Computer Fundamentals
This chapter focuses mainly on computer hardware fundamentals, with a brief introduction to
some of
the relevant software-related topics. The chapter begins with a brief description of different
types of
computer system, from giant supercomputers to tiny digital assistants, which is then followed
up by
anatomical description of a generalized computer system, with particular reference to
microcomputer
systems. Other hardware-related topics that are extensively covered include input/output
devices and
memory devices.
Anatomy of a Computer
The basic functional blocks of a computer comprise the central processing unit (CPU), memory
and input and output ports. These functional blocks are connected to each other by internal
buses. The CPU is the brain of the computer. It is basically a microprocessor with associated
circuits. Ports are physical interfaces on the computer, through which the computer interacts
with the input and output devices. Memories are storage devices used for storing data and
instructions. The CPU fetches the data and instructions by sending the address of the memory
location on the address bus. The data and the instructions are then transferred to the CPU by
the data bus. The CPU then executes the instructions and stores the processed data in the
memory or sends them to an output device via the data bus. It may be mentioned here that in
most cases the instructions modify the data stored in the memory or obtained from an input
device.
Central Processing Unit
As mentioned above, the CPU is the brain of the computer. The fundamental operation of the
CPU is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program. In other words, it controls
the execution of the computer software programs. It fetches and executes the instructions from
the memory in a sequential manner. It may be mentioned here that the CPU can operate on
more than one instruction at a time. Early CPUs were custom designed for a particular type of
computer. But they have given way to a standardized class of processors that are used for
generic applications. Since the advent of microprocess`ors in the 1970s, single-chip
microprocessors have totally replaced all other types of CPU, and today the term ‘CPU’ refers
to a microprocessor.
A microprocessor is a programmable device that accepts binary data from an input device,
processes the data according to the instructions stored in the memory and provides results as
output. The important functional blocks of a microprocessor are the arithmetic logic unit, the
control unit and the register
file.
Memory
There are several types of memory used in a computer. They can be classified as primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary memory is directly connected to the CPU and is
accessible to the CPU without the use of input/output channels. Primary memory can be
classified into process registers, main memory, cache memory and read only memory (ROM).
Process registers are present inside the CPU and store information to carry out the current
instruction. Main memory is a random access memory (RAM) that stores the programs that are
currently being run and the data related to these programs.
It is a volatile memory and is used for temporary storage of data and programs. Cache memory
is a special type of internal memory that can be accessed much faster than the main RAM. It is
used by the CPU to enhance its performance. ROM is a nonvolatile memory that stores the
system programs including the basic input/output system (BIOS), start-up programs and so on.
Secondary or auxiliary memory cannot be accessed by the CPU directly. It is accessed by the
CPU through its input/output channels. Secondary memory has a much greater capacity than
primarymemory, but it is much slower than the primary memory. It is used to store programs
and data for future use. Most commonly used secondary memory devices include the hard disk,
floppy disks, compact disks (CDs), USB disks and so on. The hard disk is used for storing the
high-level operating systems, application software and the user data files. Floppy disks have a
limited capacity of 1.44 MB and have been replaced by CDs and USB drives. Floppy disks,
CDs and USB drives are also referred to as off-line storage devices as they can be easily
removed from the computer.
Input/Output Ports
A port is a physical interface on the computer through which the input and output devices are
connected to and interact with the computer. Ports are also used as an interface to connect two
computers to each other. The ports on the computer can be configured as input and output ports
through software. These ports are of two types, namely serial ports and parallel ports. Serial
ports send and receive one bit at a time through a single wire pair. Parallel ports send multiple
bits at the same time over a set of wires. Serial ports are used to connect devices such as
modems, digital cameras, etc., to the computer. Parallel ports are used to connect printers,
scanners, CD burners, external hard drives, etc., to the computer
Input devices convert the raw data to be processed into a computer-understandable format.
Some of the commonly used input devices include the keyboard, mouse, scanner and so on.
Output devices convert the processed data into a format understandable by the user. Commonly
used output devices include the monitor, printer, cameras, and so on.
Types of Computer System
Computers can be classified into various types, depending upon the technology used or the
size and capacity or the applications for which they are designed.
Classification of Computers on the Basis of Applications
Based on the application or the purpose, computers are often classified as general-purpose
computers and special-purpose or dedicated computers.
General-purpose computers are comparatively more flexible and thus can be used to work on
a large variety of problems including business and scientific problems. For instance, banking
applications such as financial accounting, pay-roll processing, etc., at the head-office level
would require the services of a general-purpose computer. The size and capacity of a general-
purpose computer could of course vary, depending upon the quantum of data and the
complexity of data processing to be done.
Special-purpose computers: are designed for a dedicated application. These computers
perform a certain predecided and fixed sequence of operations. Typical applications include
the computers used for weather forecasting, aircraft control systems, missile and other weapon
guidance systems, etc.
Classification of Computers on the Basis of the Type of data input
Based on the technology used, the computers are classified as analogue computers, digital
computers and hybrid computers.
In analogue computers, the input data comprise continuously changing electrical or
nonelectrical (temperature, pressure, speed, volume, etc.) information. There are
numerous examples of analogue computational devices. One such device is the
speedometer of an automobile. The input data to this device or machine are the
continuously varying rotational speed of its driveshaft. The rotational motion is
converted into a linear movement of a needle pointer that indicates the speed in km/h.
A tachometer used to measure the rotational speed is another device of the same type.
The input data in the case of a digital computer are discrete in nature. They are
represented by a binary notation in the form of 0s and 1s.
A hybrid computer is a mixture of the two. It attempts to combine the good points of
both analogue and digital computers. In a typical hybrid computer, the measuring
functions are performed the analogue way while the control and logic functions are
digital in nature.
Classification of Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity
Based on their size and capacity, computers are classified as mainframe computers,
minicomputers, microcomputers and supercomputers.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful of all computer systems. They are typically
200 times faster than the mainframes. Supercomputers are mainly used for calculation-
intensive applications requiring enormous amounts of data to be processed in a very short time.
These include weather forecasting, weapons research, breaking secret codes, designing aircraft,
molecular modelling, physical simulations and so on. Supercomputers are mainly used in
universities, military agencies and scientific research laboratories. Supercomputers are highly
parallel systems, i.e. they perform many tasks
simultaneously. They generate a lot of heat and need a proper cooling mechanism. Some of the
popular supercomputers include Cray-1, Cray X-MP/4, Cray-2, Intel’s ASCI Red/9152 and
ASCI Red/9632 and IBM’s Blue Gene/L.
Mainframe Computers
A mainframe computer is the largest, fastest and perhaps one of the most expensive computer
systems of general use. Before the advent of minicomputers and microcomputers respectively
in the third- and fourth-generation periods, all data processing was done on mainframe systems
only. Thousands of such machines are still in use in medium- and large-size business houses,
universities, hospitals, etc.
These machines have a very large primary storage capability and have a very high processing
speed. Because of their size and speed, mainframe systems must be placed on special platforms
that allow wiring and cooling systems. These machines are useful not only because they have
an enormous storage capacity but also because of their capability to support a large number of
terminals. Modernday mainframe computers are defined by their high-quality internal
engineering, reliability, technical support and security features, along with their performance
qualities. Their applications include the processing of a huge amount of different kinds of data
such as census, industry/consumer statistics, financial transactions processing, etc., in large
private and public enterprises, government agencies, etc. Examples of mainframe computers
include IBM’s zSeries and System z9 servers, Unisys’s ClearPath mainframes, the zSeries 800
from Hitachi and IBM, the Nonstop systems from HP and so on.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer more or less resembles a mainframe system except that it is comparatively
smaller and less expensive. They represent a class of multi-user computers that are used for
middle-range computing applications, in between the mainframe systems and the
microcomputers. Minicomputers were developed during the third-generation period. PDP-8
and PDP-11 from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) are examples of the popular
minicomputers developed in the late 1960s. Minicomputers gave way to microcomputers in
the mid-1980s and early 1990s.
Microcomputers
The microcomputer, the development of which was made possible largely owing to the
development of the microprocessor, is a compact, relatively inexpensive and complete
computer. The most obvious, though not the only difference between a microcomputer and a
mainframe is the physical size. While a mainframe system may fill a room, a microcomputer
may be put on a desktop or may even fit into a brief case. Although microcomputers can be
distinguished from mainframe and minicomputers on the basis of size, technology used,
applications and so on, these dividing lines are hazy and these categories almost overlap with
each other owing to brisk advances in technology. Like mainframes and minis, today’s
microcomputers do data processing, manipulate lists, store, retrieve and sort information.
Unlike mainframes and minis, microcomputers do not require any specialized environment for
operation and can be effectively made use of by people who do not have any comprehensive
formal training in computer techniques. In fact, these machines are designed to be used both at
the workplace and at home. The concept of office automation has become feasible only with
the advent of microcomputers.
Personal Computers
A personal computer, popularly known as a PC, is a stand-alone microcomputer that is used
in a varied range of applications, from writing letters to the present-day desktop publishing,
from playing video games to enquiring about railway and air schedules, from simple graphics
to designing an advertisement, from simple financial accounting to preparing spread sheets
and so on. With the development of microprocessors and related peripherals, the personal
computer of today is as powerful as a minicomputer of yesteryears. The processing speed has
touched GHz and the hard disk capacity has reached tens of GBs. The contemporary
microprocessors for the PC platform offer applications including internet audio and streaming
video, image processing, video content creation, speech, computer-aided simulation and
design, games, multimedia and multitasking user environments.
Depending upon their size and portability, they can be classified as desktops, laptops and
palmtops. Desktops are personal computers for use on a desk in an office or at home. They are
currently the most popular type of computer in use. Laptops, also referred to as notebooks, are
mobile personal computers that can be carried in a briefcase. They do not always require an
external power source and run on rechargeable batteries for 4–5 h. Some of the famous
manufacturers of laptops include IBM, Compaq, Acer, Dell, HP and so on.
Workstations
Workstations are high-end technical computing desktop microcomputers designed primarily to
be used by one person at a time, but they can also be connected remotely to other users if
needed. They offer high performance compared with a personal computer, especially with
respect to graphics, processing power and multitasking ability. Today, workstations use many
technologies common to the personal computers.
