COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND MULTIMEDIA

OVERVIEW OF MICROPROCESSORS

1.1 GENERAL INRODUCTION:

A microprocessor is one of the most exciting technological innovations in electronics since the
appearance of the transistor in 1948. This wonder device has not only set in the process of
revolutionizing the field of digital electronics, but it is also getting entry into almost every
sphere of human life. Applications of microprocessors range from the very sophisticated
process controllers and supervisory control equipment to simple game machines and even toys.
It is, therefore, imperative for every engineer, specially electronics engineer, to know
about microprocessors. Every designer of electronic products needs to learn how to use
microprocessors. Even if he has no immediate plans to use a microprocessor, he should have
knowledge of the subject so that he can intelligently plan his future projects and can make
sound engineering judgements when the time comes.
In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the
functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of
architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but
not a particular implementation.

1.2 WHAT IS A MICROCOMPUTER?

To an engineer who is familiar with mainframe and mini computers, a microcomputer is

simplya less powerful mini computer. Microcomputers have smaller instruction sets and are
slower than mini computers, but then they are far less expensive and smaller too.
To an engineer with a hardware background and no computer experience, a microcomputer
will look like a sequential state machine that can functionally replace thousands of random
logic chips, but occupies a much lesser space, costs much lesser and the number of device
interconnections being fewer in it, is much more reliable.

A microcomputer is primarily suited, because of its very low cost and very small size, to
dedicated applications. On the same grounds, the mainframe computer is as a rule suitable as
a general purpose computer. Mini computer finds applications in both areas.

1.3 WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?

A computer, large or small, can be represented functionally (in a simplified form) by the block
diagram in Figure. 1.1. As shown, it comprises of three basic parts or sub-systems:
Figure 1.1 Block Digram of Microcomputer

(a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It performs the necessary arithmetic and logic operations and controls the timing and general
operation of the complete system.

(b) Input/Output (I/O) Devices

Input devices are used for feeding data into the CPU, examples of these devices are toggle
switches, analog-to-digital converters, paper tape readers, card readers, keyboards, disk etc.
The output devices are used for delivering the results of computations to the outside world;
examples are light emitting diodes, cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, digital-to-analog
converters, card and paper-tape punches, character printers, plotters, communication lines etc.
The inputoutput subsystem thus allows the computer to usefully communicate with the outside
world. Input-output devices are also called as peripherals.

(c) Memory

It stores both the instructions to be executed (i.e., the program) and the data involved. It
usually consists of both RAMs (random-access memories) and ROMS (read-only memories).
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed to function as the CPU of a
microcomputer.

1.4 WHAT IS INSIDE A MICROPROCESSOR ?

The microprocessor or CPU reads each instruction from the memory, decodes it and executes
it. It processes the data as required in the instructions. The processing is in the form of
arithmetic and logical operations. The data is retrieved from memory or taken from an input
device and the result of processing is stored in the memory or delivered to an appropriate output
device, all as per the instructions.
To perform all these functions, the µP (microprocessor) incorporates various functional
units in an appropriate manner. Such an internal structure or organizational structure of µP,
which determines how it operates, is known as its architecture. A typical microprocessor
architecture is shown in Figure 1.2. The various functional units are as follows:

1.4.1 Busses

µC (microcomputer), like all computers, manipulates binary information. The binary

information is represented by binary digits, called bits. µC operates on a group of bits which
are referred to as a word. The number of bits making-µP a word varies with the µP. Common
word sizes are 4, 8, 12 and 16 bits (µPs with 32 bit-word have also of late entered the market).
Another binary terms that will be of interest in subsequent discussions are the byte and the
nibble, which represent a set of 8 bits and 4 bits, respectively.

Figure 1.2 shows busses interconnecting various blocks. These busses allow exchange of words
between the blocks. A bus has a wire or line for each bit and thus allows exchange of all bits
of a word in parallel. The processing of bits in the µP is also in parallel. The busses can thus
be viewed as data highways. The width of a bus is the number of signal lines that constitute the
bus.
The figure shows for simplicity three busses for distinct functions. Over the address bus,
the µP transmits the address of that I/O device or memory locations which it desires to access.
This address is received by all the devices connected to the processor, but only the device which
has been addressed responds. The data bus is used by the µP to send and receive data to and
from different devices (I/O and memory) including instructions stored in memory. Obviously
the address bus is unidirectional and the data bus is bi-directional. The control bus is used for
transmitting and receiving control signals between the µP and various devices in the system.
1.4.2 Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic-logic unit is a combinational network that performs arithmetic and logical
operations on the data.

1.4.3. Internal Registers

A number of registers are normally included in the microprocessor. These are used for
temporary storage of data, instructions and addresses during execution of a program. Those in
the Intel 8085 microprocessor are typical and are described below:

(i) Accumulator (Acc) or Result Register

This is an 8-bit register used in various arithmetic and logical operations. Out of the two
operands to be operated upon, one comes from accumulator (Acc), whilst the other one may be
in another internal register or may be brought in by the data bus from the main memory. Upon
completion of the arithmetic/logical operation, the result is placed in the accumulator (replacing
the earlier operand). Because of the later function, this register is also called as result register.

(ii) General Purpose Registers or Scratch Pad Memory

There are six general purpose 8-bit registers that can be used by the programmer for a variety
of purposes. These registers, labelled as B, C, D, E, H and L, can be used individually (e.g.,
when operation on 8-bit data is desired) or in pairs (e.g., when a 16-bit address is to be stored).
Only B-C, D-E and H-L pairs are allowed.

(iii) Instruction Register (IR)

This 8-bit register stores the next instruction to be executed. At the proper time this stored
word (instruction) is fed to an instruction decoder which decodes it and supplied appropriate
signals to the control unit. When the execution has been accomplished the new word in the
instruction register is processed.

(iv) Program Counter (PC)

This is a 16-bit register which holds the address of the next instruction that has to be fetched
from the main memory and loaded into the instruction register. The program controlling the
operation is stored in the main memory and instructions are retrieved from this memory
normally in order. Therefore, normally the address contained in the PC is incremented after
each instruction is fetched. However, certain classes of instruction can modify the PC so that
the programmer can provide for branching away from the normal program flow. Examples are
instructions in the “jump” and ‘call subroutine’ groups.

(v) Stack Pointer (SP)

This is also a 16-bit register and is used by the programmer to maintain a stack in the memory
while using subroutines.

(vi) Status Register or Condition Flags

A status register consisting of a few flip-flops, called as condition flags (in 8085 the number of
flags is five) is used to provide indication of certain conditions that arise during arithmetic and
logical operations. These are:

(vii) Dedicated Registers

Several other registers are incorporated in the µP for its internal operation. They cannot be
accessed by the programmer and hence do not concern much a µP user.

1.4.3 Instruction Decoder and Control Unit

It decodes each instruction and under the supervision of a clock controls the external and
internal units ensuring correct logical operation of the system.

1.5 SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES

Semiconductor memories are required in a microcomputer for storing information which may
comprise of (a) the data to be used for computation, (b) instructions and
(c) computational results. A program starts as a set of instructions on a paper, then this is
transferred to a set of cards with the instructions punched in code on them. These instructions
also can be transferred to magnetic tape, paper tape or directly into semiconductor memory
which is the eventual storage space for a program. The semiconductor memory chips are
connected to the µP through the address bus, data bus and control bus. (This is also the way
that I/O devices are connected to the µP). See Figure 1.3.
1.5.1 Memory Classes

Memories may be broadly divided into two classes:

(a) Random Access Memory (RAM) or Read/Write Memory (RWM) There is provision
in RAMs (RWMs) for writing information into the memory and reading it
when the microcomputer is in operation. It is, therefore, used to store information which
changes or may change during the operation of the system, viz. data for calculations
and results
of calculations. It is also used to store the programs which are to be changed frequently.
Semiconductor RAM is a volatile memory.

A RAM can be of static or dynamic type. Dynamic RAMs have higher packing densities,
are faster and consume less power in the quiescent state. However, because of external
refreshing circuitry requirement, the dynamic RAMs are profitable only in large sizes.
(b) Read-Only Memory (ROM)

The ROM functions as a memory array whose contents once programmed, are permanently
fixed and can not be altered by the µP while the system is operating. It is non-volatile.
ROMs exist in many forms.

(i) Mask ROM : It is custom programmed or mask programmed when manufactured

and can not be altered thereafter. The cost of a custom built mask for programming
 is so high that thousands of ROMs storing the same information must be produced
to pay for the mask.
(ii) Programmable ROM (PROM) : This type is programmable by the user (typically
by electrically overheating fusible links in selected manner). Once programmed, the
contents can not be altered. The memory may be programmed one at a time by the
user and is thus suitable for the cases where small quantities of a ROM are needed.
(iii) Electrically Alterable ROM (EAROM) : In this type of memory, the contents can be
electrically erased (by applying a large negative voltage to control gates of memory
cells) and the memory can be then reprogrammed (by applying a large positive
voltage
to control gates). This type is convenient when the user is not sure of the program
and may wish to modify it. This is a typical requirement in prototype development.

(iv) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) : Like EAROM, this type of memory can
also be erased and reprogrammed. However, erasing is by exposing the memory chips to
high intensity ultravoilet light of a wavelength close to 2537 Å. It has the same
application filed as the EAROM.

1.5.2 Bipolar v/s MOS Memories

Basically there are two semiconductor technologies, namely, bipolar and MOS unipolar.
Mask ROMs and PROMs are available in both types whereas EAROMs and EPROMs are
made with MOS technology only. In general, bipolar devices (including memories) are
faster and have higher drive capabilities. On the other hand, MOS devices consume less
space and power and are cheaper. Therefore, MOS memories are preferred where speed is
not a critical factor.

1.6 PERIPHERAL INTERFACING

1.6.1 Functions

When one or more I/O devices (peripherals) are to be connected to a µP, an interface
network for each device, called peripheral interface, is required. The interface incorporate
commonly the following four functions:

(a) Buffering : Which is necessary to take care of incompatibility between the µP and the
peripheral.
(b) Address Decoding : Which is required to select one of the several peripherals connected
in the system.

(c) Command Decoding : Which is required for peripherals that perform actions other
than data transfers.

(d) Timing and Control : All the above functions require timing and control.
 1.6.2 Data Transfer

Data exchange or transfers which occur between a peripheral device and the µC fall into
one ofthe following two broad categories:

(i) Programmed Data Transfer

A software routine residing in memory requests the peripheral device for data transfer to or
from the µP. Generally, the data is transferred to or from the accumulator though in some µPs,
others internal registers may also participate in the transfer.
Programmed data transfers are generally used when a small amount of data is transferred
with relatively slow I/O devices, e.g., A/D and D/A converters, peripheral multiplier, peripheral
floating point arithmetic unit etc. In these cases, usually one word of data is transferred at a
time.

(ii) Direct Memory Access (DMA) Transfer or Cycle Stealing Transfer

In this mode, the data transfer is controlled by the peripheral device. The µP is forced to hold
on by an I/O device until the data transfer between the device and the memory is complete.
Since the data control transfer is controlled entirely by hardware, the interface is more complex
than that required for a programmed data transfer. DMA transfer is used when a large block of
data is to be transferred, for example, for transferring data from peripheral mass storage devices
like the floppy disk and high-speed card reader.

1.6.3 Interfacing Devices

Extensive hardware (IC chips) is now available for designing custom interfaces. Included in
this are multiplexer, and demultiplexers, line drivers and receivers, level translators and buffers
a stable and monostable multivibrators, latches, gates, shift registers, and so on.
Then there are more sophisticated interfaces-the programmable inter-faces, whose functions
may be altered by an instruction from the mP. These interfaces can be of general purpose type
or special purpose (dedicated function) type.

1.6 µP SOFTWARE AND PROGRAM LANGUAGES

The foregoing was a brief account of the µC hardware and now follows a concise picture of
the
µC software. A sequence of instructions designed to perform a particular task in a computer is
known as the program and a set of programs written for a computer-based system is called
software for that system.

1.7.1 Programming Languages

(i) Machine Language (ML)

Since a machine (computer) can handle (i.e., store and process) information in binary form
only, the instruction (program) must be finally encoded in binary for feeding to the machine.
A program in this form is thus in machine language.
 (iii) Assembly Language (AL)
In an assembly language programme, the instructions including the storage locations are
represented by alphanumeric symbols, called mnemonics. It is relatively easier to write a
programme in assembly language than in machine language. However, if written in AL, it
must be translated to ML before it can be stored and executed in µC. Mostly one statement in
AL translates to one instruction in ML.
(iv) High-Level Language (HLL)
Programming in AL is very tedious and time consuming. High Level languages like Fortran,
Cobol, Algol, Pascal and PL/M can be used for programming and then the program translated
into ML program. One statement in HL generally corresponds to several ML instructions.
1.7.2 Software Tools
(i) Assembler It is a computer program that translates an AL program to ML program (also
called object code). A cross assembler is an assembler that is executed on a machine other than
the one for which it is producing the ML program. A self assembler or resident assembler, on
the other hand, is meant to be run on the machine for which ML program is required to be
produced.
(ii) Compiler A computer program that translates a HLL program to ML program (object code).
Like the assembler, the compiler can be a cross compiler or a self (resident) compiler.
iii) Editor During the process of program entry into the memory or debugging, it may be
necessary to make changes in the program text in order to correct any errors or modify the
logic. An editor helps the programmer to do this.
iv) System Monitor All single boards µCs, design kits and µP development systems have
system monitor as an integrated component. The monitor (a ML program) resides in ROM. It
helps a programmer in performing such functions as entering a program into memory, getting
a program executed, modifying contents of one or more memory locations or µP registers,
displaying the contents of any memory location of a register in the µP, entering ML program
in convenient hexadecimal format, etc.
1.7 MICROCOMPUTER INSTRUCTION SET
The instruction set of a microprocessor will typically comprise of five groups of instructions:
(i) Data Transfer Group These instructions help to move data between registers within the
microprocessor, between a register and a memory location or between memory location.
(ii) Arithmetic Group Instructions in this group add, subtract, increment or decrement data in
registers or in memory (e.g., an instruction to add the contents of two registers within the
microprocessor).
(iii) Logical Group These are used to AND, OR, EXCLUSIVE-OR, Compare, rotate or
complement data in registers or in memory (e.g., OR the contents of two registers within the
microprocessor).
(iv) Branch Group This group includes conditional and unconditional jump instructions,
subroutine-call instructions and return-from-subroutine instructions. A conditional instruction
specifies that a certain operation be performed only if a certain condition has been met (e.g.,
jump to a particular instruction if the result of the last operation was zero). Conditional
instructions provide decision making capability in programs.
(v) Stack, I/O and Machine Control Group
This group of instructions performs data transfer between the microprocessor and I/O devices,
manipulates the stack and alters internal control flags. These instructions make it possible for
the programmer to halt the microprocessor, put it in a “no operation” state, enable/disable its
interrupt system and so on.
Instructions, which are stored alongwith data in the memory, may be one or more bytes
in length. Multiple byte instructions are stored in successive memory locations: the address of
the first byte is always used as the address of the instruction. Also, the first byte is always the
operation code (abbreviated as OPCODE).