Foreign Language Learning

Motivation in the Japanese Context:

Social and Political Influences on Self
MAYA SUGITA McEOWN,1 YASUYO SAWAKI,2 and TETSUO HARADA3
1
Waseda University, Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences, 1–6–1 Nishi Waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo
169–8050, Japan Email: [email protected]
2
Waseda University, Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences, 1–6–1 Nishi Waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo
169–8050, Japan Email: [email protected]
3
Waseda University, Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences, 1–6–1 Nishi Waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo
169–8050, Japan Email: [email protected]

The study focuses on the role of different theories when considered together in a foreign language other
than English (LOTE) context. Specifically, the study examines (a) to what extent influential second lan-
guage (L2) motivational theories, when integrated, explain motivation to learn LOTEs, and (b) how the
powerful status of English in Japan affects learners’ self- and identity-related motivation to learn LOTEs.
Survey responses of 250 Japanese learners, who simultaneously learned a foreign LOTE and English
as a required language, were analyzed using a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The re-
sults offer insight into how various coexisting social factors are connected to learners’ multiple self- and
identity-related orientations, which in turn predict several varied academic consequences (e.g., effort, at-
titude, and L2 ability). We also confirmed positive and negative interplay of English- and LOTE-related
orientations such that the self- and identity-related orientations of the languages will play a compet-
ing role (e.g., Csizér & Lukács, 2010). This finding highlights the importance of taking sociopolitical
perspectives into consideration in a context where learners learn two languages and one has a specific
political presence.
Keywords: L2 motivation; foreign language education; intrinsic motivation; integrative orientation; ideal
L2 self; social influences; political influences

THE RELATIVE ABSENCE OF STUDIES ON ough review by Sugita McEown, Noels, and Chaf-
the self in learning foreign languages other than fee (2014), it hypothesizes that integrating theo-
English (LOTEs) has become a crucial issue in the ries allows for the identification of more factors
area of language motivation. The current study fo- holistically and reveals that conceptually overlap-
cuses on the role of different self- and identity- ping self- and identity-related orientations predict
related constructs when considered together in different variables.
a LOTE context. Specifically, the study addresses The first aim of this study is to determine
(a) to what extent established and influential sec- interrelationships among three similar self-
ond language (L2) motivational theories, when and identity-related orientations from different
integrated, explain motivation to learn LOTEs, theories (i.e., integrative orientation, ideal
and (b) how the powerful status of English in L2 self, intrinsic motivation) and their vari-
Japan affects learners’ self- and identity-related ous consequences (i.e., attitude toward LOTE,
motivation to learn LOTEs. Built on a thor- attitude toward community, intended effort,
and self-evaluation) and determinants from
the perspective of micro/macro-level social
The Modern Language Journal, 101, 3, (2017) influences (teacher, family, culture), with a
DOI: 10.1111/modl.12411 focus on a LOTE context at a university in
0026-7902/17/533–547 $1.50/0 Japan.

C 2017 The Modern Language Journal
534 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
Its second aim derives from the fact that previ- closer—with persons who speak that language
ous studies have emphasized the role of sociopo- (Gardner, 2001). This orientation emphasizes
litical factors in language learning contexts and the identification with or the intention to interact
have revealed that these factors, when associated with people in the target language community
with the target language (TL), actively shape lan- (e.g., Gardner, 2005), although one must caution
guage attitudes and motivation (e.g., Dörnyei & that this model may not work well in a foreign
Clément, 2001; Kim, 2006). Indeed, the influ- language setting (e.g., Au, 1988; Crookes &
ence of sociopolitical factors beyond the tradi- Schmidt, 1991).
tional dimension of whether the TL is a second On the other hand, Self-Determination The-
language or a foreign language may be more ory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) describes a contin-
relevant for discussion for the field of L2 moti- uum of motivation from a self-determined (au-
vation. Taking the perspectives of Masgoret and tonomous) state to a non-self-determined (con-
Gardner (2003), the study’s second aim, then, is trolled) state. Many researchers have considered
to investigate the extent to which English, a lan- the importance of intrinsic motivation, which is
guage with strong political power, impacts the self- the most strongly self-determined (i.e., the most
and identity-related motivation to learn LOTEs in autonomous) type of motivation and refers to “the
the Japanese context. By examining sociopolitical reasons for L2 learning that are derived from
factors, we may find that a combination of factors one’s inherent pleasure and interest in the activ-
other than traditional contextual factors may ex- ity” (Noels, 2001, p. 46). Because intrinsic moti-
plain motivational processes, particularly as these vation represents the inherent tendency to seek
are deeply rooted in the Japanese context. out challenges and exercise learners’ capacities, it
is essential for cognitive and social development,
SELF- AND IDENTITY-RELATED which in turn is a principal source of enjoyment
ORIENTATIONS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
CONTEXTS More recently, Dörnyei (2009) developed other
self-components, such as the ideal L2 self, which
Motivation has been a topic of great concern in includes traditional integrative and internalized
L2 learning processes, and many empirical stud- instrumental motives and refers to the L2-specific
ies have been conducted to explain motivational facet of learners’ ideal self (the attributes that one
factors in several language learning contexts. would ideally like to possess; Ushioda & Dörnyei,
Recent studies (e.g., Sugita McEown, Noels, & 2012). Dörnyei’s (2005) theoretical framework
Chaffee, 2014) have emphasized the importance attempted to synthesize influential aspects from
of self-internalized/identity-relevant reasons for self- and identity-related constructs and those in
learning a language, such as integrative orien- previous studies by Ushioda and Noels. These as-
tation (identity-related orientation) from the pects reflect an assumption that the core con-
socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985), ideal cept (i.e., ideal L2 self) covers significant self-
L2 self (self-related orientation) from the L2 relevant aspects of psychology. As described, the
Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005), and in- ideal L2 self is also associated with the instrumen-
trinsic motivation (self-related orientation) from tal concept, since professional competence often
Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). requires knowledge of the L2, suggesting the pos-
Previous findings concerning these theories sug- sibility that learners idealize an image of them-
gest that these self-internalized/identity-relevant selves as a successful language user. For that rea-
reasons are most likely to be the strongest predic- son it can be a powerful motivator to learn the
tors for various L2-motivated learning behaviors L2 because of a desire to reduce the discrepancy
and success in language learning. We briefly between learners’ actual and ideal selves (e.g.,
describe them in the following section. Dörnyei, 2009; Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009).
Integrative orientation from the socio- Because several self- and identity-related con-
educational model (Gardner, 1985), developed cepts have coexisted in the area of language
by Gardner and his associates, provides reasons learning and teaching, many researchers have
for learning an L2 and emphasizes the notion focused on examining which theory best de-
of identification with the target language (TL) scribes L2 motivation in their context. Mean-
community. According to Gardner, learners with while, some theoretical comparison studies (e.g.,
this type of orientation have reasons to learn an Sugita McEown, Noels, & Chaffee, 2014) found
L2 that reflect common or conceptually similar that self- and identity-related motivational con-
goals, such as a genuine interest in coming closer cepts from these different theories conceptu-
psychologically—or at least a willingness to come ally overlap with each other. Other comparison
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 535
studies (e.g., Noels, 2001; Sugita McEown, Noels, learning strategies such as collaborative and com-
& Saumure, 2014) emphasize that these similar pensatory strategies. Sugita McEown, Noels, and
self- and identity-related orientations explain dif- Chaffee (2014) investigated learners of different
ferent L2 motivational behaviors and learning FLs and revealed that both intrinsic motivation
outcomes in a particular TL context, suggesting and the ideal L2 self positively predicted aca-
that examining these similar orientations in a sin- demic engagement and continuation of TL learn-
gle study may explain the complementary roles ing, while integrative orientation did not show any
they play in relation to each other. significant prediction of criterion variables con-
cerning academic motivated behavior and learn-
ing outcomes. However, in a study of learners of
CONSEQUENCES AND DETERMINANTS Japanese as a FL by Sugita McEown, Noels, and
OF SELF- AND IDENTITY-RELATED Saumure (2014), intrinsic motivation (with iden-
ORIENTATIONS tified regulation) predicted learning engagement
Consequences of Self- and Identity-Related Orientations such as motivational intensity, intention to con-
tinue learning the TL, and self-evaluation, while
L2 researchers have focused on the role of integrative orientation predicted intercultural is-
self, and much effort has been expended to sues such as contact with TL speakers and TL use.
determine the extent to which self- and identity- Even though these self/identity-relevant moti-
related reasons for learning a LOTE yield positive vations share similar aspects, conceptually over-
outcomes such as better learning outcomes lap (Sugita McEown, Noels, & Chaffeee, 2014),
and positive motivated learning behaviors. For or synthesize the various selves (i.e., ideal L2 self),
example, when focusing on German as a FL, they yield different consequences within the same
intended effort was associated with intrinsic LOTE context. These findings lead to an impor-
motivation (Busse & Walter, 2013) and, along tant conclusion—namely that integrating these
with persistence, was predicted by ideal L2 self in self-frameworks may explain more consequences
a study by Csizér and Lukács (2010). Humphreys (e.g., motivated learning behaviors and academic
and Spratt (2008), examining learners studying engagement variables) and generate a better un-
French, German, and Japanese as FLs, found that derstanding of more complex L2 motivational
integrative orientation correlated with intended processes for LOTE contexts.
effort. Hernández (2008), focusing on Spanish
learners, also found that integrative orientation
was a significant predictor of academic learning Determinants of Self- and Identity-Related Orientations
outcomes (e.g., grade, exam), desire to continue
learning the TL, and intention to major in the The elaboration of various micro- and macro-
TL. Henry (2009) employed attitude as a crite- level social factors as determinants needs now to
rion variable for the context of French, German, be considered, inasmuch as many studies have at-
and sign language, and found that ideal L2 self tempted to identify a limited number of determi-
was significantly related to attitudes toward the nants by employing different single frameworks.
TL learning situation. Specifically, along with educational/instructional
These LOTE studies have contributed to iden- needs, considerable effort has been focused on
tifying various consequences (i.e., criterion vari- examining micro-level social factors, such as
ables) by employing a single self-framework. How- teachers or family, based on the assumption
ever, as Masgoret and Gardner (2003) empha- that learners’ L2 motivated behavior represents
sized, several researchers have proposed differ- situation-specific components influenced by im-
ent hypotheses concerning relationships among mediate classroom participants such as teachers
L2 motivational variables using different mea- and peers (e.g., Papi & Abdollahzadeh, 2012).
sures, and those differences make it difficult Regarding teaching practices, Gardner’s socio-
to obtain unequivocal answers. Moreover, Bon- educational model has elaborated the role of the
ney et al. (2008) conducted a theoretical com- teacher in his measure of attitude toward the
parison study with learners of French, Ger- learning situation, which includes anything asso-
man, Latin, and Spanish that found that in- ciated with the immediate context in which the
trinsic motivation better predicted extracurric- language is taught. The theory proposes that the
ular learning strategies (e.g., engaging with motivation to learn a language is caused by at-
out-of-class events, television shows, and movies) titudes toward the learning situation. His series
than did integrative orientation, whereas inte- of studies showed that the evaluation of teachers
grative orientation better predicted language and their classes can play important roles in terms
536 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
of achievement, regardless of language contexts opment of the ideal L2 self was significantly cor-
(Gardner, 2005; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). related with parental encouragement along with
Another important theoretical issue related to the ought-to L2 self. Because these studies showed
teachers concerns the finding that intrinsic mo- mixed correlational results for parental encour-
tivation (i.e., the most autonomous type of moti- agement in relation to post-secondary language
vation) is increased by teachers’ autonomy sup- learners, the question arises whether parental en-
port. Autonomy support occurs when a person couragement is still effective in post-secondary
in a position of authority (e.g., an instructor) language education.
takes the other person’s (e.g., a student’s) per- Although many researchers have recognized
spective, acknowledges the other person’s feel- that L2 motivation is also shaped by more macro-
ings, and provides the other person with perti- level social factors (i.e., culture), these factors re-
nent information and opportunities for choice, main under-researched. Noels et al. (2014) and
while minimizing the use of pressures and de- Gardner (2005) emphasized the role of cultural
mands (Black & Deci, 2000; Deci & Ryan, 1985). context as well as educational settings (micro-
For example, a study of Spanish learners by Noels social factors) in influencing motivational de-
(2001) used path analysis and showed that teach- velopment. The influence of power distance has
ers’ controlling style (i.e., less autonomous style) been a topic of concern in many Asian societies.
made students feel less autonomous, which in Power distance is a cultural dimension that ex-
turn lowered students’ intrinsic motivation. In a plains the extent to which less powerful mem-
study with learners of Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, bers of institutions and organizations within a
Russian, French, and Spanish, O’Reilly (2014) country accept that power is distributed unequally
found strong interrelationships among students’ (Hofstede, 2001), and this dimension possibly ex-
perception of teachers’ autonomy support, intrin- plains diversities in L2 classroom instruction that
sic motivation, and learner outcomes. A corre- affect motivational processes. Brown (2014) ar-
lational analysis conducted by Bieg, Backes, and gued that learners who are high in power distance
Mittag (2011) showed that students’ intrinsic mo- tend to hold a view that the teacher is the provider
tivation was positively related to students’ per- of knowledge and that everything must flow
ceived autonomy support and perceived level of through this source, which in turn causes teacher-
teacher care. Finally, Karatas et al. (2015) found centered styles, or highly structured teaching
that an autonomous and supportive learning where learners have little control over what and
environment, paired with intrinsic motivation, how they are learning (Ishizaki, 2007). In con-
predicted academic language achievement. trast, in educational contexts with less power
In contrast, studies focusing on the ideal L2 distance the process is student-centered with a
self often treat parental encouragement as a de- focus on student initiative. That is, students are
terminant in their motivational frameworks, as expected to find their own intellectual path (Hof-
some researchers (Taylor & Busse, 2015) found stede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Countries such
that parental support was more future-oriented as Korea, China, Thailand, and Japan are con-
than teacher support, since the family had an sidered to exhibit higher power distance com-
interest in their child’s real-world life develop- pared to Western countries. Some researchers
ment. Parental encouragement represents exter- have found a negative influence resulting from
nal forces that highlight parents’ views concern- higher power distance on relationships between
ing the importance and necessity of language teachers and students during classroom interac-
learning (Csizér & Kormos, 2009) and are likely to tion in the language learning context (e.g., Jam-
place pressure on learners to study the language. bor, 2005). Other researchers have found that
Henkel (2010) conducted a correlational analysis reducing power distance helps language learn-
focusing on Hungarian secondary school learners ers enhance positive affective factors, for exam-
and showed that ideal L2 self was significantly cor- ple self-confidence, attitudes, and so forth (e.g.,
related with parental encouragement. Kormos, Tananuraksakul, 2013).
Kiddle, and Csizér (2011), in their study of sec- Noels et al. (2014) considered the possibility
ondary school students, university students, and that another cultural dimension—individualism
young adult learners in Chile, found that parental and collectivism—influences L2 motivational pro-
encouragement had a limited effect on ideal L2 cesses. According to Hofstede et al. (2010), Japan
self, in that a significant relationship was found holds many collectivistic characteristics, such as
only in the secondary school students. However, being conservative, having great tolerance of
results by Suzuki (2014), with Japanese university other people’s behavior, and displaying harmony
students learning English, found that the devel- with others, and indeed Japan is viewed as a
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 537
more collectivistic culture than many western so- and enhancement of English education as an in-
cieties. However, Japan is not as collectivistic as ternational language:
many other Asian countries (e.g., Korea, Thai-
land, Malaysia, etc.). Surprisingly, some studies Amid ongoing globalization, the development of
showed that the Japanese were sometimes more students’ proficiency in English, a common inter-
individualistic and sometimes less collectivistic national language, is crucial for Japan’s future.
than Americans (e.g., Oyserman, Koon, & Kem- Japanese people should expect to achieve top-level
English proficiency in Asia. With an eye to the year
melmeier, 2002). As some researchers have indi-
2020 in which the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic
cated (e.g., Noels et al., 2014), if people empha-
Games will be held, the government will proceed
size collectivistic values because they try to prior- with studies on the new reform of English educa-
itize the harmony between people, the context tion throughout elementary, junior high and high
might be less likely to facilitate their autonomy; on schools so that the reform will be performed in a
the other hand, if people emphasize individualis- stepwise fashion. (MEXT, 2014, n.p.)
tic values, that social context would probably help
raise the level of autonomy among individuals. As a result of the policy introduced by MEXT,
Many researchers have recognized that these namely the Global 30 project, Japan has be-
sociocultural factors have an impact on some gun to modify its English education system.
types of affective states in learners and teacher– This new policy is expected to fund selected
student relationships, but the effects of these universities with the aim of fostering internation-
factors are still under-researched in L2 learning alization/globalization by providing high quality
processes. English education. Many Japanese educational
institutions have thus started to adopt the concept
THE UNIQUE SOCIOPOLITICAL CONTEXT of content-based instruction (CBI) or content
IN JAPAN and language integrated learning (CLIL). At the
university level, for instance, a few lower division
Some studies (e.g., Dörnyei & Clément, 2001; bridge courses in English for academic purposes
Kim, 2006) have emphasized the role of politi- (EAP) are offered, so that students can success-
cal factors within particular learning contexts. fully complete upper-division English-medium-
Dörnyei and Clément (2001) found that in instruction (EMI) content courses (see Harada,
Hungary policy regarding language education 2017, for further information). The instructional
and geopolitical factors actively shaped language shift from teaching English as subject matter to
attitudes and language learning motivation. teaching subject matter in English clearly reflects
Masgoret and Gardner (2003) have therefore ar- the political concerns of the Japanese govern-
gued that it may be more meaningful to examine ment with regard to improving English education.
the influence of contextual factors like the politi- Furthermore, in addition to the requirement
cal relevance of the TL in the language learning that students study several regular English courses
context rather than use the broad concepts of as subject matter and EMI content courses, most
L2 and FL learning as contexts for analyzing 4-year colleges and universities in Japan usu-
motivation. ally require students to study at least one FL
In L2 motivation research, differences in the (e.g., French, Spanish, German, Chinese, Korean,
contextual factors between English and LOTE Italian) other than English for at least 1 or 2
generally receive little attention, even though En- years. These FL courses require 2 in-class contact
glish has changed its position as a global lan- hours (i.e., 180 minutes per week) with various
guage in some countries. Exceptions are stud- assignments.
ies conducted in Europe and Hong Kong, where However, these initiatives must be interpreted
sociopolitical changes were found to strongly in light of the reality that, for both English and
influence the status of English (e.g., Csizér & the chosen FL, learners in Japan have little con-
Lukács, 2010; Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002; Henry, tact with TL speakers; in other words, they are
2009; Humphrey & Spratt, 2008). The Japanese able to function effectively in daily life without
government has also attempted to improve En- having to speak English or the LOTE outside
glish education in keeping with globalization, and of the classroom in almost every context. With
arguably English education has become a great such limited access to these languages outside
sociopolitical concern in Japan similar to Europe of the classroom, both languages constitute FLs.
and Hong Kong. In 2014, the Ministry of Ed- However, the Japanese government has voiced
ucation, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technol- an unmistakable political interest in promoting
ogy (MEXT) reported on the future improvement English education over other FL education:
538 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
Internationalization, strongly tied to English, is orientation; to what extent these integrated fac-
one of the biggest goals for the upcoming Tokyo tors are related to one another and predict L2
Olympic Games in 2020, and English is now motivated behaviors and learning outcomes; and
the medium of instruction at many institutions. which self- and identity-related orientations work
In 2014, about 40% of Japanese universities as a mediator between these antecedents and
administered EMI courses (MEXT, 2016). Given consequences.
these pronounced differences in the status of
RQ2. Are motivational processes for LOTE af-
English and other LOTEs, it is important to fected by English motivation or do they
examine the complex interaction among self- have a definable representation indepen-
and identity-related motivational processes as dent of English in a Japanese context?
they play themselves out in light of factors that
are deeply rooted in the Japanese context. The second purpose of this study is to exam-
ine L2 motivational processes from sociopolitical
perspectives in Japan. That examination is based
RATIONALE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS on the hypothesis that, due to the government’s
interest in enhancing English language teaching
The first purpose of the study is to consider to
in a globalized world, a unique motivational con-
what extent the three influential theories (i.e., in-
text is created for learners who learn a LOTE.
tegrative orientation, ideal L2 self, intrinsic moti-
We will examine whether the interplay of the two
vation) explain motivation to learn a LOTE. The
languages (English and LOTE) affects the learn-
biggest challenge is to determine the interrela-
ers’ LOTE motivational processes and LOTE mo-
tionship among self- and identity-related orienta-
tivated learning behavior. In detail, we will exam-
tions and their antecedents and consequences by
ine whether motivational processes for the LOTE
considering the three different self- and identity-
might be affected by English motivation (i.e., in-
related concepts together with a focus on the
trinsic motivation for English, integrative orien-
LOTE context. The second part of the study aims
tation for English, ideal English self) or whether
to investigate the extent to which the unique pres-
motivation for the LOTE may have a definable
ence of English in Japan will impact motivation to
representation independent of English.
learn a LOTE in the Japanese context.
More specifically, as we noted in the review sec-
tion, we will investigate the following two research
questions: THE STUDY

Participants
RQ1. What is the relationship among self-
and identity-related orientations, and what We investigated self- and identity-relevant di-
are its possible determinants and conse- mensions in the L2 motivational process among
quences in a Japanese LOTE context?
students who simultaneously learned a LOTE
For this RQ, we will examine the interplay of the as well as English. A total of 250 undergrad-
following factors: (a) self- and identity-related ori- uate students at a private university in Tokyo
entations (i.e., intrinsic motivation for LOTE, in- were recruited for the study (1st-year 42.8%;
tegrative orientation for LOTE, ideal LOTE self), 2nd-year: 14.8 %; 3rd-year: 20%; 4th year or be-
(b) various consequences (henceforth L2 moti- yond: 12.8%); 95 learners were female (38%). A
vated behaviors, that is, attitude toward LOTE total of 215 students were from the faculty of edu-
learning, attitude toward the LOTE community, cation (86.0%); and 6 students (2.4%) were from
intended effort for LOTE, self-rated LOTE abil- the faculty of humanities and social sciences, fac-
ity), and (c) various possible determinants from ulty of culture, media and society, and faculty of
both micro- and macro-social level perspectives law; data for 11% were unknown. All participants
(i.e., teacher support, parental encouragement, had been studying English for a minimum of
power distance, individualism). Specifically, dif- 6 years prior to entering the university as required
ferent contributions of each self- and identity- by the Japanese educational system; 10.8% had
related construct will be examined to explain been learning English for more than 10 years,
educational outcomes (effort, attitude, and abil- and 14 students (5.6%) had studied in English-
ity) within one context (i.e., the Japanese LOTE speaking countries for more than 1 year. The
learning context). We will discuss how these in- average number of hours learning English out-
tegrated theories work in this LOTE context and side of class was 1.26 hours per week. With re-
elaborate in detail which factors will be significant gard to the study of a LOTE, 50.4% had been
determinants of each self- and identity-related learning a LOTE for less than 1 year, 31 students
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 539
(12.4%) had 1 year of experience, 37 students Attitudes Toward LOTE Learning (from Dörnyei
(14.8%) had 2 years of LOTE experience, and & Ushioda, 2011; e.g., ‘I like the atmosphere of
34 students (13.6%) had been learning a LOTE my LOTE classes’; 4 items, α = .89).
for more than 3 years. A total of 23 learners indi-
Intended Efforts for Learning the LOTE (from
cated that their LOTE learning experiences were
Papi, 2010; e.g., ‘If a LOTE course was offered in
more than 4 years. Some (4.6%) of these stu-
the future, I would like to take it’; 4 items, α =
dents had previous experience of studying abroad
.84).
in LOTE contexts for more than 1 year. Their
LOTE choices varied: French (22.0%), Chinese Self-Rated LOTE Ability (from Sugita McEown,
(20.0%), Spanish (19.6%), German (17.2%), Ko- Noels, & Saumure, 2014) was assessed using three
rean (3.2%), Russian (2.4%), and others (15.6%). items based on these students’ perception of their
Their weekly LOTE learning hours also var- ability to listen, read, and communicate in the tar-
ied from less than 1 hour (76.4%) to 7 hours get language (e.g. ‘My listening ability’; 3 items,
(0.4%), with an average weekly LOTE learning of α = .82).
.35 hours.
Micro-Level Social Factors concern (a) the ex-
tent to which students perceive that language
teachers were autonomy-supportive (based on the
Instrument Learning Climate Questionnaire [LCQ; Williams
& Deci, 1996]; also Reeve et al., 2004; e.g., ‘My in-
The items for the questionnaire were adapted
structor listens to how I would like to do things’;
from established item pools presented in the
3 items, α = .87) and (b) students’ perception
following list. The questionnaire for this study
of their parents’ level of encouragement to learn
consisted of 14 subscales (a total of 61 items); they
the language (from Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011;
were presented on a 6-point Likert scale ranging
Taguchi et al., 2009; e.g., ‘My parents encourage
from 1 (‘Not at all’/‘Strongly disagree’/‘Low’)
me to attend extra English classes after class’; 4
to 6 (‘Very true’/‘Strongly agree’/‘High’). Sub-
items, α = .83). Higher scores indicate the teacher
scales for self- and identity-related orientations
as autonomy-supportive and parents as support-
were repeated twice for two types of language
ive of their children studying the LOTE, whereas
learning (English and LOTE), all of which were
lower scores indicate the teacher as controlling
presented in random order within each subscale.
and family members as not supportive.
A reliability analysis of the data identified items
that lowered the subscale reliability as measured Macro-Level Social Factors are (a) the extent of
by Cronbach’s alpha (α). The number of items power distance (from Li & Guo, 2012; Ming–
for each category shown here is the number of Yi Wu, 2006; e.g., ‘Your teacher should make
items for the given category after removing those most decisions without consulting his/her stu-
items. dents’; 3 items, α = .60); and (b) collectivism
(from Ming–Yi Wu, 2006; e.g., ‘Group success is
Self- and Identity-Related Orientations (a) Ideal L2
more important than individual success’; 4 items,
self from the L2 motivational self-system (Dörnyei
α = .70). For this subscale, the items that are
& Ushioda, 2011; Taguchi et al., 2009; e.g., ‘When-
likely to have a negative or positive impact on
ever I think of my future career, I imagine my-
the student–teacher relationship in a classroom
self using English/LOTE’; 5 items, α = .91 for
context, which in turn increases or decreases stu-
English, 5 items, α = .92 for LOTE), (b) Intrin-
dents’ L2 motivation, were selectively adapted for
sic motivation from Self-Determination Theory
the current study. Thus, the items of high power
(Noels, Clément, & Pelletier, 1999; e.g., ‘For the
distance indicated that learners accepted that
satisfied feeling I get in finding out new things’;
teachers’ power was unequally distributed, and
3 items, α = .81 for English, 4 items, α = .88
those of high collectivism indicated that learn-
for LOTE), (c) Integrative orientation from the
ers placed more importance on interpersonal
Socio-Educational Model (Gardner, 1985; e.g.,
relationships in their classroom and the school
‘Because it will allow me to meet and converse
environment than being individualistic.
with people from LOTE.’; 4 items, α = .77 for
English, 4 items, α = .84 for LOTE).
Data Collection
Attitudes Toward the LOTE Community (from
Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Taguchi et al., 2009; Data collection occurred from September 2015
e.g., ‘I would like to travel to a LOTE-speaking to January 2016. The researchers or instructors
country’; 4 items, α = .87). administered the questionnaire during English
540 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
class time with instruction regarding the survey orientations for learning English would negatively
purpose and details of the procedure. The data affect self- and identity-related orientations for
were collected in Japanese, the native language learning the LOTE.
of these participants. Students required approx- Model 1 (RQ 1) was tested for examining
imately 30 to 45 minutes to complete the survey. predictive relationships among 11 latent fac-
tors (teacher support, parental encouragement,
Analyses power distance, individualism/collectivism, in-
trinsic motivation for LOTE, integrative orien-
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was em- tation for LOTE, ideal LOTE self, attitude to-
ployed to test two models. Because SEM is widely ward LOTE, attitude toward LOTE community,
used in many scientific fields of study and al- intended effort, and self-rated LOTE ability).
lows for the simultaneous modeling of complex Model 2 (RQ 2) examined the degree to which
interrelationships (i.e., both direct and indirect) the three self- and identity-related orientations
among a set of observed variables and latent fac- for learning English (intrinsic motivation for En-
tors, it is particularly suitable for addressing the glish, integrative orientation for English, ideal
specific research questions of this study (Ullman, English self) interact with the three self- and
2007). The proposed hypothetical relationships identity-related orientations for the LOTE, and
in Models 1 and 2 were based on theoretical con- how these interactions affected the four crite-
siderations and previous empirical data reflecting rion variables (i.e., attitude toward LOTE, at-
three self- and identity-related theoretical frame- titude toward community, intended effort, and
works. First, the current two SEM models were self-evaluation).
built on the hypothesis that the three self- and The two models attempted to examine simi-
identity-related orientations conceptually overlap lar variables together for the purpose of explor-
but are still distinct from one another. For both ing and validating an integrated model of three
models, we hypothesized that integrating self- and theories and various criterion variables expected
identity-related concepts helps to identify more from each theory. Some subscales had conceptual
factors holistically, thereby revealing that each overlap representing similar questionnaire items.
self- and identity-related orientation is correlated As a result, in some instances those items loaded
with different variables. on two or three latent factors. After excluding 21
As stated, this study considered those interre- items with cross loadings, a total of 33 items were
lationships from the perspective of micro- and subjected to the SEM analyses.
macro level social influences (RQ1) as well as We used EQS Version 6.2 to test the two models.
of sociopolitical influences (RQ2), opening up An inspection of bivariate scatter plots between
the possibility of discussing contextual factors rel- variables showed that their relationships were lin-
evant to language learning motivation beyond ear. Because the multivariate normality assump-
differences between FL and L2 contexts. Con- tion was adequately met, we used maximum likeli-
cerning micro- and macro- level social factors— hood to estimate the parameters for the two pro-
as with the relationship between intrinsic moti- posed models. The fit of each model was exam-
vation (the most autonomous type of motivation ined based on the following overall goodness-of-
in self-determination theory) and teacher auton- fit criteria: the ratio of model chi-square to model
omy support—we hypothesized that the relation- degrees of freedom (χ 2/df) < 3.0; comparative
ship between integrative orientation/ideal LOTE fit index (CFI) <.90; root mean square error of
self and teacher autonomy support may be posi- approximation (RMSEA) <.05, standardized root
tive. In addition, we predicted that parental en- mean square residual (SRMR) <. 08.
gagement would have a significant relationship
with intrinsic motivation and integrative orien-
tation as was found with the ideal L2 self. Con- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
cerning macro social factors, considering that the LOTE Self- and Identity-Related Motivation, Social
three self- and identity-related constructs concep- Influences, and Motivated Learning Behaviors in a
tually overlapped (e.g., Sugita McEown, Noels, & Japanese LOTE Context
Chaffee, 2014), we hypothesized that large power
distance/collectivism would have a negative im- Model 1 showed an acceptable level of model
pact on the three self- and identity-related ori- fit to data (Model 2: χ 2/df = 0.77, CFI = .95,
entations. Regarding sociopolitical factors, we hy- RMSEA = .05 [90% CI = .04, .06], SRMR =
pothesized, based on past evidence (e.g., Csizér & .07; Figure 1). The standardized model param-
Lukács, 2010), that the self- and identity-related eter estimates for this model are presented in
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 541
FIGURE 1
Standardized Parameter Estimates for Model 1

Note. LOTE: language other than English; IrM-LOTE: intrinsic motivation for LOTE; IgO-LOTE: integrative
orientation.

Figure 1 and all estimated parameters were sta- working as a hub, the direct paths from parental
tistically significant. However, collectivism did not encouragement and power distance to integrative
predict any of the self- and identity-related ori- orientation for the LOTE were significant. The
entations; thus the path did not appear in this latter factor mediated the relationship between
model. In general, these results indicated that those two social factors and intrinsic motivation
self- and identity-related orientations were dis- for the LOTE. The direct paths from teacher sup-
tinct constructs, where integrative orientation port to both intrinsic motivation for the LOTE
for LOTE was a positive, moderate predictor of and integrative orientation for the LOTE were
intrinsic motivation for LOTE and ideal LOTE positive and moderate. Integrative orientation
self. That complex relationship among them en- for the LOTE mediated the relationship between
abled us to explain the associations among many this social factor and the ideal LOTE self.
micro- and macro-level social factors with various The aforementioned results are consistent with
consequences in the LOTE learning context. a study by Dörnyei and Clément (2001), which
In terms of the relationship between determi- confirmed the superiority of integrativeness when
nants and self- and identity-related orientations examining the association with language choice,
in the current model, integrative orientation for attitudinal/ motivational measures, and intended
LOTE proved to be a key dimension to not only effort. They concluded that integrativeness rep-
explain other self- and identity-related orienta- resents a certain core of learners’ generalized at-
tions but also to mediate between determinants titudinal/motivational disposition, subsuming or
and other self- and identity-related orientations. mediating other variables that are predictors of
A moderate to strong prediction from integrative language choice relative to other motivational
orientation for LOTE to the two self-related scales.
orientations (intrinsic motivation for LOTE and In past decades, some researchers (e.g., Au,
ideal LOTE self) indicated that the more learners 1988; Crookes & Schmidt, 1991) have criticized
learn a LOTE for the purpose of liking people the integrative dimension, especially in the FL
in the LOTE community and for experiencing context where learners have limited contact with
intercultural contact, the more they experience the TL community, in that this dimension did not
happiness, fun, and enjoyment in learning the better predict learning outcomes. However, in the
LOTE, and the more they have a strong image present FL context where learners had almost no
of themselves using the LOTE in the future. Fur- contact with the community, reasons for reflect-
thermore, with regard to integrative orientation ing a favorable attitude toward the community
542 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
and/or reflecting an interest in becoming psy- the ideal L2 self of Japanese learners might be
chologically closer to the group that speaks the more inclusive than the individual such that their
language (Gardner, 2001) played an underlying family members’ hopes or values become a part
role in facilitating other reasons for learning the of their ideal L2 self. Whether or not parental
language and also in connecting these reasons encouragement will affect the ideal L2 self
for learning the language with various social fac- needs further investigation from cross-cultural
tors such as teacher/parental support, and one perspectives.
sociocultural factor. The positive presence of an Regarding the impact of sociocultural factors,
integrative dimension in the current FL context, we cannot ignore the fact that these factors
as contrasted with previous research, seems to sug- showed only a weak level of significance or
gest a need to reconsider contextual issues; that is, nonsignificance with self- and identity-related
whether the TL is chosen or compulsory might be orientations. Perhaps self- and identity-related
a more relevant factor than whether the TL is a FL orientations are formulated differently among
or L2 for learners. persons and the relationships between the so-
Concerning the other two orientations (i.e., in- cietal level of social factors and the individual
trinsic motivation for LOTE and ideal LOTE self), level of orientation need some type of medi-
intrinsic motivation for LOTE was directly pre- ation. A possible mediating variable might be
dicted by teacher support and ideal LOTE self inclusive motivation, which pursues learning for
was also directly predicted by parental encourage- identified reasons as an inclusive self. The items
ment, both of which had a strong theoretical ra- explicitly refer to social groups, such as ‘in my
tionale as confirmed by many empirical studies. family, we think it is important …’ instead of
Intrinsic motivation is facilitated by a learner’s individual levels of motivation such as ‘I think it
sense of autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and the is important …’ (see Rudy et al., 2007). While
significant relationship between intrinsic motiva- the current study focused on motivational con-
tion and teachers’ autonomy support has been structs at the individual level only, motivation
confirmed by many empirical studies in language at the social level may have a greater poten-
learning contexts (e.g., Noels, 2001). tial to mediate between culture and individual
Parental encouragement, which was found to orientation.
predict the ideal L2 self in some empirical stud- The relationships between self- and identity-
ies, represented parental views on the importance related orientations and various consequences
and necessity of language learning and was shown were weak to moderate—that is, integrative orien-
here to exhibit pressure on learners. In the cur- tation for LOTE produced limited consequences,
rent study, it is possible that these external regula- specifically the path coefficients from integrative
tions played a role in facilitating the ideal LOTE orientation for LOTE to attitude toward the
self since the ideal L2 self holds some instrumen- LOTE community and effort. Integrative orien-
tality, which in turn successfully predicted self- tation for LOTE did not predict attitude toward
rated LOTE ability. In this regard, Brown (2014) LOTE and self-rated LOTE ability. This non-
confirmed that extrinsically motivated learners, significant relationship was a concern addressed
with limited flexibility and autonomy, achieved in many previous studies. In Model 1, however,
more than unsupervised learners (e.g., not con- the relationship between integrative orientation
trolled) who had been given the opportunity to for LOTE and attitude toward LOTE/self-rated
display intrinsic motivation. LOTE ability was mediated by two other self-
Another possible interpretation of why parents related orientations, namely Ideal L2 self and
played such an important role in shaping the intrinsic motivation for LOTE. These two fac-
ideal LOTE self in this context may be made from tors served as a hub to explain many different
a cross-cultural psychological perspective. Iyengar motivated learning behaviors and academic
and Lepper (1999) conducted a cross-cultural outcomes (e.g., attitude, ability). In particular,
comparison study and found that Asian American intrinsic motivation for LOTE was identified as
children (7–9 years of age) persisted more on a a strong positive predictor of attitude toward
task when their mother chose the task for them LOTE learning. This suggests that a complex
(e.g., word puzzles) than when they chose the integration of the three self- and identity-related
task for themselves. Concerning these results, orientations could explain more consequences
other researchers (Rudy et al., 2007) raised than would a single theory. The current model
an important issue—namely that these Asian provides insight into how various coexisting
children include their family to a greater extent factors are connected to learners’ multiple self-
within their sense of self. With this in mind, and identity-related orientations, which in turn
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 543
FIGURE 2
Standardized Parameter Estimates for Model 2

Note. LOTE: Language other than English; IrM-LOTE: intrinsic motivation for LOTE; IgO-LOTE: integrative orien-
tation; IrM-ENGLISH: intrinsic motivation for English; IgO-ENGLISH: integrative orientation for English.

produce several varied academic consequences. Furthermore, these three self-rated orientations
Perhaps employing a single theory is adequate to for learning English and those for learning LOTE
explain LOTE motivation but the degree of ad- had a complex interrelationship. Specifically, in-
equacy will be increased if we consider different tegrative orientation for English played a unique
self- and identity-related orientations together for role such that the paths for three self- and identity-
this context. However, integrating different self- related orientations for LOTE were significant
and identity-related orientations is a considerable but some path coefficients were negative. In ad-
challenge, and the question remains whether dition, integrative orientation for English was a
and how this assumption may work in different strong positive predictor of integrative orienta-
contexts. tion for LOTE. However, integrative orientation
for English was a moderate to strong negative
predictor of ideal LOTE self and intrinsic mo-
Impact of English on LOTE Self- and Identity-Related
tivation for LOTE. This suggests that the more
Motivation in a Japanese Context
learners have a favorable feeling toward English-
Model 2 (see Figure 2), which showed an ac- speaking communities and cultures (integrative
ceptable fit to data (χ 2/df = .64, CFI = .94, RM- orientation for English), the more learners in-
SEA = .06 [90% CI = .05, .07], SRMR = .05), ex- crease their interests toward the LOTE commu-
amined the degree to which the three self- and nity (integrative orientation for LOTE). However,
identity-related orientations for learning English positive feelings toward English-speaking commu-
interact with the three self- and identity-related nities and cultures (integrative orientation for En-
orientations for LOTE, and how these interac- glish) were negative predictors in the sense that
tions would affect the four criterion variables (i.e., learners with high integrative orientation for En-
attitude toward LOTE, attitude toward commu- glish tended to have less feelings of fun and/or
nity, intended effort, and self-evaluation). enjoyment during LOTE learning (i.e., intrinsic
These results indicated that LOTE self- and motivation for LOTE) or a clear image of them-
identity-related orientations had strong relation- selves as a future LOTE user (i.e., ideal LOTE
ships among them, and English self- and identity- self).
related orientations also had strong relationships Other complex predictive relationships were
among them. Integrative orientation for LOTE also found from intrinsic motivation for En-
and English were positive predictors of the re- glish and ideal English self. Intrinsic motivation
spective intrinsic motivation and ideal-self factors. for LOTE was positively predicted by intrinsic
544 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
motivation for English, suggesting that learners of taking sociopolitical perspectives into consid-
who enjoy studying English also experience eration in a context where learners are learn-
fun while learning a LOTE. Ideal English self ing two languages in which one has a specific
also predicted ideal LOTE self, which indicated political presence.
that having a clear image of their future as an
English user also helps learners to have a clear CONCLUSION
image of themselves using the LOTE in the
future. However, those two orientations (intrin- The relative lack of studies examining self- and
sic motivation for English, ideal English self) identity-related perspectives in learning LOTEs
negatively predicted integrative orientation for has become a crucial issue in L2 motivation re-
LOTE. Students who enjoy English learning search. The current study considered the role
and have a clear image of themselves as English of the three self- and identity-related orienta-
speakers in the future tend to lose their favor- tions with various consequences especially from
able attitude toward LOTE communities and the perspective of teacher support, parental en-
cultures. couragement, sociocultural, and sociopolitical
Some similar and complex phenomena (posi- relevance in English.
tive/negative interplay) of self, between two lan- The evidence from Model 1 highlighted how
guages, were also confirmed by Csizér and Lukács different self- and identity-related orientations
(2010), who focused on the ideal L2 self of learn- could work together in a complementary man-
ers who learned both English and German in ner to explain relationships between macro- and
Hungary. They found that, with learners learning micro-level social factors and various motivational
German as an L2 and English as a third language consequences (i.e., motivated behaviors or learn-
(L3), motivated learning behaviors for German ing achievements). Previous research examined
were positively predicted by ideal German self, which types of orientations worked better in a par-
but negatively predicted by ideal English self. On ticular language context, and many researchers
the other hand, motivated learning behaviors for agree that using one theory is sufficient to explain
English were positively predicted by ideal English L2 motivational processes to some extent. How-
self, but negatively predicted by ideal German self. ever, it might be more meaningful to consider the
They concluded that learners’ ideal selves will play role that different orientations play when they
an attractor (positive) role in shaping learning be- are combined, due to the fact that learners may
havior but that the ideal selves of the competing endorse multiple self- and identity-related rea-
languages will play a competing role, in that it will sons for learning languages; this complexity may
provide a negative impact on learning behavior further reflect the interconnectedness among
(Csizér & Lukács, 2010). They emphasized a pow- different sociocontextual variables and L2 out-
erful political relevance for English, suggesting comes.
that self- and identity-related orientations might Model 2 revealed that the distinctive status of
be shaped by different political contexts for par- English had a somewhat negative impact on learn-
ticular language educational programs within a ers’ LOTE motivational processes and these find-
country. ings highlighted the interplay of self- and identity-
Although English will remain an FL in Japan, related orientations between different TLs that
the current data suggested that the two target lan- can be negative or positive when a primary TL
guages have a competing disposition in the sense is more politically powerful than the other TLs.
that self- and identity-related orientations for En- Many L2 researchers have investigated the im-
glish somewhat devalue those for LOTEs. If learn- pact of L2 motivational processes depending on
ers are learning two TLs, one elective and the whether the TL is a second language or a for-
other required, and if they develop an interest eign language and proposed contradictory results
in becoming psychologically closer to speakers of within a particular TL context. As Masgoret and
the required language, this might have a nega- Gardner (2003) argued, it may be more mean-
tive impact on their ideal L2 self and intrinsic ingful to examine the influence of sociocultural
motivation to learn their chosen language. Like- and sociopolitical factors rather than focus on the
wise, ideal L2 self and intrinsic motivation to learn traditional concepts of foreign and second lan-
the required language might decrease intercul- guages as the contextual framework for examin-
tural interests in learning chosen languages. As ing motivation.
was found in Csizér and Lukács (2010), the pos- Finally, while the results of this study offer use-
itive and negative interplay between English- and ful insights into how well the current integrated
LOTE-related selves, underscores the importance theories can explain L2 motivational processes in
Maya Sugita McEown, Yasuyo Sawaki, and Tetsuo Harada 545
a Japanese LOTE context and how the powerful motivation. Journal of Educational Research Online,
status of English in Japan affects learners’ mo- 1, 122–140.
tivation to learn LOTEs, the results need to be Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects
interpreted with caution. First, the SEM analyses of instructors’ autonomy support and students’
autonomous motivation on learning organic
conducted in this study were based on a small
chemistry: A self-determination theory perspec-
sample of convenience, and a number of survey
tive. Science Education, 84, 740–756.
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by a small number of indicators. For the afore- trinsic motive distinct predictors? Learning and In-
mentioned reasons, the model parameter esti- dividual Differences, 18, 1–10.
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tested only two models that depicted the interre- language-learning objectives among learners in an
lationships among the latent factors hypothesized academic environment in France. Journal of Ap-
plied Language Studies, 8, 101–126.
by theory and previous research findings. While
Busse, V., & Walter, C. (2013). Foreign language learn-
these models offer viable explanations about the
ing motivation in higher education: A longitudi-
interrelationships among the latent factors in- nal study of motivational changes and their causes.
volved, there may be other models that might fit Modern Language Journal, 97, 435–456.
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Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language
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