum%20Mechanics.pdf

Image Credits

GetupLearn.com

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Unit Table of Contents

Unit 2.2

2.2. Schrodinger wave equations

Aim
Instructional Objectives
Learning Outcomes

2.2.1. Schrodinger time-independent wave equation

Self-Assessment Questions

2.2.2. Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits

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AIM

This unit describes and enables the students to understand the significance of
Schrodinger’s wave equation. The unit also provides information and relates in deriving
Schrodinger’s time-dependent and time-independent wave equations.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

In this unit, the students will be able to:

• Know significance of Schrodinger’s wave equation

• Evaluate the Schrodinger time-independent wave equation
• Calculate the Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:

• Familiarize with the Schrodinger’s wave equation

• Derive the Schrodinger time-independent wave equation
• Establishing the relation between Hamiltonian and Energy operator with the
help of Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation

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2.2.1. Schrodinger time-independent wave equation

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’. The particle is associated with a wave
then the wavelength is given by the de Broglie wavelength.

ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 ⟶ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞’𝑛
⟶ 𝑒𝑞’𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜕2𝑦
= 𝑣2 . ∇ 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑡 2

𝑦 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∇ 2 = 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇ 2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 +𝜕𝑧 2

In Quantum Mechanics, the wave equation can be written as

𝜕2Ψ
= 𝑣2 . ∇ 2Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2

w.k.t
𝜕
Ψ = Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 [ 𝜕𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 ]

𝜕
Differentiate above equation w.r.t “t” [ (𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑒 𝑥 ]
𝜕𝑥
𝜕Ψ 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑡 (Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 )
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
= Ψ𝑜 𝜕𝑡 (𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 )

= Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (-i𝜔)

= -i𝜔 (Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 )

𝜕Ψ
= (-i𝜔Ψ) (∴ Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = Ψ)
𝜕𝑡

Again, differentiate w.r.t “t”

𝜕 𝜕Ψ 𝜕
( 𝜕𝑡 ) = 𝜕𝑡 (−i𝜔Ψ)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕2Ψ 𝜕Ψ
⟹ = −i𝜔
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2Ψ 𝜕𝛹
⟹ = −i𝜔(-i𝜔Ψ) [ ∵ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚(5) = (−𝑖𝜔𝛹)]
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡

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𝜕 2Ψ
⟹ = 𝑖 2 𝜔2 Ψ ( ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2Ψ
⟹ = −𝜔2 Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2Ψ
= 𝑣2 . ∇ 2Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2

⟹ −𝜔2 Ψ = 𝑣 2 . ∇ 2 Ψ

𝜔2
⟹ ∇ 2Ψ + Ψ =0
𝑣2

𝜔2
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣2
𝜔2
𝑤𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑣2

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 (v = 𝜐𝜆)

𝑣 𝑣
𝜔 = 2𝜋 (𝜐= )
𝜆 𝜆
𝜔 2𝜋 ℎ
= (𝜆 = )
𝑣 𝜆 𝑚𝑣

𝜔 2𝜋
=
𝑣 ℎ
𝑚𝑣

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝜔 2𝜋 𝜔2 4𝜋2
𝑣
= ℎ
𝑚𝑣 ⟹ 𝑣2
= ℎ2
𝑚2 𝑣 2

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸

1
⟹ 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑣
2

1
⟹ 𝐸– 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

⟹ 2 (𝐸 – 𝑣) = m𝑣 2

⟹ 2m (𝐸 – 𝑣) = 𝑚2 𝑣 2

𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜔2 4𝜋2
= [2m (E – v)]
𝑣2 ℎ2

𝜔2 8𝜋2 𝑚
= (E – v)
𝑣2 ℎ2

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𝜔2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣2

𝜔2
∇ 2Ψ + Ψ =0
𝑣2

8𝜋2 𝑚
⟹ ∇ 2Ψ + (E – v) Ψ = 0
ℎ2

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟’𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

ℎ
𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡 ℏ = 2𝜋

2𝑚
∇ 2Ψ + ℎ2
(𝐸 – 𝑣) Ψ = 0
4𝜋2

2𝑚
∇ 2Ψ + ℎ 2
(𝐸 – 𝑣) Ψ = 0
( )
2𝜋

2𝑚
∇ 2 Ψ + ℏ2 (𝐸 – 𝑣) Ψ = 0

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟’𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑀.

ℎ
ℏ = 2𝜋

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
2
∇ ⟶ 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑚 ⟶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐸 – 𝑣 ⟶ 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 − 𝑃. 𝐸
Ψ = Wave function

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Self-Assessment Questions

10. Schrodinger wave equation is applicable to _________

A. Relativistic motion
B. Non-relativistic motion
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above

11. The operator  is called ______

A. Hamiltonian
B. Helmholtz
C. Poisson
D. Laplacian

12. If the particle moving in a _____ potential, then the solution of the wave equation
are described as a stationary states.
A. Time dependent
B. Time independent
C. Position dependent
D. Position independent

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2.2.2. Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation

To derive the Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation, consider the Schrodinger’s time-
independent wave equation,

8𝜋2 𝑚 ℎ
∇ 2Ψ + (𝐸 – 𝑣) Ψ = 0 ⟶ (1) ( ℏ = 2𝜋 )
ℎ2
(𝑜𝑟)
2𝑚
∇ 2 𝛹 + 2 (𝐸 – 𝑣) 𝛹 = 0
ℏ
2𝑚
⟹ ∇ 2Ψ = − (𝐸 – 𝑣) 𝛹 = 0
ℏ2

− ℏ2
⟹ ∇ 2 Ψ = (𝐸 – 𝑣) 𝛹
2𝑚

− ℏ2 2
⟹ ∇ Ψ = 𝐸𝛹 – 𝑉 𝛹
2𝑚
− ℏ2
⟹ ∇ 2 Ψ + V Ψ = EΨ
2𝑚

− ℏ2
⟹( ∇ 2 + V) Ψ = 𝐸𝛹
2𝑚

𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
Ψ = Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞’𝑛 (3) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡𝑜 ′𝑡′

𝜕Ψ 𝜕 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝜕
= (Ψ𝑜 𝑒 ) [ (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 ]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕
= Ψ𝑜 𝜕𝑡 (𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ) [ 𝜕𝑥 (𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑒 𝑥 ]

= Ψ𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (−𝑖𝜔)

= −𝑖𝜔 (𝛹𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 )

𝜕Ψ
= −i𝜔Ψ
𝜕𝑡

𝑤. 𝑘. 𝑡, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 (𝑣 = 𝜐𝜆)

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 (𝐸 = 𝜐𝜆)

𝐸 𝐸
𝜔 = 2𝜋 ℎ (𝜐 = ℎ )

𝜕Ψ 𝐸
= −𝑖2𝜋. Ψ
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
𝜕Ψ 𝐸
= −𝑖 Ψ
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
2𝜋
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𝜕Ψ 𝐸 ℎ
= -i. ℏ Ψ ∴ ( ℏ = 2𝜋 )
𝜕𝑡

𝜕Ψ 𝐸
ℏ = −𝑖 Ψ
𝜕𝑡 ℏ

(𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 “𝑖” 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)

𝜕Ψ
iℏ = -i2 EΨ ∴ −𝑖2 = −1
𝜕𝑡

𝜕Ψ
iℏ = -(-1) EΨ
𝜕𝑡

𝜕Ψ
iℏ = EΨ
𝜕𝑡

− ℏ2
( ∇ 2 + V) Ψ = EΨ
2𝑚

− ℏ2 𝜕Ψ
( ∇ 2 + V) Ψ = 𝑖ℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡

𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟’𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐻 𝛹 = 𝐸𝛹

− ℏ2
𝐻 = 𝛻 2 + 𝑉 ⟶ 𝐻𝐴𝑀𝐼𝐿𝑇𝑂𝑁𝐼𝐴𝑁 (𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌)
2𝑚
𝜕
E = iℏ 𝜕𝑡 ⟶ 𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌

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Self-Assessment Questions

13. The Schrodinger wave equation is ____

A. Quadratic equation
B. Linear equation
C. Differential equation
D. Periodic equation

14. In Quantum mechanics, H is represented by ______

A. Hermitian operator
B. Heisenberg constant
C. Hamiltonian operator
D. Helmholtz function

15. Time dependent Schrodinger equation in shorter form is given by Hu = _____

A. Eu2
B. E
C. Eu
D. EH

16. In a one-dimensional system, the boundary condition that the derivative of the
wavefunction (x) should be continuous at every point is applicable whenever _____
A. The wave function is itself continuous everywhere
B. There is a bound state and the potential is piecewise continuous
C. There is a bound state and the potential has no singularity anywhere
D. There are bound or scattering states with definite momentum

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Summary
The Schrodinger time-independent wave equation is represented by
8𝜋2 𝑚
∇ 2Ψ + (E – v) Ψ = 0
ℎ2

2𝑚
∇ 2 Ψ + ℏ2 (𝐸 – 𝑣) Ψ = 0

The Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation is represented by

− ℏ2 𝜕Ψ
( ∇ 2 + V) Ψ = 𝑖ℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡
Which is given in the short form as H = E

Terminal Questions

1. Explain with necessary equations to derive the Schrodinger time-independent wave

equation.

2. Describe the Schrodinger time-dependent wave equation with necessary equations.

3. Prove that the Hamiltonian operator is equal to the energy operator with to the
Schrodinger wave function.

Answer Keys

Self-Assessment Questions

Question No: Answers

1 B
2 D
3 B
4 B
5 C
6 C
7 C

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

External References

1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition, pp.
1-536.

2. French, Taylor and Edwin (1978) An introduction to Quantum Physics, W.W. Norton &
Company, 2nd Edition, pp. 1-628.

3. David Griffiths (2005) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2 nd edition, Pearson Prentice

Hall, pp. 1-586

4. Binney James, David Skinner (2014), The Physics of Quantum Mechanics, 1st edition,
Oxford University Press, pp. 1-475.

e-References

 http://www.issp.ac.ru/ebooks/books/open/Theoretical_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mecha

nics.pdf

 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-03170-4

 http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books.html

 https://www.fisica.net/mecanica-quantica/Phillips%20-

%20Introduction%20to%20Quantum%20Mechanics.pdf

Image Credits

GetupLearn.com

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Unit Table of Contents

Unit 2.3

2.3. Applications to Schrodinger wave equations

Aim
Instructional Objectives
Learning Outcomes

2.3.1. One-dimension infinite potential well (particle in a box)

Self-Assessment Questions

2.3.2. Finite potential well

Self-Assessment Questions

2.3.3. Potential barrier and tunneling effect

Self-Assessment Questions

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits

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AIM

This unit describes and enables the students to understand the quantum mechanics
concepts and applications of Schrodinger wave equations. This unit focused on in deriving
the energy of the particle from the Schrodinger application such as particle in a box of 1-
D or one-dimensional infinite potential well or particle in a box, finite potential well, potential
barrier and tunneling effect.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

In this unit, the students will be able to:

• Understand the energy of particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well

• Derive the conditions for a particle and its energy in a potential box
• Understand the application like particle and its energy in a finite well
• Calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients of a particle

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:

• Familiarize the concepts of Schrodinger equations of a particle in a box

• Know the energy of a particle in a box
• Derive the reflection and transmission coefficients of potential barrier
• Understand the tunneling phenomenon

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2.3.1. One-dimension infinite potential well (particle in a box)

We may apply the wave equation to the case of a particle in a box with infinite hard walls.

The particle motion is restricted to x-axis between x=0 to x=L. the particle has elastic collisions with
the walls, so that its total energy is conserved. Quantum mechanically this is achieved by the
potential being infinite for x  0 and x  L. The particle cannot exist outside the box so that the wave
function.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 “𝑚” 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎

𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ “𝜔”

𝑉 = 0, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝑉 = ∞, 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥 > 𝑎 →
𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙, 𝑃. 𝐸 “𝑉” 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 escape from
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2𝑚
∇2 + ℏ2 (𝐸 – 𝑉) Ψ = 0

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠

𝜕2Ψ 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℏ2
(𝐸 – 𝑉) Ψ = 0

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝑉 = 0, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

The above equation can be written as

𝜕2Ψ 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 – 0) Ψ = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝜕 2Ψ 2𝑚𝐸
⟹ + Ψ=0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

2𝑚𝐸 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘2 ⟹ 𝐸 =
ℏ2 2𝑚

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𝜕2Ψ
+ 𝑘2 Ψ = 0
𝜕𝑥 2

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠

𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥
[𝛹 – 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 & 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒]
↓
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥
= 0 & 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛹 (𝑥) = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝛹 (𝑥 ) = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥
𝛹 (𝑥 ) = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
0 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘 (0) + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘(0)
⟹ 0 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (0) + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (0)
⟹ 0=0+𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵 = 0

∴ 𝛹(𝑥) = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥

⟹ 𝛹(𝑥) = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 [ ∴ 𝐵 = 0 ]

𝛹 (𝑥) = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛹(𝑥 ) = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎

0 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑎 ⟹ 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑎 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋 = 0
⟹ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑎 = 0
⟹ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ..
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑛 𝜋
𝑛𝜋
⟹ 𝑘 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ..
𝑎
𝐵𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∫ ΨΨ ∗ dΨ = 1 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑡
2
𝐴 = √𝑎

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2 𝑛𝜋
Ψ(x) = √𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 , … ..

The normalized wave functions and probabilities are shown below.

Normalized wave functions and probabilities of finding the particle in a box

First, we notice that the wave function  1 , 2 ,............ etc., represents the vibration similar to

1
2
string with node at two ends and antinodes in between. In the particle is most likely to be in

2
2
the middle, whereas in it never exists in the middle.

Energy of a particle in a box is given as,

2𝑚𝐸
= 𝑘2
ℏ2
ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸 = 2𝑚
𝑛𝜋
𝑘 = , 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 , … ..
𝑎
𝑛2 𝜋2
ℏ2 ×
𝑎2
𝐸 = 2𝑚
ℏ 2 2
𝑛 2 ℏ2 𝜋 2 𝑛2 × ( ) 𝜋
2𝜋
𝐸 = =
2𝑚𝑎 2 2𝑚𝑎 2

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ℎ2 2
𝑛2 × 𝜋
4𝜋2
= 2
2𝑚𝑎

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸 = 𝑛 = 0, 1 ,2 , 3, … ….
8𝑚𝑎2

Energy of a particle depends on mass and width of the potential well. Therefore,
ℎ2
𝑛 = 1 ⟹ 𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎 2
4ℎ 2
𝑛 = 2 ⟹ 𝐸2 = = 4𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎 2
9ℎ 2
𝑛 = 3 ⟹ 𝐸3 = = 9𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎 2

.
.
.
.
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑛 ⟹ 𝐸𝑛 = = 𝑛2 𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2

Self-Assessment Questions

1. The eigen function for the particle in one-dimensional potential box of length ‘l’ is ______
A. E = n2h2/8ml2
B. E = n2h2/16ml2
C. E = 8ml2/n2h2
D. None of the above

2. An electron is in a box 2nm across. The lowest energy for the electron is _______
A. 0.01 eV
B. 0.0937 eV
C. 0.2 eV
D. 1.5 eV

3. The wave function for the motion of a particle in a potential well of width ‘d’ is given as A
Sin (nx/d), then A is represented by _____
A. 1/d
𝑑
B. √
2
2
C. √
𝑑
2𝑑
D. √ 3

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2.3.2. Finite potential well

Consider a quantum particle of mass ‘m’ is moving in a finite potential well along x-direction as
shown in below figure.

𝑬 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝒖𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 – 𝑰𝑰 → 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 “𝒐 < 𝒐𝒐 ”

𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐 = 𝒐

Regions Potential values

Region - I 𝒙 < 𝟎, 𝑽 = 𝒐𝒐

Region – II 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝒐, 𝒐 = 𝒐

Region – III 𝑿 > 𝑳, 𝑽 = 𝒐𝒐

𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 – 𝑰𝑰: 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝒐, 𝒐 = 𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 − 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐
+ 𝒐𝒐 (𝒐 – 𝒐) 𝚿 = 𝒐
𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐 = 𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐
+ 𝒐𝒐 (E – 0) 𝚿 = 0
𝒐𝒐𝒐

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𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝚿
+ 𝚿=0 ⟹ + 𝒐 𝚿= 𝒐
2
𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐
K2 = 𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐
K=√ 𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 = 𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 + 𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Regions I & III:

𝒙 < 𝟎, 𝒐 = 𝒐𝒐

𝑿 > 𝑳, 𝑽 = 𝒐𝒐

∴ 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐𝒐
+ (𝒐 – 𝒐𝒐 ) 𝚿 = 𝒐
𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐
+ 𝒐𝒐 (𝒐 – 𝒐𝒐 ) 𝚿 = 𝒐 (∴ 𝒐 < 𝒐𝒐 )
𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝚿 𝒐𝒐
+ 𝒐𝒐 (𝒐𝒐 − 𝒐 ) 𝚿 = 𝒐
𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝚿
−∝𝒐 𝚿 = 𝒐
𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐 −𝚿 )
∝𝒐 = (𝒐 𝒐 − 𝒐 ) 𝚿 ⟹ 𝒐 =√
𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

The solution of above equation in region I is assumed as

𝚿𝒐 = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝒐𝒐−𝒐𝒐

But in region I as (𝒐 < 𝒐)

𝒐→ −∞

𝒐−∞𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐 "𝚿" 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐.

𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

𝚿𝒐 = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 ( it is finite )

𝑰𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑰𝑰𝑰, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

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𝚿𝒐 = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝒐𝒐−𝒐𝒐
ON L IN E ED U C AT ION

As 𝒐 → +∞

𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝑩𝒖𝒕 "𝚿" 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆. 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔

𝚿𝒐 (𝒐) = 𝒐𝒐−𝒐𝒐 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐)

In region III, the solution is considered as the wave functions of a particle in a potential well in

various regions can be represented as

𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 – 𝑰: ⟹ 𝒙 < 𝟎 ⟹ 𝚿𝒐 (𝒐)= 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 – 𝑰𝑰: ⟹ 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝑳

⟹ 𝚿𝒐 (𝒐) = 𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 + 𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 – 𝑰𝑰𝑰: ⟹ 𝒙 > 𝑳 ⟹ 𝒐𝒐 (𝒐) = 𝒐𝒐−𝒐𝒐

Hence in region II ⟶ the wave function is continuous and regions I & III exponentially decreases.

Energy Quantization for a given finite well depth 𝒐𝒐 only for certain energies satisfied.

𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 “𝚿" 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝚿 (𝚿) 𝚿 𝒐−∞𝒐

𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐 (𝒐) = 𝚿 ⟹ 𝚿 (𝚿) 𝚿𝒐−𝒐

𝒐
𝚿𝒐

𝒐. 𝒐. , 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐e ≅ 0.367

𝒐
∴ 𝚿 |𝚿| = 𝒐 ⟹ |𝚿| = ∞ 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

= 𝒐

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𝒐 𝒐𝒐
∴𝒐= = √𝒐𝒐(𝒐
𝒐 𝒐 −𝚿 )

𝒐
𝒐=
√𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐 −𝚿)

𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 “𝒐” 𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐

𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐
𝒐 = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

(or)

𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐
𝒐n = 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

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Self-Assessment Questions

4. The number of bound states exists in a potential well _____, however weak the potential
may be.
A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Infinite

5. The energy of a particle of mass ‘m’ confined in a box of dimension L in the first excited
state is _______
A. h2/8mL2
B. 2h2/8mL2
C. 3h2/8mL2
D. 4h2/8mL2

6. The wave function of a free particle is (x) = A Sinx + B Sin3x. Then (x) is eigen state of
____
A. Position operator
B. Momentum operator
C. Hamiltonian operator
D. Parity operator

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2.2.3 Potential barrier and tunneling effect

Potential barrier

The behavior of a particle approaching a region in which its potential energy changes suddenly is
typical wave-mechanical problem. The situation can be realized physically, for example, with an
electron moving towards a region of reverse electric field. Such a field is best described in terms of
its potential and is called as ‘potential barrier’. Suppose a particle moving along the x-axis from left
to right meets a rectangular potential barrier of height V 0 and of width L which is bounded by sharp
potential jumps as shown in the figure below:

The sharpest increase of potential energy to a certain value at a point and sharpest fall of the P.E
to zero at another point while remaining constant continuously over the interval constitute
“potential barrier “.
(or)
A region within a force field in which the potential is significantly higher than at points either side
of it.so that 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑡.
Thus, the potential barrier sharply increases to a certain value Vo, remains constant over a certain
interval, and then decreases again to its original value.
The potential barrier is defined as
Region I: v(x) = 0 for x< 0
Region II: v(x) = Vo, for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
Region III: v(x) = 0 for x>a
According to classical physics, if a particle is incident on potential barrier with energy less than the
height of the barrier, it will be reflected by the barrier.

Tunnel effect:
But according to quantum mechanics due to wave nature of matter there is some probability that
the particle incident on the matter barrier with less energy than the barriers height, penetrates to
the other side of the barrier. this effect is called “tunnel effect”. It is purely quantum mechanical
effect.

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Let us write the Schrodinger eq’ns for three regions

Region I: x < 0, v=0
𝜕2 Ψ𝐼 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℏ2
(E-V) Ψ𝐼 = 0

𝜕2 Ψ𝐼 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℏ2
Ψ𝐼 = 0
𝜕2 Ψ𝐼
𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝑘12 Ψ𝐼 = 0

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2𝑚𝐸
E
ON L IN E ED U C AT ION

𝑘12 = ℏ2

2𝑚𝐸
𝑘1 = √
ℏ2

The solution for the above equation can be written as

Ψ𝐼 = A 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 + B 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 x < 0
A, B are constants

As Ψ𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
A 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 → 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇.
B 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑥 → 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝐿𝐸𝐹𝑇.
Region II:
0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ⟹ v = Vo,
𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝜕2 Ψ2 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℏ2
(E-Vo) Ψ2 = 0

𝜕2 Ψ2 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
- ℏ2
(Vo-E) Ψ2 = 0

𝜕2 Ψ2
𝜕𝑥 2
- 𝑘22 Ψ2 = 0

The solution for the above equation can be written as

Ψ2 = c 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑥 + D 𝑒 −𝑘2 𝑥 for 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
C, D are constants
As Ψ𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠

c 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇
D 𝑒 −𝑘2 𝑥 → 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝐿𝐸𝐹𝑇.
Region III:
V = 0, x>a
𝜓(𝑥) = Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 (𝑥)
Schrodinger wave equation can be written as
𝜕2 Ψ3 (𝑥) 2𝑚
𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℏ2
(E- 0) Ψ3 = 0

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𝜕2 Ψ3 (𝑥) 2𝑚𝐸
+ Ψ3 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

𝜕2 Ψ2 2𝑚𝐸
𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝑘12 Ψ3 = 0 where 𝑘1 = √ ℏ2

The solution for the above equation can be written as

Ψ3 (𝑥) = F 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 + G 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑥

Here Fand G are the constants.

F 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 ⟶ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →

→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇
G 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑥 → 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 →|
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝐿𝐸𝐹𝑇.
But in region III, there is no reflected wave move towards the left.
Hence G = 0
Ψ3 (x) = F 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥

The probability of the particles being reflected

| Ψ1 (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) |2 𝐵∗ 𝐵
R= | Ψ1 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 ) |2
= 𝐴∗ 𝐴

The probability of the particle being transmitted

| Ψ3 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) |2 𝐹∗ 𝐹
R= =
| Ψ1 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 ) |2 𝐴∗ 𝐴

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Self-Assessment Questions

7. Transmission coefficient is defined as _____

A. Jtrans/Jinc
B. Jref/Jinc
C. Jinc/Jtrans
D. Jinc/Jref

8. Reflection coefficient is defined as _____

A. Jtrans/Jinc
B. Jref/Jinc
C. Jinc/Jtrans
D. Jinc/Jref

9. The wave function of a free particle is (x) = A Sinx + B Sin3x. Then (x) is eigen state of
____
A. Position operator
B. Momentum operator
C. Hamiltonian operator
D. Parity operator

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Summary
A potential well is the region surrounding a local minimum of potential energy. The
energy captured in a well is unable to convert to another type of energy because the
particle is inside the potential well.

Inside the potential well, there is no potential energy, and the particle is trapped inside
the well by walls of infinite potential energy. The wave function is one represent the
maximum probability of finding a particle whereas the wave function is zero indicates
the particle never found outside of the well.

The particle in a box or infinite potential well describes a particle free to move in a
small space surrounded by impenetrable barriers.

The finite potential well is an extension of the infinite potential well in which a particle
is confined to a box between the walls which are finite.

In quantum mechanics, the rectangular potential barrier is a standard one-dimensional

problem that demonstrates the phenomena of wave mechanical tunneling and wave
mechanical reflection.

Quantum tunneling or tunneling effect refers to the quantum mechanical phenomenon

where the particle tunnels through a barrier that is classically could not surmount.

Tunneling is a quantum mechanical effect. A tunneling current occurs when electrons

move through a barrier that they classically should not be able to move through the
well.

Quantum tunneling occurs because there exists a nontrivial solution to the

Schrodinger equation in a classically forbidden region.

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Terminal Questions

1. Derive the normalized wave function and energy of a particle in the case of one-
dimensional infinite potential well or particle in a box.

2. Explain with necessary equations the energy of particle in a finite potential well.

3. Describe the potential barrier and tunneling effect in quantum mechanics.

Answer Keys

Self-Assessment Questions

Question No: Answers

1 A
2 B
3 C
4 A
5 D
6 D
7 A
8 B
9 D

Lasers and Photonics

BIBLIOGRAPHY

External References

1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition, pp.
1-536.

2. French, Taylor and Edwin (1978) An introduction to Quantum Physics, W.W. Norton &
Company, 2nd Edition, pp. 1-628.

3. David Griffiths (2005) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2 nd edition, Pearson

Prentice Hall, pp. 1-586.

4. Binney James, David Skinner (2014), The Physics of Quantum Mechanics, 1st edition,
Oxford University Press, pp. 1-475.

e-References

 http://www.issp.ac.ru/ebooks/books/open/Theoretical_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mecha

nics.pdf

 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-03170-4

 http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books.html

 https://www.fisica.net/mecanica-quantica/Phillips%20-

%20Introduction%20to%20Quantum%20Mechanics.pdf

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