Federal Government

of Somalia

Education Sector
Analysis
2022
 Federal Government
of Somalia

Education Sector
Analysis
Education Sector Analysis:
Assessing opportunities for rebuilding
the country through education

Technical support

Financial support

Save the Children International on behalf of GPE.

Published in 2022 by:
IIEP-UNESCO Dakar
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Attribution:
Somalia Education Sector Analysis, Assessing opportunities
for rebuilding the country through education;
Federal Government of Somalia, IIEP-UNESCO Dakar, 2022

ISBN: 978-92-803-1440-3

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Foreword

This 2022 Education Sector Analysis Somalia, as we know, is dealing with

(ESA) is the second ESA report that the many challenging issues such as violence,
Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher inequity, limited access to high-quality
Education of the Federal Government of social services, weak governance and
Somalia has produced since 2012. The service-delivery capacities, and limited
report has been produced by the Somali national capacity to mitigate or respond
national ESA team, with technical support to the environmental problems that hinder
from the UNESCO International Institute the development of the education system
for Educational Planning (IIEP-UNESCO) in the country. With the ESA findings,
and financial support from the Global I believe that we will devise tangible and
Partnership for Education through Save suitable programme activities that support
the Children International and CARE the realization of multiple Sustainable
International. Development Goal (SDG) targets related to
education (SDG 4), gender (SDG 5), equity
Despite the challenges imposed by the (SDG 10), and peace and security (SDG 16).
COVID-19 pandemic, the national team
has produced an excellent report, which I am pleased that this report has been
adheres to international standards and developed by a Somali team, with data
guidelines for the preparation of an ESA. produced by our own systems, with
The purpose of this ESA report is to offer a support from IIEP-UNESCO. I would also
snapshot of the Somali education sector, like to take this opportunity to thank to all
outlining contextual challenges as well our education development partners for
as opportunities across the sector. The their contributions and support during the
report presents key education indica- preparation of the report.
tors across the various sub-sectors and
provides an evidence base for the iden- The education sector is now ready to
tification of policy priority areas and the embark on a course of development that
development of the Education Sector will change the education landscape of
Strategic Plan (2022–2026). Somalia in the next five years.

Eng. Abdullahi Abukar Haji (Arab)

Minister of Education, Culture
and Higher Education
Federal Government of Somalia

3
Preface

The fundamental mandate of the of the education sector in their respec-

Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher tive states, inputs which will go a long
Education (MoECHE) is to educate Somali way towards improving the implemen-
children and promote their well-being. In tation of education-sector plans across
the last few years, the ministry has made the country. I want to thank the Federal
tremendous efforts towards building its Member States for their contributions
capacity and carrying out its mandate, to the development of the report and for
by creating policies and documents that their support.
support the management and delivery of
education in the country. A considerable amount of work remains to
be done to develop the Education Sector
I am pleased to have been part of these Strategic Plan 2022–2026, translate the
efforts. The development of this report strategies into an operational plan in
was led by a team of Somali national line with the enabling documents of the
experts, with technical support provided sector (General Education Act, National
by IIEP-UNESCO. The report paves the Education Policy), and then implement the
way for the improvement of the quality, lines of action as programmes. We hope to
governance, and delivery of education in achieve this in the next five years.
Somalia, as well as increased access and
equity. We hope this report will serve as a base-
line for international donors and partners
This ESA includes contributions from and persuade them to consolidate and
ministries of education in the Federal coordinate the delivery of equitable, high-
Member States, namely Banadir Regional quality education in the country. In addi-
Administration, Jubbaland, South West tion, the report should enable develop-
state, Galmudug, and Hirshabelle. The ment partners to work more closely with
Federal Member States have been a MoECHE in building a strong education
key stakeholders in this report, bringing system for the children and young people
their understanding of the landscape of Somalia.

Mohamed Abbi Hassan

General Director
Ministry of Education, Culture and
Higher Education
Federal Government of Somalia

4
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Acknowledgements

A comprehensive Education Sector Education of Jubbaland, Galmudug, South

Analysis (ESA) is the first step in plan- West, Hirshabelle and Banadir Regional
ning for system-wide education improve- Administration Education Directorate.
ment. ESA records the status of education
at present, highlights critical challenges The Education Sector Analysis was led by
and examines what remains to be done by Saida Hassan together with the National
providing recommendations. Team Consultants. The team included
Abdurahman Ali Mohamed, Abdirizak
This ESA was produced through close Hassan Ibrahim, Khalid Hassan Samatar,
collaboration between the Federal Mohamed Mukhtar Sheikh Mohamud,
Government of Somalia, the Ministry of Mohamed Sharif Ibrahim and Sumaya
Education, Culture and Higher Education Abdirashid Mohamed, under the guidance
(MOECHE) and the International Institute of Mohamud Rage, the Director of Policy
for Educational Planning (IIEP-UNESCO). and Planning.
This document benefited from the contri-
butions of numerous individuals, teams, The ESA was drafted with the support of
and organizations who supported the a team from IIEP-UNESCO led by Polycarp
analysis and drafting, and provided over- Otieno, and comprised of: Shannon
sight and strategic direction. We are Lindsey, Amelie Gagnon, Germán Vargas
extremely grateful to all those who have Mesa, and Dr. Sulleiman Adediran.
supported the process of this ESA 2021.
The ESA team and the Ministry are grateful
The ESA was made possible thanks to the for the Education Sector Plan Development
dedication and expertise of an important Grant from the Global Partnership for
number of institutions from MOECHE, Education (GPE) which financed the Somali
Federal Member States Ministries of Education Sector Analysis 2021.

5
Table of contents

List of figures 11
List of tables 14
Abbreviations and acronyms 17
Executive summary 18
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context 27
1.1 Humanitarian and political context: Battling legacies of conflict in pursuit
of stability 29
1.1.1 Geography and climate: High levels of vulnerability to climate shocks 29
1.1.2 Political context: The path to state reconstruction through federalism 31
1.1.3 Conflict and fragility: Hope for stability in the face of insanity 32
1.1.4 COVID-19 and its implications for Somalia 33
1.2 Socio-demographic background: Young people facing enduring human
development challenges 36
1.2.1 Demographic growth: Unique population groups and migration 36
1.2.2 Demographic characteristics: Half of the population is eligible for school 39
1.2.3 Poverty and measures of development 40
1.2.4 Household characteristics 43
1.3 Macroeconomic context: Progress has been made in rebuilding taxation
but more remains to be done 46
1.3.1 National and per capita income: Significant national growth,
low in relative terms 46
1.3.2 Federal government and federal state revenues 47
1.3.3 Remittances: Near-universalism and high levels of dependence 49
1.3.4 Federal government and federal state expenditure 50
1.3.5 Public debt: Commitment to debt repayment higher than education
spending 52
1.4 Chapter summary 53

Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency,

and out-of-school children 55
2.1 Structure of education in Somalia 57
2.2 Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children in general education 60
2.2.1 Schools and enrolment rates: Private providers dominate service
delivery in the education sector 60

6
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.2.2 Enrolment rates: Despite recovery, school coverage remains low 64

2.2.3 Internal efficiency of the general education system 66
2.2.3.1 Schooling profile: Fairly good retention amid low access rates 66
2.2.3.2 School life expectancy: Insufficient schooling to guarantee
functional literacy 68
2.2.3.3 Internal efficiency and grade repetition 70
2.2.4 Out-of-school children: The majority have never attended school 71
2.3 Inclusive education: In the shadows of Education 2030 76
2.3.1 Persons with disabilities in Somalia: Prevalence of disability largely
unknown 76
2.3.2 The special needs education policy framework 76
2.3.3 Children with disabilities and access to education 77
2.3.4 Discrimination and community attitudes bar children with disabilities
from education 80
2.3.5 School accessibility and adaptation: Varying signals from different
sources 80
2.3.6 Teacher preparation: No specific teacher training for special needs 82
2.4 Equity and exclusion in general education 83
2.4.1 Gender disparity: Diminishing but persistent discrimination against girls 83
2.4.2 Location disparity: Larger disparities from location than gender 85
2.4.3 Poverty disparity: Glaring gap in between socioeconomic classes 85
2.5 Chapter summary 87

Chapter 3. Education expenditure 89

3.1 Public expenditure on education: Showing strides of improvement 91
3.1.1 Priority of public expenditure on education: Low investment in education 91
3.1.2 Credibility of education budgets: Mixed signals on budget execution 92
3.1.3 Public expenditure by funding Source: Strong commitments from
government 93
3.1.4 Public expenditure by spending type: Vision of expansion with limited
capital 95
3.1.5 Public expenditure by state: Resources still concentrated at the centre 96
3.1.6 Public recurrent expenditure on education 98
3.1.7 Intra-sector spending: Growing dominance of primary education 100
3.1.8 Average public expenditure on education per learner 102

7
Table of contents

3.2 Private spending on education 103

3.2.1 Household expenditure on education: Food and housing preoccupy
households 103
3.2.2 Direct spending on education by development partners 106
3.2.2.1 Off-budget expenditure by state of coverage 107
3.2.2.2 Off-budget spending on education by expenditure type 107
3.2.2.3 Recurrent off-budget support by expenditure item 109
3.3 Chapter summary 111

Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources 113

4.1 Student learning outcomes 115
4.1.1 End of primary school examinations: Strong performance
and coverage in 2020 115
4.1.2 End of secondary school examinations: Patchy coverage
and declining performance 119
4.2 Teacher management 124
4.2.1 Characteristics of teachers: A young, male-dominated teaching force 124
4.2.1.1 Gender of teachers: Males dominate the profession 124
4.2.1.2 Teacher qualifications: Evolving system with unsettling levels
of qualification 125
4.2.1.3 Teacher pay: Low renumeration levels for the majority
of primary teachers 130
4.2.1.4 Teacher age: An influx of young teachers 131
4.2.2 Teacher distribution: Varying pupil/teacher ratios and poor teacher
deployment 133
4.2.2.1 Pupil/teacher ratios: Low rates of qualification undermine
fairly good ratios 133
4.2.2.2 Teacher deployment: Uneven distribution across schools 134
4.3 Other school resources 135
4.3.1 Mass school construction since the end of the civil war 135
4.3.2 Availability of desks: Undersupply of desks seen across states 136
4.3.3 The Somali national curriculum 138
4.3.3.1 Pupil-textbook ratio: High ratios result from mismanagement
of distribution 138
4.3.3.2 Access to key school infrastructure: Variations show much
has yet to be developed 140
4.4 Chapter summary 142

8
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Chapter 5. TVET and higher education 143

5.1 Organization and delivery of TVET and university education 145
5.1.1 Organization and delivery of TVET 145
5.1.1.1 Access to TVET 147
5.1.1.2 Quality of TVET 150
5.1.1.3 Management of TVET in Somalia 154
5.1.2 Organization and delivery of university education 155
5.1.2.1 Access to university education 157
5.2 Labour-market relevance of TVET and universities 162
5.2.1 Labour force participation rate 162
5.2.2 Employment and unemployment 163
5.2.2.1 Employment rates, using the ILO’s definitions 164
5.2.2.2 Employment for TVET graduates 165
5.2.2.3 Young people not in employment, education, or training 167
5.2.3 Quality of employment in Somalia 167
5.2.3.1 Types of jobs available for those who work 167
5.2.3.2 Underemployment in Somalia 168
5.2.3.3 Job satisfaction for the employed 169
5.3 Chapter summary 170

Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis

of the education sector 171
6.1 Methodology of the analysis 173
6.2 Policy framework for the delivery of education in Somalia 174
6.2.1 The guiding framework for the education system 174
6.2.2 Coordination and cooperation between the government
and education partners 176
6.2.3 Education stakeholders and their mapping 177
6.3 Mandate, functions, and organizational arrangements 179
6.3.1 Mandate 179
6.3.2 Vision 179
6.3.3 Mission 179
6.3.4 Core values 179
6.4 Departmental functions 180

9
Table of contents

6.5 Organization of the education system: Challenges arising 185

6.5.1 Function gaps in MoECHE’s departments 185
6.5.2 Overlapping functions in MoECHE departments 187
6.5.3 Governance issues and challenges in MoECHE 187
6.5.3.1 The planning process in MoECHE, and its challenges 187
6.5.3.2 Effectiveness of education policies and programmes 189
6.5.3.3 Challenges in policy implementation 189
6.5.3.4 Effectiveness of the EMIS 190
6.5.4 Human resource management and development 192
6.5.4.1 Staffing and staff development in MoECHE 192
6.5.4.2 Job descriptions and their relationships to mandates 195
6.5.4.3 Governance issues influencing staff performance 196
6.5.4.4 Staff perspectives on MoECHE’s human resource management 197
6.6 Chapter summary 199

Annexes 201
References 206

10
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

List of figures

Figure 1.1 Average temperature (°C) and rainfall (ml) in Somalia, 1991–2020 29
Figure 1.2 Causes of migration, January 2016 – April 2018 30
Figure 1.3 Population pyramid in Somalia, 2020 37
Figure 1.4 Estimated IDPs by region, 2018. 37
Figure 1.5 UNHCR education budget from 2015 to 2020 in Somalia (US$) 39
Figure 1.6 Regional comparison of poverty incidence 41
Figure 1.7 Global acute malnutrition by FMS and region, 2020 42
Figure 1.8 Literacy rates for ages 6 and over, 2017 (%) 44
Figure 1.9 Comparison of current per capita GDP among East African countries,
2018 (US$) 47
Figure 1.10 Remittance transfers, 2013-2018, amount (US$ millions)
and percentage of GDP 49

Figure 2.1 Structure of the Somali education system, 2021 59

Figure 2.2 Distribution of schools by type of school and level of education, 2020 (%) 61
Figure 2.3 Share of children enrolled, by type of school, 2016–2020 63
Figure 2.4 International comparison of GER by level of education 66
Figure 2.5 Evolution of cross-sectional schooling profile, 2016 and 2020 (%) 67
Figure 2.6 Probabilistic schooling profile, 2018 (%) 68
Figure 2.7 School life expectancy by gender, 2020 (years) 69
Figure 2.8 Education expenditure vs school life expectancy in selected
East African countries 69
Figure 2.9 Proportion of repeaters by grade and education level, 2020 (%) 71
Figure 2.10 International comparison of share of repeaters, 2019 (%) 71
Figure 2.11 Children and young people who have ever been in Grade 1 (%) 73
Figure 2.12 Proportion of out-of-school children, 2016–2020 73
Figure 2.13 Proportion of out-of-school children by FMS, 2020 74
Figure 2.14 Prevalence of out-of-school children by sex, location, wealth, and age (%) 75
Figure 2.15 Retention in education by age 75
Figure 2.16 Proportion of school-age population with disabilities, by type
of disability, 2020 78
Figure 2.17 Share of out-of-school children with disabilities who dropped out
of school, by type of disability, 2020 (%) 79
Figure 2.18 Cross-sectional schooling profile by sex 83
Figure 2.19 School life expectancy by gender and FMS, 2020 84
Figure 2.20 Probability of having entered formal school, by age and sex, 2018 (%) 84
Figure 2.21 Probability of having entered formal school, by age and location, 2018 (%) 85
Figure 2.22 Probability of having entered formal school by age and wealth status (%) 86

Figure 3.1 Framework for analysis of education spending 90

Figure 3.2 Government expenditures as a proportion of approved budget
across 17 countries in sub-Saharan Africa 93
Figure 3.3 Composition of the use of goods and services, 2020 99
Figure 3.4 Public recurrent expenditure by sub-sector (%) 101

11
List of figures

Figure 3.5 Household expenditure on education by location, type of household

and wealth quintile 104
Figure 3.6 Off-budget expenditure on education by development partners
(US$ thousands) 110

Figure 4.1 Distribution of grades in primary exams by subject, 2020 117

Figure 4.2 Share of students scoring above the national averages, 2020 118
Figure 4.3 Evolution of candidates and pass rates in end of secondary school
examinations, 2015–2020 119
Figure 4.4 Distribution of grades in end of secondary examinations
by subject, 2020 122
Figure 4.5 Distribution of grades in secondary exams by subject, 2020 122
Figure 4.6 Proportion of teachers in primary and secondary schools,
by gender and FMS, 2020 124
Figure 4.7 Primary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%) 129
Figure 4.8 Secondary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%) 130
Figure 4.9 Distribution of primary teachers by age and gender, 2020 (%) 131
Figure 4.10 Distribution of secondary teachers by age and gender, 2020 (%) 131
Figure 4.11 Distribution of primary teachers by years of teaching experience
and gende, 2020 132
Figure 4.12 Distribution of secondary teachers by years of teaching experience
and gender, 2020 132
Figure 4.13 Average years of teaching experience, 2020 132
Figure 4.14 Distribution of teachers in public authority primary schools, 2019 134
Figure 4.15 Timelines for the establishment of schools in Somalia 135
Figure 4.16 Relationship between students and desks in schools, 2019 136
Figure 4.17 Distribution of classrooms and enrolment of primary and secondary
levels, 2019 137

Figure 5.1 Duration of training programme 150

Figure 5.2 Support type for TVET centres 150
Figure 5.3 Number of TVET trainees per instructor by skill cluster 152
Figure 5.4 Demand for technical skills and interest from potential trainees 154
Figure 5.5 Level of introduction of technical subjects in schools 154
Figure 5.6 Evolution of enrolment in higher education 158
Figure 5.7 Proportions of enrolment in the public and private sectors in higher
education 159
Figure 5.8 Proportions of enrolment in the humanities and sciences in higher
education 159
Figure 5.9 Enrolment in universities by ISCED domains, 2019/20 160
Figure 5.10 Tertiary gross enrolment ratio for selected countries 161
Figure 5.11 Labour force participation rate among people aged 15–64 162
Figure 5.12 Reasons for labour-market inactivity among young people (aged 15–24) 163
Figure 5.13 Employment to population ratio 165
Figure 5.14 Employment status of TVET graduates 166

12
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 5.15 Young people not in employment, education, or training, by gender,

educational attainment and location 166
Figure 5.16 Types of jobs held, by educational attainment 167
Figure 5.17 Underemployment in Somalia 168
Figure 5.18 Job satisfaction among TVET graduates 168

Figure 6.1 Perceived challenges in MoECHE planning processes 188

Figure 6.2 Effectiveness of recent education policies and programmes,
according to staff in MoECHE’s planning department 189
Figure 6.3 Challenges in the implementation of education policies 190
Figure 6.4 Outline of the Somali EMIS 191
Figure 6.5 Effectiveness of the EMIS, according to MoECHE staff 192
Figure 6.6 Comprehension of job description and mandate among staff 195
Figure 6.7 Challenges in MoECHE influencing staff performance 196
Figure 6.8 Factors that could improve the performance of mid-level staff
in MoECHE 197
Figure 6.9 Staff perspectives on human resource management at MoECHE 198

13
List of tables

Table 1.1 GDP growth in selected countries, adjusted for the effects
of COVID-19, 2020 34
Table 1.2 Sources of remote learning, 2020 35
Table 1.3 Population growth in Somalia, 2014–2020 (thousands) 36
Table 1.4 Refugees, asylum seekers, and returnees of school age 38
Table 1.5 Selected demographic parameters, 2020 39
Table 1.6 School-age population, 2015–2020 (thousands) 40
Table 1.7 Selected measures of poverty, 2018 (%) 41
Table 1.8 School-feeding beneficiaries by FMS, 2019–2021 42
Table 1.9 Household characteristics, 2017 (%) 43
Table 1.10 Evolution of GDP, 2012–2018 46
Table 1.11 Evolution of FGS revenue, 2013–2018 (US$ millions) 48
Table 1.12 Revenues collected by FMSs, 2019 (US$) 48
Table 1.13 Evolution of FGS expenditure, 2013–2018 (US$ millions and %) 50
Table 1.14 Expenditure by the FMSs, 2018–2020 (US$) 51
Table 1.15 Evolution of external public debt, 2013–2018 (US$ millions) 52

Table 2.1 Distribution of schools by type of school and level of education,

2020 (%) 60
Table 2.2 Student enrolment in general education by level and type of school,
2016–2020 (N. and % private) 63
Table 2.3 Gross enrolment ratio by education level, 2016–2020 65
Table 2.4 Gross enrolment ratio by state, 2016–2020 (%) 65
Table 2.5 Grade-specific GER according to different data sources (%) 68
Table 2.6 Out-of-school children by age category 72
Table 2.7 Prevalence of disabilities among children attending school,
by FMS and sex, 2021 (%) 77
Table 2.8 Share of children with disabilities enrolled in primary school,
by type of disability, 2019 (%) 78
Table 2.9 Share of schools with disabled learners and accessible facilities,
by FMS, 2019 (%) 81

Table 3.1 Evolution of public expenditure on education (US$) 91

Table 3.2 Credibility of public budget on education (US$) 92
Table 3.3 Public expenditure on education, by funding source (US$) 94
Table 3.4 Budget support towards education by partners and government (US$) 94
Table 3.5 Public expenditure on education by type of spending (US$) 95
Table 3.6 Public expenditure on education by the FGS and FMSs (US$) 96
Table 3.7 Public expenditure on education, by state and type (US$) 97
Table 3.8 Salary and non-salary recurrent expenditure on education (US$) 99
Table 3.9 Decomposition of non-salary expenditure on education (US$) 99
Table 3.10 Public recurrent expenditure on education by function/level (US$) 100
Table 3.11 Expenditure on higher education in Somalia (US$) 101
Table 3.12 Salary and non-salary expenditure by level of education, 2019 (US$) 102
Table 3.13 Average spending per student in public institutions, 2019 102

14
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 3.14 Household expenditure on education compared to other needs

among households with and without school-going children (US$) 104
Table 3.15 Teachers’ wages in private schools, 2020 (US$) 105
Table 3.16 Off-budget expenditure on education by development partners 106
Table 3.17 Off-budget expenditure on education by state 107
Table 3.18 Off-budget expenditure on education by type (US$) 108
Table 3.19 Capital off-budget expenditure on education 108
Table 3.20 Capital off-budget expenditure on education 109
Table 3.21 Recurrent off-budget expenditure on education 110

Table 4.1 Learners enrolled in Grade 8 vis-à-vis examination candidates, 2020 115
Table 4.2 Primary examination candidates by gender, 2020 116
Table 4.3 Primary examination pass rates, 2020 116
Table 4.4 Mean score per subject in primary examination, 2020 117
Table 4.5 Gender parity in pass rates by subject, 2020 (% and GPI) 118
Table 4.6 Students enrolled in Form 4 vis-à-vis candidates, 2015–2020 120
Table 4.7 Evolution of secondary exam candidates by gender, 2017–2020 120
Table 4.8 Gender parity in secondary examination pass rates, 2020 (% and GPI) 120
Table 4.9 Mean score per subject in secondary examination, 2015–2020 (%) 121
Table 4.10 Qualified, underqualified, and unqualified primary school teachers,
2019, by state and type of school (%) 126
Table 4.11 Qualified, underqualified, and unqualified secondary school teachers
by FMS and type of school, 2019 (%) 127
Table 4.12 Distribution of government-paid teachers by academic training,
2020 (%) 127
Table 4.13 Primary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%) 128
Table 4.14 Secondary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%) 128
Table 4.15 Distribution of teachers by salary range and gender, 2019 (%) 130
Table 4.16 Primary pupil/teacher ratios by type of school, 2019 133
Table 4.17 Secondary pupil/teacher ratios by type of school, 2019 134
Table 4.18 Language of instruction in primary schools, 2019 (%) 136
Table 4.19 Pupil to desk ratio by type of school, 2019 136
Table 4.20 Pupils per classroom in primary schools by type of school, 2019 137
Table 4.21 Students per classroom in secondary by type of school, 2019 137
Table 4.22 Primary pupil/textbook ratios by subject, grade, and type of school, 2019 139
Table 4.23 Secondary pupil/textbook ratios by subject, grade,
and type of school, 2019 139
Table 4.24 Pupil/textbook ratio ranges in mathematics, 2019 (%) 140
Table 4.25 Access for schools to key amenities and facilities by FMS, 2019 (%) 140
Table 4.26 Access for schools to key amenities and facilities by type of school,
2019 (%) 141
Table 4.27 Average number of toilets per pupil in primary schools, 2019 141

Table 5.1 Distribution of TVET institutions by state/region 147

Table 5.2 Enrolment in TVET centres by region 148

15
List of tables

Table 5.3 Enrolment in Jubbaland Teacher Training College 149

Table 5.4 Share of enrolment in TVET by gender and skills cluster (%) 149
Table 5.5 Academic qualifications of TVET instructors 151
Table 5.6 TVET graduates, 2017/18 153
Table 5.7 Expenditure on higher education in Somalia, 2019 and 2020 (US$) 156
Table 5.8 Distribution of university institutions by state and region 158
Table 5.9 Evolution of enrolment at Somali National University by gender 159
Table 5.10 Participation rates in tertiary education 161

Table 6.1 Distribution of respondents in the data-gathering exercise (n. and %) 173
Table 6.2 Perspectives of non-state actors on governance issues
in the education system 178
Table 6.3 Functions inadequately performed by MoECHE departments,
with reasons, as identified by staff and managers 180
Table 6.4 Function gaps in MoECHE departments 185
Table 6.5 Overlapping functions in MoECHE departments 187
Table 6.6 Distribution of staff by gender in MoECHE and the FMSs (N. and %) 193
Table 6.7 Distribution of MoECHE staff by category and gender 193
Table 6.8 Staffing structure in MoECHE showing banding system 194
Table 6.9 Staff distribution in MoECHE departments 194

Table 0.1 Coverage of the data available in the national EMIS, 2016–2020
(N. and %) 205

16
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Abbreviations and acronyms

ABE Alternative Basic Education

ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency
AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
CEC Community Education Committee
CISP Comitato Internazionale per lo Sviluppo dei Popoli
EMIS Education Management Information System
ESA Education Sector Analysis
ESC Education Sector Committee
ESSP Education Sector Strategic Plan
FGS Federal Government of Somalia
FMS Federal Member State
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrolment Ratio
GPI Gender Parity Index
IDA International Development Association
IDP Internally Displaced Person
ILO International Labour Organization
INGO International Non-Governmental Organization
IQS Integrated Quaranic School
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
MoECHE Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NCA Norwegian Church Aid
NEET Not in Employment, Education, or Training
NFE Non-Formal Education
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PqTR Pupil/qualified-Teacher Ratio
PSP Private School Policy
PTR Pupil Teacher Ratio
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SDHS Somali Health and Demographic Survey
SEND & IE Special Educational Needs and Inclusive Education (policy)
SETS Strengthening Education and Training in Somalia
SISEND Somali Institute of Special Educational Needs and Disability
SLE School Life Expectancy
TPT Teacher Proficiency Testing
TSS Technical Secondary School
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
UNPD United Nations Population Division
WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene

17
Executive summary

Somalia is undergoing economic and represented 25 per cent of the total popu-
societal rebuilding, with growth being lation in 2014. These consistently high
witnessed alongside continuing humani- levels of internal migration, whether
tarian crises. driven by conflict, nomadic lifestyles, or
climate shocks, place large portions of
Somalia’s population is estimated to have the population out of reach of the state,
reached 16 million in 2020, growing at thereby making it more difficult for them
nearly 3 per cent annually. This popula- to access basic government services.
tion is relatively young, with almost half
eligible to attend school, and its depen- Poverty continues to be widespread in
dency ratio is nearly 100 per cent. This Somalia, with 69 per cent of the popula-
fast-growing population is driven by tion living below the poverty line in 2018.
large family sizes, with an average of six This is coupled with high levels of food
members per household, as well as a high insecurity, leading to serious and critical
gross birth rate, with 42 per cent of all levels of malnutrition in all regions of the
women of child-bearing age estimated to country. While widespread, poverty is not
have given birth in 2020. This youth and seen to affect all populations equally, with
continual growth places demographic urban populations suffering from signifi-
pressure on government resources, cantly lower levels, especially in terms of
which are already constrained by years of food consumption poverty. This disparity
conflict. is further seen in access to public services
such as electricity and water, with access
Despite the end of civil war and the among nomadic and rural populations
creation of the Federal Government being the most limited. These popula-
of Somalia (FGS) in 2013, the country tions are seen to suffer the most from the
continues to face insecurity within its weakened government ability to provide
borders. The largest of these threats arise basic services, which also spills over to
from the al-Shabaab militant group, which their access to education.
maintains control over areas in regions
in the south and west of the country. Somalia has rebuilt its economy steadily
The continued violence threatens chil- since 2012, with an average annual GDP
dren, with thousands of grave violations, growth rate of 4.3 per cent until 2018.
including abduction and the destruc- This has had a similar effect on GDP
tion of schools, reported in the past year. per capita, with this figure growing by
Conflict further contributes to internal over 77 per cent in the same period. This
migration, with an estimated 1.3 million growth has been paralleled by the recon-
people being displaced in 2020 alone, and struction of the Somali tax system, with
the majority citing conflict as the main tax revenue increasing 38 per cent from
reason. Alongside conflict, climate shocks 2012 to 2018, accounting for 58 per cent
are a major driver of migration, with the of total revenue in 2018. Government
geographical position of Somalia making spending has also increased; however, it
it vulnerable to climate shocks including remains low in relative terms, at just 5 per
flood and drought. These climate patterns cent of total GDP in 2018. This indicates
are critical for the livelihoods of nomadic the continued limited size and reach of
communities across the country, which the federal government, a symptom of

18
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

the current process of state reconstruc- as Alternative Basic Education and Adult
tion. The country is also heavily burdened Basic Education.
by debt, although this has declined from
over 100 per cent of GDP in 2013 to 87 per The 2016–2017 period saw a steady
cent in 2018. This pressure has limited increase in the number of children enrolled
the ability of the state to invest more in in school at all levels, with a sharp decline
development spending, however, and the in 2019, possibly because of the strong
country reaching the heavily indebted drought period in 2017, and with a strong
poor country (HIPC) decision-point for recovery in 2020. The progression in the
debt relief will hopefully signal change in number of enrolled children in public
this regard. Somalia’s reliance on remit- schools has shown improvement from
tances, especially at the household level, 2019 to 2020 at all levels, with 38 per cent
where 62 per cent were receiving inter- of all schools in the five FMSs being public
national remittances each month in 2017, or publicly supported in 2020. The level of
makes it vulnerable to international the recovery from the 2018 drought varies
economic shocks, including COVID-19. by educational sub-level, as does the
The economic impacts of the pandemic drop in 2019. According to the enrolment
have revised economic growth rates in the numbers, Somalia’s primary school gross
country from a projected 3.2 per cent, to a enrolment ratio (GER) remains low, at
shrinking of −2.5 per cent. There is poten- 14.3 per cent, especially in comparison to
tial for this to have long-lasting impacts other East African countries which report
on the already fragile system, as well as well over 100 per cent. While the enrol-
to undermine the positive levels of growth ment drop after 2017 affected the overall
and development seen in recent years. GER, pre-drought levels are still slightly
below the current level, which means
Progress has been made in the institution- that there has been a strong recovery.
alization of the education system despite Administrative data show a drop in GER
continuing low enrolment rates in 2019, before which the primary school
GER was 15.4 per cent and the secondary
The education system structure was GER 13.5 per cent for 2017, with a recovery
improved through the adoption of the in 2020. Disparities across years and
General Education Act on February educational sub-levels are more apparent
2021, which harmonizes the two when breaking down GER by level and
previous parallel streams: the legacy Federal Member State.
6+3+3 (with six years of lower primary,
three years of upper primary, and three An overview of the evolution of the
years of secondary school) and the cross-sectional schooling profile for
new 4+4+4 system (four years of lower Somalia in 2016 and 2020 shows a drop
primary, four years of upper primary, and at all levels of the grade-specific GER
four years of secondary school). The new in 2019, with some recovery at upper
Education Act also streamlines the struc- primary and secondary levels in 2020. As
ture of other sub-sectors, including reli- a consequence of the low access and high
gious education, technical and vocational dropout rates, Somali children expect to
education (TVET), and components of receive an average of 1.72 years of school
the general education sub-sector, such in their life-times, with considerable

19
Executive summary

disadvantage suffered by girls, who are $17 million of the allocated $29 million
expected to receive 1.48 years of school was actually committed to educational
compared to 1.95 for boys. The system is operations. While this indicates limited
characterized by low levels of declared credibility of public expenditure, it is
repetition and low levels of internal effi- important to note that absolute spending
ciency, owing to high levels of dropout has increased dramatically, witnessing
and likely non-declaration of repetition. nearly a tenfold increase since 2016. The
In 2020, repetition was rare in Somalia, largest portion (80 per cent) of public
with only 1.6 per cent of students having expenditure on education is funded by
repeated the previous year. Furthermore, the government, with the rest originating
more than half the school-age children in from development partners as budget
Somalia are currently out of school, with support, indicating high levels of govern-
varying proportions of out-of-school chil- mental commitment to independence.
dren across states. Additionally, the FGS has demonstrated
its support for the process of decentral-
Absence of data on children with disabili- ization by increasing funding to state-
ties renders proportions largely unknown, level ministries of education dramati-
with big disparities between data sources. cally in recent years. This said, a large
Discrimination and community atti- portion of public expenditure on educa-
tudes act as a barrier to education for tion remains in the control of the FGS,
children with disabilities. Finally, there with 73 per cent of spending executed at
exists no specific training for teachers the FGS level in 2020. This indicates that
of children with special educational while the FMSs are being operational-
needs in Somalia. Further inequalities ized, the FGS continues to exercise high
exist regarding access to education for levels of authority, raising concerns about
disadvantaged or marginalized groups, the effectiveness of the decentralization
with women, poor households, and rural arrangement in the country.
students being more likely to have never
attended schools than their counterparts. Expenditure is concentrated on recurrent
spending, leaving a gap in the investment
Public expenditure on education remains needed to expand the public education
low, reflective of the size of the public system
education sector in the country
While Somalia is in the process of
The Somali government spends well rebuilding its provision of public educa-
below the UNESCO-recommended alloca- tion, current spending is almost exclu-
tion of 20 per cent of national expenditure sively focused on recurrent items, leaving
on education, with only 5 per cent allo- very little funding available for the expan-
cated in 2020. Spending is actually lower sion of public schools. Furthermore, all
than the amounts allocated in the budget, the capital expenditure is focused at the
owing to low levels of budgetary compli- federal level, with no investment in facili-
ance. For example, budget utilization ties and infrastructure at the state levels,
reports demonstrate that in 2020, 40 per again indicating the constrained nature
cent of the approved education budget of the current functioning of state-level
was not executed, meaning that only ministries of education. Within recur-

20
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

rent expenditure, salaries make up over consumption, with household focus being
80 per cent, this being the main driver of on housing and food. Within the house-
the increase in spending in recent years, hold expenditure on education, tuition and
having increased by over eight times books make up the majority. On average,
since 2016 with the majority allocated to households spend $28 annually per child
teacher/instructor salaries. Spending on attending school, with this varying greatly
non-salary items has grown from 8 per according to socio-economic status and
cent of total recurrent spending in 2016, place of residence. Furthermore, it is clear
to 18 per cent in 2020, which can be from household spending that teachers in
considered a positive signal in the context private institutions are paid significantly
of a system that is seeking expansion and less than those in public schools.
improvement of public service delivery.
Apart from households, development
Primary and post-secondary educa- partners are also a key stakeholder in
tion make up 75 per cent of public recur- education investment, spending more
rent expenditure on education, with the than $19 million directly on education,
remainder allocated to administration, which overshadowed the spending by
which includes curriculum development, the government in 2020. Expenditure by
examinations, and quality assurance. At development partners was concentrated
the post-secondary level, the majority of in Jubbaland and South West states,
spending is concentrated on the Somali with these two states accounting for
National University, with very little left for two-thirds of total off-budget support.
administrative functions, limiting the oper- The off-budget spending allocated to
ationalization of the Higher Education capital investments by development part-
Commission and constraining quality assur- ners is greater than the funding allo-
ance functions at this level. In 2019, the cated to these by the government. The
government spent an average of $268 on largest portion of government capital
learners attending public primary schools, spending is focused on construction and
$117 on secondary school students, and refurbishment of classrooms. With partic-
$458 on post-secondary students. ular investment seen in the construction
of new classrooms, partners’ spending
Development partners and households fill seems to be aligned with the priority
investment gaps, with expenditure from of expansion of school infrastructure,
development partners overshadowing which may be filling up the gap left by the
public expenditure government, whose spending is mostly
focused on recurrent items.
The majority of funding for education is
private, originating both from households A lack of learning assessment data, new
and development partners. According examination systems, and high pass rates
to the High-Frequency Survey of 2017, may be hiding nuances and disparities in
households spent a total of $24 million on the quality of education being received
education in 2017, nearly seven times the
amount spent by the government in the Standardized national examinations are
same year. However, this still represented still a relatively recent development in
less than 1 per cent of overall household Somalia, with the primary leaving exam-

21
Executive summary

ination being introduced in 2020, and the in Jubbaland. As such, there is no clear
secondary leaving examination coming in trend seen in terms of high- and low-per-
2015. Data from 2020 demonstrate that forming states in the two examination
national examination pass rates at both levels.
the primary and secondary levels are
high, with an average of 89 per cent and While pass rates and average scores
75 per cent respectively. Coverage is also in examinations are seen to be high, a
high, with proportions of students sitting lack of data on school-based assess-
these exams compared to total enrolment ments or regional or global standard-
in respective grades nearing, and even ized assessments limits ability to come
exceeding 100 per cent. Coverage has to firmer conclusions on learning achieve-
grown significantly at the secondary level, ment. Furthermore, the recent introduc-
with the total number of students sitting tion of both these examinations, and
the exam growing from 3,522 in 2015, to the observed processes of standardiza-
33,727 in 2020. At the subject level, Somali tion and elimination of malpractice at
and social science show the highest the secondary level, limits the validity of
average scores, with Somali also seeing results further. Coupled with the low rates
the highest averages at the secondary of qualification, high pass rates in stan-
level. Conversely, English has the lowest dardized exams do not indicate that there
scores at the primary level, while this is is no room for improvement in the quality
observed to be maths at the secondary. of education being received in schools.

There are more female students taking High proportions of underqualified

end-of-primary examinations, (41 per and unqualified teachers persist while
cent of all students) than end-of-sec- teachers are incorporated into the govern-
ondary examiniations, where they repre- ment payroll
sent 38 per cent of all candidates. There
are high levels of gender parity in pass Males dominate the teaching profes-
rates across the majority of subjects at sion, with females representing between
both the primary and the secondary level. 12 and 18 per cent of the total number of
However, a lack of disaggregated data teachers at the primary level, and less
by population group may hide some of than 5 per cent at the secondary level.
the gender-related disparities one would However, there is seen to be an influx of
expect to see among nomadic and rural young females into the profession, partic-
populations. This similarly applies to our ularly at the primary level, in recent years.
inability to differentiate between different Across both genders, the vast majority of
types of school as regards examina- primary teachers are young, with most
tion data. Amongst states, performance being under 24, while at the secondary
is seen to be fairly uniform in primary level, they are more evenly distributed
exams, ranging from a low of 84 per cent across age groups. Teacher salaries
in Galmudug to a high of 99 per cent in remain low, especially among females,
South West state in 2020. Comparatively, with 59 per cent of female and 49 per cent
pass rates at the secondary level are more of male primary teachers making below
disparate, ranging from a low of 69 per $100 per month. Salaries are slightly
cent in Banaadir, to a high of 100 per cent higher at the secondary level and actu-

22
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

ally favour female teachers, with 36 per Pupil/teacher ratios also vary across
cent of female and 23 per cent of male different types of school, with highest
secondary teachers earning between ratios being seen in public institutions at
$251 and 500 monthly. the primary level, and community insti-
tutions at the secondary level. PTRs
Low rates of fully qualified teachers rates are relatively high at the primary level,
are seen across all types of school types, ranging from 32:1 to 60:1, however, these
standing at 36 per cent, 35 per cent, and increase dramatically when considering
36 per cent in primary public, publicly pupil/qualified-teacher ratios as a result
supported (or ‘community), and private of the low rates of qualification observed,
schools respectively. Furthermore, there reaching a high of 542 pupils to one qual-
are disparities seen among states, with ified teacher in private primary schools
rates of qualification in private primary in Jubbaland. A similar trend is seen at
schools ranging from a high of 48 per the secondary level, with PTRs being
cent in Galmudug to a low of 5 per cent lower overall, presumably as a result of
in Jubbaland, suggesting similar varia- the lower levels of enrolment also seen
tions in the quality of education available at this level, yet similarly exploding when
across other states. Qualification rates are considering qualified teachers only. At
even lower at the secondary level, ranging the school level, teacher distribution in
from a low of 15 per cent in public schools public institutions is highly uneven, with
to a high of 30 per cent in private schools. a degree of randomness of 63 per cent in
However, under-qualification rates are primary schools and almost 100 per cent
also seen to be higher at the secondary in secondary. This suggests mismanage-
level, ranging from 30 to 68 per cent ment of teacher allocation, with some
across states in public schools. This is extreme cases of over and under-concen-
indicative of the higher levels of education tration of teaching staff observed.
needed to be considered qualified at the
secondary level, and of the high propor- Textbooks are in short supply, while school
tion of teachers working at the secondary infrastructure is improved
level who possess teacher training
diplomas, which used to qualify them but Overall, textbooks are in short supply at
are now only an accepted qualification both the primary and secondary levels,
at the primary level. Additionally, results with the highest levels of availability seen
from teacher proficiency testing under- in public schools. At the primary level,
taken by the MoECHE demonstrate low wide variations are seen among different
levels of pedagogical knowledge among types of school, with the lowest pupil/text-
both primary and secondary school book ratios being seen for science text-
teachers, and furthermore, little differ- books in public schools, to a high of 43:1 in
ence seen between the scores of trained private schools. While a lack of 2020 text-
and untrained teachers. This shows the book data means that recent primary text-
need for the standardization of the teach- book distribution efforts may not be fully
er-training curriculum and the opening reflected in the data, there has been no
of teacher-training institutes under this similar campaign at the secondary level,
framework; a process in which the govern- resulting in 77 per cent of public institu-
ment is currently engaged in. tions reporting having no maths textbooks

23
Executive summary

at all. Furthermore, where textbooks do a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)

exist, it is clear they are unevenly distrib- between the MoECHE and the Ministry
uted, with very little correlation observed of Labour and Social Affairs signed in
between the total number of books in a April 2021, which outlines each ministry’s
school and total enrolment. responsibility in the sub-sector. According
to this MoU, training programmes of
There has been mass school reconstruc- 12 months or less months fall under the
tion since the end of the civil war. This responsibility of the Ministry of Labour
may be responsible for the relatively high and Social Affairs, while those longer
proportion of schools with access to water, than one year are under the mandate of
toilet facilities, and electricity, with this the MoECHE. Through this agreement, it
not falling below 60 per cent in any of the is anticipated that a process of formal-
states. This said, Jubbaland stands out as ization and standardization of TVET
having the lowest levels of access across will begin, including the production of
all three of these domains, at 70 per cent, a TVET policy, a TVET sector strategy,
65 per cent, and 54 per cent respectively. and a national vocational qualification
Conversely, access to hand-washing facil- framework.
ities remains low, ranging from 11 per cent
of schools in Galmudug to 29 per cent in There is limited financial input from the
Jubbaland. Access to facilities for chil- government at the TVET level, with only
dren with disabilities is also poor, with a one publicly managed technical profes-
low of 17 per cent in Galmudug and a high sional college currently functioning.
of 24 per cent in Banadir. Additionally, Expenditure reports indicate that apart
while most schools have toilet facilities, a from the salaries of five staff, there is
significant proportion do not have enough no spending on or investments in the
toilets. For example, among private sub-sector. Without this government
schools in Jubbaland there is an average investment, the sector remains small,
of one toilet per 400 students. with a total of 58 centres distributed
unevenly across the country. They served
A large proportion of eligible young more than 11,000 trainees in 2020. Among
people are not reached by post-secondary these trainees, more than half are seen to
programmes in Somalia, with enrolment be female and are seen to prefer training
representing only 5 per cent of the total in hair and beauty, art and design, and
eligible population home management. The subject with the
highest levels of enrolment is seen to be
TVET is heavily supported by non-state tailoring, followed by hair and beauty.
institutions in Somalia, and provision is
concentrated in urban areas. Local NGOs The 2018 labour-market surveys revealed
are the most prominent supporters of persistent mismatches between the skills
TVET institutions, followed by interna- acquired by trainees and the expectations
tional NGOs. Programmes are short, of the labour market, an element which it
with more than half of trainees enrolled is hoped will be addressed through the
in programmes lasting less than six harmonization and standardization of the
months. However, the government is in curriculum agreed on in the 2021 MoU.
the process of re-entering the sector, with These mismatches are demonstrated by

24
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

the fact that only 15 per cent of TVET secondary levels of education contrib-
graduates in South West state, 10 per cent utes to a situation where less than half of
in Jubbaland, and 20 per cent in Galmudug the working-age population is active in the
had been absorbed into the labour market labour market. Evidence from the High-
in the preceding three years. TVET instruc- Frequency Survey of 2017 also points to
tors are largely unqualified, with only two a degree of skill misalignment, with less
out of three having post-secondary quali- than half (48 per cent) of university gradu-
fications. This can be related to the lack of ates seen to be active in the labour market
harmonization referred to above, with no as well. Employment for TVET graduates is
official policy stating what level of qualifi- the most variable according to state, with
cation an instructor should have to work in 70 per cent of TVET graduates in Jubbaland
a TVET institution. being unemployed, compared to 75 per
cent of TVET graduates being absorbed
Similar arrangements are seen when into the labour market in South West state.
considering universities in Somalia, with Overall, 4 in 10 young people are not in
only one public university in existence, employment, education, or training, an
surrounded by a fast-growing network of element which makes them particularly
private institutions. While 118 universities susceptible to getting involved with violent
are listed in the Education Management extremism, given the fragile context of
Information System (EMIS), it is difficult the country. Underemployment is also rife,
to determine exactly how many are func- with 1 in 4 employed persons reporting
tioning, with the MoECHE confirming the being available for additional work, again
existence of at least 55 through physical pointing to the low quality of jobs available
visits, the majority of which are concen- in the current market. Opportunities are,
trated in Banadir Regional Administration. however, better for university graduates,
During the 2019/20 academic year, there with this group seeing significantly higher
were more than 95,000 students enrolled rates of access to salaried positions than
across 47 universities, with only slightly groups at all other levels of educational
more than 2,000 enrolled in the only public attainment.
university in the country. The most popular
faculties at the university are health and Lack of clearly defined roles leads to over-
welfare, social science and ICT, which laps and duplications across the educa-
together account for three-quarters of the tional administration
programmes offered in the university. In
terms of funding, the majority of govern- Although MoECHE has clearly defined
ment spending on university education mandate, vision, and mission statements,
is concentrated on the Somali National the functions of its departments have not
University, with university education in been adequately documented, which has
total representing 33 per cent of govern- led to overlapping and duplication of func-
ment spending on education in total. tions across them. The staff also identi-
fied functions that have not been satisfac-
Both TVET and university education are torily performed as part of the mandate
expected to prepare graduates to enter of MoECHE and adduced reasons for
the labour market. However, high rates of such lapses. A new organizational struc-
out-of-school children across primary and ture has been released by MoECHE, but

25
Executive summary

the detailed departmental functions and istrator/policy-makers bands. Staffing is

job descriptions, and the competences skewed towards the administrative depart-
for the different positions have not been ments compared to technical/profes-
made available. The main challenges to sional departments, with the Finance &
the policy planning process and to the Administration Department having 32
effectiveness of education policies and (27 per cent) of the total staff strength.
programmes, as well as to the implemen- As far as job descriptions are concerned,
tation of policies by the MoECHE, were a third of the senior and middle-level offi-
identified as the top-down approach to cials thought that their job descriptions
the planning process, poor training oppor- did not identify the purpose of their work
tunities for MoECHE staff, weak linkages or the key tasks to be performed. This
between the planning and implementa- means that the staff functions do not
tion processes, and an uncertain policy relate well to the ministry’s mandate. More
environment. than half of the respondents believed that
the job descriptions were a mere formality.
Nepotism and favouritism remain Furthermore, about half were of the view
challenges amid needs for capacity that the roles and responsibilities were not
development specific enough to guide the day-to-day
tasks to be performed by the individual
System-wide gaps in the EMIS still persist, staff. The major challenges which affect
despite the introduction of the new EMIS at individuals and the overall performance
the FGS, FMS and school levels. The chal- of MoECHE were identified by the stake-
lenges identified include weak capacities holders to include poor motivation (60 per
of EMIS personnel to manage EMIS func- cent), frequent leadership changes (53 per
tions, weak data-gathering procedures at cent), and lack of skills among employees
school level, and weak quality assurance (51 per cent). On the other hand, poor
and supervision at district and state levels. working conditions (57 per cent), lack of
clear-cut responsibility (51 per cent), and
The MoECHE has 202 members of staff, nepotism and favouritism (50 per cent),
of whom 42 (21 per cent) are female, and were also identified as posing some chal-
1,167 (83 per cent) belong to the admin- lenges to staff performance.

26
 Chapter 1
Socio-demographic
and macroeconomic
context
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

An education system is inevitably linked to the context in which it functions, including

the cultural, social, and economic background. Contextual factors such as popula-
tion size, public financing, poverty and other social indicators could either constrain or
enable universal access to education. As such, it is impossible to ignore the role they
play when analysing the sector more broadly. Accordingly, this sectionsection presents
an overview of the context in which the current Somali education system is evolving,
shedding light on developments in this sector within the larger country context.

This section is organized in three sub-sections, beginning with a discussion on the

humanitarian situation in Somalia, which looks specifically at how geographical, polit-
ical, and conflict-related factors have contributed to instability and humanitarian needs,
especially with regard to access to education. Secondly, the section examines key
socio-demographic indicators, including population composition and poverty, in order
to place the education system within this larger social framework. Lastly, the section
reviews the macroeconomic situation in the country at both Federal Government and
Federal Member State levels, presenting key economic indicators, revenues and expen-
ditures in order to frame the ensuing discussion regarding public spending on education
and the ability of the state to deliver public services.

The findings presented in this section, which form the basis for the discussion of the
humanitarian context, come from a range of sources, including secondary data. In the
case of social indicators, figures largely originate from the 2017 High-Frequency Survey
supported by the World Bank (World Bank, 2019a) and are complemented by 2019 popu-
lation estimates from the United Nations Population Division (UNPD). Macroeconomic
data have been sourced from the Central Bank of Somalia, as well as the ministries of
finance in the Federal Member States (FMSs). These serve as the inputs for calculating
key economic indicators. Where possible, data have been triangulated in order to ensure
robust analysis.

28
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

1.1 Humanitarian and political

context: Battling legacies of
conflict in pursuit of stability
While Somalia has emerged from years of civil war and complete state collapse, it
continues to face challenges in the form of climate-related humanitarian crises and
enduring conflict. This sub-section highlights some of these lasting issues and the
constraints they place on the development of the state and its education sector.

1.1.1 Geography and climate: High levels of vulnerability to climate shocks

Somalia’s climate and geographical 10 mm of rain per year in the dry season,
position have wide-ranging impacts on to extreme weather events and more
key measures of human development. than 580 mm of rainfall in one year in the
Somalia is the eastern-most country south (REACH, 2018). The topography of
in Africa and extends just south of the the country is generally flat, which facil-
equator and northward to the Gulf of Aden. itates the movement of nomadic popula-
Its coastline, which is the longest in main- tions and their livestock. It is estimated
land Africa, measures 3,333 km (World that 23 per cent of the total population is
Bank, 2019b). This position holds geopo- agro-pastoralist, and an additional 9 per
litical significance, because the country cent nomadic (World Bank, 2019a). These
serves as the gateway between sub-Sa- populations are reliant on the bimodal
haran Africa, the Middle East, and south- rainfall patterns, with two rainy seasons:
western Asia. Somalia’s location creates the Gu’ season which lasts from April to
a climate of geographical extremes, June, and the Deyr season, which lasts
ranging from hot semi-desert conditions, from October to December, as can be seen
in the north, where there is less than in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Average temperature (°C) and rainfall (ml) in Somalia, 1991–2020

30
30 55.7
60
60
53.9
28.5 28.5 47.8
28.2
28
28
28 27.5 27.4 27.4 45
45
26.9 39.1

26.2
25.9
26
26 25.3 25.3 30
30

16.9
13 13.5 13.1
24
24 11.2 15
15
10.4

3.1 3.3

22
22 0
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Rainfall Temperature

Source: Climate Change Knowledge Portal, World Bank, 2020.

29
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

Nomadic pastoralist and agro-pastoralist of 90 districts, affecting 1.3 million

communities depend on this weather people and displacing 505,000 (World
pattern to support their livelihoods, with Bank, 2020b). This massive climate-re-
the rainy seasons watering crops and lated displacement has effects on educa-
replenishing natural water sources, and tional access and continuity, with flooding
the dry seasons used for planting and in 2019 displacing 270,000 residents,
harvesting. Climate-related shocks such 40 per cent of whom were school-age
as flooding and drought, leave a large children (REACH, 2020). This flooding
proportion of the population vulnerable, is also estimated to have destroyed
which can have drastic impacts on their between 81 and 104 schools, interrupting
livelihoods. Somalia has experienced the education of between 27,500 and
three such shocks since 2019 alone, 33,701 children (World Bank, 2020b).
including severe drought in 2019, during
which 2.2 million people faced food short- Figure 1.2 Causes of migration, January 2016
ages; flooding in 2019 and 2020; and the – April 2018
desert locust infestation of 2019–2020
Jan-16
(World Bank, 2020b). The High-Frequency
Feb-16
Survey conducted in 2017 estimated that Mar-16
66 per cent of households had experi- Apr-16
enced at least one type of shock to their May-16
livelihoods in the preceding year, with Jun-16
these shocks most frequently related to Jul-16
climate variations (World Bank, 2019a). Aug-16
Similarly, 2021 has brought further Sep-16
climate-related challenges, with the Oct-16
government officially declaring drought Nov-16
Dec-16
conditions in April 2021 and estimating
Jan-17
that 1.3 million school-age children would
Feb-17
be displaced as a result (UNOCHA, 2021).
Mar-17
These shocks are predicted to increase,
Apr-17
with the effects of climate change height- May-17
ening the prevalence of erratic weather Jun-17
cycles, and causing further drought and Jul-17
flooding. Aug-17
Sep-17
The effects of climate shocks are not just Oct-17
devastating for the economy and live- Nov-17
lihoods but are a major contributor to Dec-17
high levels of internal migration and high Jan-18
Feb-18
proportions of internally displaced popu-
Mar-18
lations. As seen in Figure 1.2, in recent
Apr-18
years drought has been a major driver of
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
internal migration, which peaked during
Conflict Drought
the drought of 2017. More recently, heavy
Gu’ rains in 2020 led to flooding in 39 out Source: High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

30
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

1.1.2 Political context: The path to state reconstruction through federalism

The political environment in Somalia has While the establishment of the FGS
been characterized by instability and marked a turning point for political
fragmentation since the collapse of Siad stability in Somalia, many of the practical
Barre’s regime in 1991. This plunged the functionalities of FMSs were not speci-
country into statelessness, without a fied in the provisional constitution. These
central government or rule of law, leaving a continue to evolve. Currently, the FMSs
gap for the proliferation of clan and militia largely function separately, with each
groups, so that the country eventually state having its own elected government,
descended into civil war. While there were which works in collaboration with the
multiple attempts to re-establish gover- FGS. States support themselves through
nance in Somalia, it was not until 2012 that independent tax structures, foreign aid
the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) directly allocated to state-level govern-
emerged with a provisional constitution. ments, and financial transfers from the
This established a two-tier system of gover- FGS. These transfers, however, have been
nance consisting of the FGS at the centre, largely ad hoc, with past years suggesting
and Banadir Regional Administration and there is no formula determining the
the other four FMSs (South West state, amount allocated, leading to wide varia-
Jubbaland, Galmudug and Hirshabelle) at tions in total amounts received yearly by
the second level, as well as the two regions the FMSs (Sharma and Dillinger, 2020).
of Somaliland and Puntland. The provi-
sional constitution, while not detailing The role of the FMSs in education was
functional practicalities, devolved much concretely defined in 2019 when a
power and authority to the FMSs, with communiqué was signed between the
the FGS retaining exclusive control over FGS and the FMSs that outlined the
four functions: foreign affairs, national states’ responsibilities for financing their
defence, citizenship and immigration, and own education systems, and for estab-
monetary policy. Additionally, an informal lishing and running schools, as well as
power-sharing agreement was designed in managing school personnel. The FGS
2000, which sought to accommodate the retained responsibility for the develop-
strong clan identities that had driven much ment and implementation of educational
of the preceding conflict. The agreement policy, including the curriculum, with the
established a unique ‘4.5’ system, in which Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher
each of the four major clans was given the Education (MoECHE) beginning the
power to select an equal number of federal roll-out of a national curriculum in 2018,
parliament members, while the minority in order to bring consistency across the
groups together were given the authority education system (World Bank, 2019b).
to select half this number of represen- Furthermore, the General Education Act,
tatives (0.5). This power-sharing agree- introduced in 2017 and adopted in 2021,
ment and decentralization through feder- enshrined education as a fundamental
alism emerged as a viable solution to the human right and outlined the government
mistrust and desire for local control that strategy for free, inclusive, and equi-
were heightened by the prolonged civil war table education. While the law covered
(Sharma and Dillinger, 2020). both non-formal and formal education

31
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

from pre-primary to tertiary level, only entities in absence of a central govern-

public primary education was mandated ment (World Bank, 2019b). This continues
to be free of charge. These new provi- to have effects today, with community
sions followed the previously fragmented schools, private schools, and NGO-run
education system that existed during schools dominating the educational land-
the civil war, which saw the destruc- scape. Section 2 discusses in detail the
tion of more than 75 per cent of schools, evolution of the participation of these
and the provision of education taken streams of providers, and highlights the
over by communities, NGOs and private challenges in rewriting these legacies.

1.1.3 Conflict and fragility: Hope for stability in the face of insanity

Despite the establishment of a central of major cities in the south-central and

state through the emergence of the FGS, southern regions of the country, but
Somalia remains one of the most fragile remains the dominant authority in many
states in the world, ranking at the top of the rural areas. The group continues to main-
INFORM global risk index in 2020 because tain its influence in these areas through
of continuing conflict, high vulnerability intimidation and violent tactics, thereby
to environmental shocks, and weak gover- maintaining exclusive power in parts of
nance structures (European Commision Jubbaland and South West states.
on Disaster Risk Management Knowledge
Centre, 2019; Somalia Education Cluster, The effects of conflict and instability in
2019). The al-Shabaab militant group these areas of the country are multi-fac-
has been a major driver of instability in eted, limiting both access to and conti-
Somalia since the early 2000s, although nuity of education. Conflict poses a direct
their power was weakened following the threat to education, through attacks on
ousting of Islamic courts from the capital, schools, including killing, abduction,
Mogadishu, by Ethiopian troops in 2006 and threats against teachers, as well as
(World Bank, 2020c). Following its explu- destruction and looting of school prop-
sion form the capital, al-Shabaab moved erty. The UN verified 195 attacks on
into rural areas and secondary cities schools between 2012 and mid-2016,
across the FMSs, where it began its guer- with an additional 77 in 2018, and 40 in
rilla-like campaign of violent attacks. the first half of 2019 (Somalia Education
This change in offensive tactics led to Cluster, 2020). Outside school, children
the deployment in 2007 of the African are often targeted by armed groups, with
Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), a 4,714 grave violations against 3,810 chil-
regional peacekeeping mission serving dren having been verified in 2020,
under a mandate to support Somalia in including the recruitment of 1,407 chil-
its fight against the group. Under this dren by al-Shabaab and the abduction of
mandate, AMISOM brought large portions 1,430 children by armed groups (United
of the country back under the control Nations, 2021). This contributes to a situ-
of the Somali state between 2011 and ation where children are not safe in
2014, although efforts have largely been schools, or on their way to school, creating
stalled since 2015 (World Bank 2020c). a further barrier to accessing educa-
As a result, al-Shabaab has lost control tion. Additionally, alongside climate-

32
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

driven disasters, conflict contributes to children in Somalia need humanitarian

increased humanitarian needs by driving assistance, either to enrol in school or
migration and limiting access to basic to staythere (Somalia Education Cluster,
necessities. It is estimated that 1.4 million 2020).

1.1.4 COVID-19 and its implications for Somalia

The global pandemic will weaken efforts of March. The second wave hit harder than
to rebuild the economy, with residual the first, with daily cases exceeding those
effects likely to reach the education of 2020, leading to overcrowding in hospi-
sector, which has already changed its tals and a further dwindling of already
day-today operations in order to imple- scarce medical supplies.
ment COVID-19 mitigation measures.
The spread of the novel Coronavirus Somalia was already vulnerable and its
of 2019 was officially declared a economy weakened before the arrival of
global pandemic by the World Health COVID-19, as a result of major drought
Organization on 1 March 2020. Somalia and flooding and the locust invasion in
reported its first confirmed case of 2019/2020. The economic effects of these
the virus on 16 March 2020. This was climatic shocks were compounded by
swiftly followed by the official closure the emergence of COVID-19, hindering
of schools and universities on 18 March Somalia’s economic revitalization, which
2020 (MoECHE, 2020d). The government has been the focus of government actors
additionally moved to postpone national since the emergence of the FGS. The
exams and announced that schools would pandemic changed the anticipated GDP
not reopen for the rest of the academic growth, not only in Somalia but gener-
year, or at least until August 2020. While ally across the globe and specifically in
official case rates of COVID-19, and deaths certain comparable countries. Overall,
related to the virus have tended to be lower these countries were projected to have a
in sub-Saharan Africa, including Somalia, joint GDP growth of more than 3 per cent
there is recent evidence that points in 2020. However, owing to the pandemic,
to severe under-testing and under-re- which has affected commerce across all
porting across the continent, with actual sectors, their economies are expected to
infection rates thought to be signifi- contract by nearly 2 per cent (Table 1.1).
cantly higher than those being reported In Somalia, GDP is expected to drop from
in national figures (Nigeria Centre for projected positive growth of 3.2 per cent
Disease Control, 2021). Overcrowding in before the pandemic, to −2.5 per cent, a
urban centres, large household sizes, and drop of 5.7 percentage points. The Somali
insufficient access to amenities such as economy was particularly affected by the
water and handwashing facilities have decline in international trade and travel,
made mitigation of the spread of the because a large proportion of its annual
disease difficult in Somalia (World Bank, revenue originates from international
2020a). The country was subsequently hit remittances (see Table 1.1). Furthermore,
by a second wave of the pandemic in late due to the global nature of economic hard-
February 2021, leading to another closure ship caused by the pandemic, remittances
of schools for two weeks at the beginning flowing into Somalia were projected to

33
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

Table 1.1 GDP growth in selected countries, adjusted for the effects of COVID-19, 2020
Country Projected growth (%) Revised growth (%) Percentage point change
Afghanistan 1 −3.4 −4.4

Burundi 2 1 −1

CAR 0.8 −3.3 −4.1

Chad −0.2 −5.9 5.7

Eritrea 3.5 −0.7 −4.2

Ethiopia 6.3 3.2 −3.1

Madagascar 5.3 −1.2 −6.5

Mozambique 3.7 1.3 −2.4

Rwanda 8.1 2 −6.1

Somalia 3.2 −2.5 −5.7

South Sudan −4.3 −18.9 −14.6

Tanzania 5.8 2.5 −3.3

Uganda 5.5 3.3 −3.2

Average 3.13 −1.74 −4.07

Source: World Bank, National Accounts Data, 2021.

decline by 2.5 per cent of GDP in 2020, the final four weeks that remained of the
negatively impacting households who academic year. In April 2020, the FGS esti-
rely on these to access basic services, mated that 589,559 children were out of
including education (World Bank, 2020a). school across all levels of education as a
result of COVID-19 across the five FMSs
Beyond the economic and health conse- (MoECHE, 2020d). The MoECHE sought to
quences, it is now known that COVID-19 has develop a distance-learning programme
caused an educational crisis of an unprec- in response, as outlined in their COVID
edented scale, having a near-universal strategy. However, with no pre-existing
impact on teachers and learners around digital materials, the process moved
the world. However, its effects have not slowly, and distance-learning materials
been equal, with low-income countries at the primary level were only made avail-
disproportionately suffering from school able in March 2021 in time for the second
closures. For instance, 86 per cent of chil- round of school closures. Use of these
dren in primary education were effec- materials has almost been non-existent;
tively out of school in the second quarter however, the existence of a digital curric-
of 2020 in countries with low human ulum is a positive step in providing access
development, compared to 20 per cent to education to remote and pastoralist
in countries with high human develop- communities in the future.
ment (United Nations, 2021). Following the
arrival of COVID-19 in Somalia in March While the government was largely absent
2020, the FGS announced the closure from efforts to provide supplemen-
of schools, and subsequently agreed to tary learning opportunities during the
end the school year early, eliminating COVID pandemic, partners and individual

34
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

schools attempted to fill the gaps using Schools reopened in Somalia in August
various methods. As part of its Joint Multi- 2020, in line with the start of a new
Cluster Needs Assessment in June 2020, academic year. While the effects this
the REACH Initiative conducted house- prolonged closure have had on student
hold surveys in 17 out of the 18 regions retention and learning outcomes are not
of the country, with almost 10,000 house- clear, owing to a lack of data, reopening
holds surveyed. These data indicate that under new norms presents a challenge
an average of 47 per cent of students for the existing school infrastructure in
were accessing some form of distance Somalia. Reopening guidelines recom-
learning during the period of school mend physical distancing in classrooms
closures (REACH, 2020). However, a as well as increased access to hand-
much more limited survey, carried out by washing facilities, which both pose prob-
35 international, national, and govern- lems for schools in the country. As will
ment agencies coordinated by UNICEF in be discussed further in Section 4, public
April 2020, found that only 16 per cent of schools in Somalia suffer from extreme
students were accessing remote learning overcrowding, with more than 50 students
(UNICEF, 2020). This indicates that remote in one classroom, which increases the
learning may have become more acces- risk of COVID-19 transmission. The push
sible during the period from April to June for smaller class sizes has ripple effects
2020, although this may also be reflective on teacher management, with a need for
of over-reporting at the household level. more qualified teachers, thereby intensi-
The REACH study further reveals that out fying needs in an already strained system
of the children accessing remote learning, and funding structure.
37 per cent accessed it ‘through school’,
while 31 per cent accessed it through Table 1.2 Sources of remote learning, 2020
reading (Table 1.2). In this context, school Source % of respondents
can be understood to refer to both learning
Reading 30.5
materials provided by schools, which are
School 37.3
completed at home, and in-person educa-
tion, i.e. Quranic schools or madrassas, Online 7.7

which remained open against government Learning On 1.8

advice. Reading refers to learning mate- Radio 9.1
rials provided by the government, as well Television 5.5
as informal reading activities, including
Audio 0.9
books or textbooks, with limited or no
educator guidance. Source: Authors’ calculations based on REACH (2020).

35
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

1.2 Socio-demographic background:

Young people facing enduring human
development challenges
For years, during the period of state collapse in Somalia, the population size and overall
welfare of the people were largely under-reported because of security-related access
issues. Since the establishment of the FGS, great effort has been invested in under-
standing the composition of the population and the key challenges faced by the people
in terms of poverty and food insecurity. This section summarizes the outputs of these
efforts, seeking to describe the situations of various population groups in the country, in
order to show how their living conditions affect their access to education.

1.2.1 Demographic growth: Unique population groups and migration

According to the United Nations populations; representing 22.8 per cent,

Population Fund, Somalia’s popula- 41.5 per cent, 25.9 per cent and 9 per cent
tion was estimated to be 12.3 million of the total population respectively.
in 2014 (UNFPA, 2014). However, for
the purposes of this analysis, United With an average age of 33, the country is
Nations Population Division (UNPD) data considered to have a young population,
are used as they provide yearly estima- with near 100 per cent demographic
tions, which are unavailable in UNFPA dependency. The youth of the population
data. The UNPD estimates that the popu- is manifested in the population pyramid
lation was close to 16 million in 2020, (Figure 1.3), which has much of the popula-
having grown from 13.4 million in 2014, tion at the base and very few at the apex.
at an annual average rate of 2.8 per cent The pyramid shows that the total active
(Table 1.3). Furthermore, UNPD data do population, or those contributing to the
not provide population group breakdowns, economy through recognized economic
and as such, data have been disaggre- activities, is almost equal to the total
gated here according to UNFPA classifi- dependent population, or those under
cations of rural, urban, nomadic, and IDP 15 and over 65. As the dependent popula-

Table 1.3 Population growth in Somalia, 2014–2020 (thousands)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Total populationa 13,424 13,797 14,186 14,589 15,008 15,443 15,893

Rural 3,622

Urban 6,599

Nomads 4,112

IDPs 1,428

Population growth rate (%) 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9

Active population 6,684 6,903 7,125 7,352 7,587 7,834 8,097

Dependent population 6,739 6,894 7,061 7,237 7,422 7,609 7,796

Demographic dependency
ratio (%) 101 99.9 99.1 98.4 97.8 97.1 96.3

Source: UNPD (2019).

Note: a This figure includes populations in Somaliland and Puntland even though they are not included in the rest of
the analysis.

36
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 1.3 Population pyramid in Somalia, tion is composed mostly of the population
2020 under 15 rather than those members who
85+
are over 65, this means that the social and
80 -84 economic burden on the active population
75-79 primarily comprises children and young
70-74
adolescents. This demographic stress
65-69
60-64 certainly has effects on school access
55-59 and enrolment, as will be discussed
50-54 further in Section 2.
45-49
40-44
35-39 The population of Somalia is composed of
30-34 four broad groups: urban dwellers, rural
25-29
dwellers, nomadic populations, and inter-
20-24
15-19 nally displaced people (IDPs). Somalia
10-14 is particularly remarkable for its large
05-09 population of IDPs: individuals who leave
0-4
their region of origin but remain within the
1,500 1,000 500 0 500 1,000 1,500
country, often driven by insecurity and/or
Women Men climate shocks. In 2020, urban residents
Source: UNPD (2019). were seen to represent the majority of the

Figure 1.4 Estimated IDPs by region, 2018.

Djibouti
Acute food insecurity phase IDPs population GULF OF ADEN

(August-December 2018 Projection) by Phase

AWDAL BARI
Minimal (Phase 1) – 26,000
SANAAG

92,000
Stressed (Phase 2) 977,000 in Stress 117,000 198,000
TOGDHEER
WOQOOYI
Crisis (Phase 3) 777,000 in Crisis GALBEED
126,000 SOOL
Emergency (Phase 4) 107,000 in Emergency 233,000
Ethiopia NUGAAL
Catastrophe (Phase 5) 16,000 in Catastrophe
60,000

MADUG

155,000 INDIAN OCEAN

South Somalia
Sudan GALGADUUD

BAKOOL HIRAAN 144,000

48,000 78,000

BAY
GEDO MIDDLE
SHABELLE
207,000 272,000

Uganda Mogadishu

2.6 million
BANADIR
MIDDLE JUBBA LOWER
SHABELLE 497,000

LOWER JUBBA
40,000 total IDPs
Kenya
165,000

0 50 100 150 200 km

0 50 100 mi

Source: UNOCHA (2019).

37
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

population, (Table 1.3); however, it must alone estimated to host 20 per cent of the
be considered that nomadic populations total population of IDPs in 2018 (World
largely occupy rural areas, as a result of Bank, 2020c). IDPs tend to be concentrated
their pastoralist livelihoods. As such, if we in peri-urban areas, often on the periphery
consider nomadic populations to be rural of large cities, which limits their access
residents, this would put the split between to infrastructure and service provision.
rural and urban dwellers at around 49/51. UNOCHA estimated that about 62 per cent
This is anticipated to change, however, of all those in need of humanitarian assis-
with growth in urban areas outstripping tance were IDPs in 2018 (UNOCHA, 2019).
that in rural ones, at around 4.3 per cent With 87 per cent of IDPs remaining in their
per year, which is estimated to lead to a place of settlement for more than a year,
tripling of the urban population over the the issue is protracted (UNOCHA, 2019).
next 30 years (World Bank, 2020c). When IDP populations do return to their
area of origin, they are called ‘returnees’
The United Nations Office for the and often face additional issues related to
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reintegration. Given the massive migration
(UNOCHA) estimates that IDPs in Somalia and return seen across the country in the
numbered 2.6 million in 2019, with the past 30 years, the returnee population is
majority concentrated in Jubbaland and also high, with the number of school-age
South West states (see Figure 1.4), the returnees exceeding the number of refu-
areas that have been the worst affected gees and asylum seekers in the same
by both instability and climate-related age range, in all five FMSs. This is partic-
disasters (UNOCHA, 2019). Furthermore, ularly so for Jubbaland, the Banadir
in 2020 alone an estimated 1.3 million Regional Administration, and South West
people were displaced, with an estimated state (Table 1.4). There also appears to
40 per cent of these being school-age be a slightly higher proportion of male
children (UNHCR, 2021). Of the total IDP returnees, with girls accounting for 48 per
population, it is estimated that 75 per cent cent of the total.
live in urban centres, drawn by increased
stability and the greater diversity of The education budget to meet the funding
economic opportunities, with Mogadishu demands that arise from the influx of

Table 1.4 Refugees, asylum seekers, and returnees of school age

Refugees /asylum seekers Returnees
FMS Boys Girls Sub-total Boys Girls Sub-total Total
Jubbaland - - - 16,994 15,632 32,626 32,626

Banadir 495 459 954 4,771 4,369 9,140 10,094

South West 14 21 35 3,300 2,737 6,037 6,072

Galmudug 274 249 523 8 12 20 543

Hirshabelle 20 19 39 54 36 90 129

Total 803 748 1,551 25,127 22,786 47,913 49,464

Source: UNHCR, 2021. Data presented as of 25 June 2021.

38
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

these groups saw a steady increase 2020. In 2018, as a result of the extreme
from 2015 to 2018, when it reached a drought and of conflict, the budget allo-
total of (US)$6.7 million. Since then, the cated to refugee education surpassed
total budget has decreased, to reach a that allocated to returnee education,
level just below $5 million in 2020, with being 6.8 times higher than the latter.
a general stagnation between 2019 and

Figure 1.5 UNHCR education budget from 2015 to 2020 in Somalia (US$)

5,833,817

2,902,971 3,061,980
2,681,906

2,066,189 2,206,143
949,545
1,746,607
662,061

0 784,944 863,337

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Budget for returnees Budget for refugees

Source: UNHCR, 2021.

1.2.2 Demographic characteristics: Half of the population is eligible for school

The youth of population in the country is Table 1.5 Selected demographic

underpinned by a preference for large parameters, 2020
family sizes, with 91 per cent of women
Gross birth rate (%) 42.2
interviewed in the 2020 Somali Health
and Demographic Survey (SDHS) consid- Rural 43.9

ering six or more children to be ideal Urban 38.5

(Directorate of National Statistics, 2020). Nomadic 46.3
This contributes to a high birth rate, with Total fertility rate (number of children) 6.9
an average of 228 births per 1,000 women
Rural 7.1
of child-bearing age in 2020. This is
Urban 6.4
even higher among nomadic and rural
populations, at 244 and 235 births per Nomadic 7.3

1,000 respectively. This can also be Gross adult mortality (per 1,000) 245
inferred from the gross birth rate, with Average age at first marriage (years) 21.5
nomadic populations equalling the global Men 23
high seen in Niger of 46 per cent of all Women 20
women giving birth in 2020 (Directorate of
National Statistics, 2020) (see Table 1.5). Source: 2020 SDHS (Directorate of National Statistics,
The average age at first marriage for 2020).

39
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

men and women is above the projected is illustrative of the 3-8-4-4 structure
age of secondary school completion (18). currently employed in the country, which
Adult mortality is high, at 245 per 1,000, consists of three years of early childhood
meaning 24.5 per cent of Somalis who education, eight years of primary school,
reach the age of 15 are expected to die four of secondary school and four of
before their 50th birthday. Overall, demo- higher education. Somalia has the second-
graphic pressures tend to be greater in highest proportion of school-age children
rural areas and among nomadic popula- (aged 3–18) to population in East Africa,
tions, although trends over time are not at 44.4 per cent, with a regional average
considered here due to a lack of reliable of 41.5 per cent (UNPD, 2019). This high-
data from before 2013. lights the demographic pressure on the
education system in the country, which
High birth rates and an overall young will only increase with the improved enrol-
population put acute pressure on the ment and transition rates sought through
education system, most notably by driving the Education 2030 Agenda. Furthermore,
up the school-age population, which while the available data limit the ability
represents nearly half of the overall popu- to make population growth estimates,
lation in Somalia. Primary students, or the current youthfulness of the popu-
those aged between 6 and 13, represent lation indicates a continuation of high
the bulk of this population, at 45 per cent, educational demand for many years to
followed by pre-primary at 21 per cent, come, illustrating the need for Somalia to
secondary at 18 per cent and post-sec- prepare for an increased burden upon its
ondary at 16 per cent (see Table 1.6). This already strained education system.

Table 1.6 School-age population, 2015–2020 (thousands)

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Pre-primary 1,475 1,515 1,554 1,592 1,630 1,669

Primary 3,040 3,125 3,214 3,303 3,393 3,482

Secondary 1,231 1,264 1,295 1,326 1,359 1,396

Post-secondary 1,066 1,102 1,138 1,174 1,210 1,248

School-age population 6,812 7,006 7,201 7,395 7,591 7,794

as % of total population 49.4% 49.4% 49.4% 49.3% 49.2% 49.0%

Source: Authors’ calculations using World Pop. estimates (UNPD, 2019) adjusted.

1.2.3 Poverty and measures of development

Somalia has one of the highest poverty (see Figure 1.6). Poverty is similar across
incidences in sub-Saharan Africa and IDP settlements, and nomadic and rural
widespread food insecurity, with an populations, with only urban populations
average of 69 per cent of the popula- outside Mogadishu witnessing a signifi-
tion living below the poverty line in 2018. cantly lower rate (Table 1.7). More children
Across the African content, Somalia has are likely to be living in poverty than youth
the sixth-highest incidence of poverty or the adult populations, with UNOCHA

40
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

estimating that 2.5 million children, or The issue of food poverty and food inse-
34 per cent of the entire school-age popu- curity is a particular challenge in Somalia,
lation, needed humanitarian assistance in mainly because climate-related shocks
2018 (UNOCHA, 2019). Furthermore, the impact food production. In 2020, Somalia
food consumption poverty index speaks recorded levels of global acute malnutri-
to the particular concerns related to food tion that were classed as ‘above accept-
insecurity in Somalia, where 40–50 per able’, with such malnutrition reaching crit-
cent of the population in all groups–except ical levels in Banadir and near-critical levels
urban residents outside Mogadishu, and in Hirshabelle. Moreover, it is estimated
IDPs, who are even more food-insecure – that 23 per cent of children under the age
would not be able to equal average food of 5 were suffering from malnutrition in
expenditure, even if they spent all their 2020, with this having negative effects
money on food. on children’s health and resulting in high

Table 1.7 Selected measures of poverty, 2018 (%)

Type of poverty Rural Urban Nomads Mogadishu IDPs Total
Child poverty (0–14 yrs) 76 64 71 76 80 73

Youth poverty (15–24 yrs) 70 57 77 71 69 68

Poverty incidence 73 60 72 74 76 69

Food consumption poverty 44 22 41 43 75 49

Source: High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

Figure 1.6 Regional comparison of poverty incidence

79%
76%
73%
69% 69% 68%
66% 64%
57%
51% 50% 50% 49% 50%
45% 44% 44% 43%
41% 40% 39%
38% 36%
31%

19%
10%
Mozambique

Togo
Central African Republic

Burkina Faso

Zimbabwe
Sierra Leone

Gambia, The
Comoros
Malawi
Somalia

Chad

Ethiopia
Madagascar
South Sudan
Burundi

Guinea-Bissau

Rwanda

Mali
Benin
Tanzania

Guinea
Niger
Liberia

Uganda

Senegal

Country key : SSD-South Sudan, BDI-Burundi, MDG –Madagascar, CAF –Central African Republic, COD-Democratic
Republic of the Congo, MWI-Malawi, GNB-Guinea Bissau, MOZ –Mozambique, RWA-Rwanda, LBR-Liberia, SLE-
Sierra Leone, BEN-Benin, TGO-Togo, MLI-Mali, NER-Niger, TZA-Tanzania, TCD-Chad, BFA-Burkina Faso, UGA-
Uganda, SEN-Senegal, GIN-Guinea, ETH-Ethiopia, ZWE-Zimbabwe, COM-Comoros.
Source: High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

41
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

levels of stunting, wasting, and low weight In an effort to address malnutrition,

(Directorate of National Statistics, 2020). while also encouraging school atten-
Of the 2.7 million people in Somalia facing dance in recovery situations, the World
acute food insecurity in 2021, approxi- Food Programme has been running a
mately 839,000 are estimated to be chil- school-feeding programme in Somalia
dren (FSNAU, 2021). Food insecurity has since 2003, in partnership with MoECHE.
been evidenced to have negative effects In 2021, the programme reached nearly
on educational access, with the 2019 Joint 50,000 children in 112 schools across the
Multi-Cluster Needs Assessment finding country, which is slightly lower than the
that households which were able to get numbers recorded in 2020 (Table 1.8).
enough food were more likely to keep their
children in school compared to households
that were unable to do so (REACH, 2018).

Figure 1.7 Global acute malnutrition by FMS and region, 2020

20

16
14.8
15 13.9

11.6
10.9

10
8.1

6.3

0
Somaliland South West Galmudug Jubbaland Puntland Hirshabelle Banadir

Source: FSNAU (2020), Nutrition Data Set 2020/gu

Notes: Acceptable <5%; Alert 5-9.9%; Serious 10–14.9%; 15–29.9%; Very critical >=30%.

Table 1.8 School-feeding beneficiaries by FMS, 2019–2021

2019/2020 school year 2020/2021 school year
No. of pupils enrolled No. of pupils enrolled
FMS Schools Male Female Total Schools Male Female Total

Hirshabelle 15 3,174 3,466 6,640 16 3,476 3,671 7,147

Jubbaland 56 10,118 9,298 19,416 56 10,786 10,311 21,097

Galmudug 42 7,072 8,456 15,528 27 3,469 3,908 7,377

Banadir 16 4,496 5,532 10,028 13 6,966 7,195 14,161

Total 129 24,860 26,752 51,612 112 24,697 25,085 49,782

Source: World Food Programme data, 2020.

42
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

1.2.4 Household characteristics

Access to basic services is limited among COVID-19 pandemic in terms of distance

some population groups, notably rural learning.
and nomadic communities. While poverty
and nutrition data present an overview Households are composed of an average
of the precarious situations many house- of six persons in Somalia, with the largest
holds find themselves in, infrastruc- households seen in urban areas, an
ture-related statistics allow contextual- element that can be related to high rates
ization of these obstacles and a compre- of migration to these areas. Household
hensive understanding of the capacities sizes are inflated by the high propor-
of government in social development and tions which have foster and orphan chil-
public service. It is apparent that govern- dren, illustrating more diffuse familial
ment provision of basic services is limited networks and indicating that many chil-
and that their reach does not encom- dren live with guardians rather than their
pass most rural and nomadic populations biological parents.
(see Table 1.9). This is especially relevant
when considering the new set of chal- Analysis of household characteristics
lenges which have arisen as a result of the reveals large variations in access to basic

Table 1.9 Household characteristics, 2017 (%)

Type of resident
Urban Rural Nomadic IDP Total
Household headship

male-headed households 67.2 67.3 72.0 49.9 68.8

female-headed households 32.8 32.7 28.0 50.1 31.2

Mean size of household 6.6 5.7 5.3 6.0 5.9

Households with orphans and/or foster children 31.6 23.1 24.2 n.d. 26.3

Households with access to electricity 66.2 17.2 0.1 48.2 32.9

Households with school-age children with access

to electricity 79.0 26.0 13.0 48.0 42.0

Households with access to the internet 18.6 2.3 1.2 12.9 8.7

Households with school-age children with access

to the internet 26.8 6.1 1.2 12.9 11.7

Households with access to improved water source 76.2 55.3 24.5 75.5 57.9

Households with school-age children with access

to improved drinking water 86.0 56.0 63.0 77.6 71.0

Households with access to improved toilet/latrine facilities 72.3 49.2 1.0 35.4 39.5

Households with school-age children with access

to improved toilet/latrine facilities 69.8 43.7 8.8 36.0 39.5

Households experiencing some hunger 22.0 43.0 50.0 64.6 44.9

Households with school-age children experiencing some

hunger 30.5 51.4 50.8 64.1 49.2

Source: Authors’ calculations from High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019).

43
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

necessities among population groups, with holds, which can be attributed to the
nomadic populations consistently having fact that the majority live in urban areas.
lower levels of access (Table 1.9). This can However, IDP populations have the
be viewed partly as a result of their liveli- highest rates of hunger, with over 60 per
hoods, which see the majority of nomadic cent having been short of food at least
populations only staying in one location once in the preceding 30 days (Table 1.9).
for less than six months, with less than Additionally, IDP populations have lower
1 per cent having access to electricity, access to improved toilet or latrine facil-
25 per cent having access to an improved ities than other sub-groups of the popu-
water source, and only 1 per cent having lation. This can be explained by the fact
access to improved toilet or latrine facili- that many IDP households share their
ties. While rural and urban dwellers gener- toilet facilities, as they are inhabiting
ally enjoy better access to infrastructure settlements or camps, which means their
than their nomadic counterparts, provi- toilets are not categorized as ‘improved’
sion of electricity and internet remains according to World Health Organization
low across all population groups, with standards. Interestingly, IDP families are
an average of 33 per cent of households more evenly split between female- and
having access to electricity and 9 per cent male-headed households; perhaps this is
access to the internet across the country. a symptom of displacement, which sees
males more likely to remain in the area
IDP households tend to have levels of of origin or to have been the victims of
access similar to those of urban house- conflict.

Figure 1.8 Literacy rates for ages 6 and over, 2017 (%)

80%
71% 71%

60% 57%

51%
48%
45%
43%

40%
33%
31%

20% 16%

0
Banaadir Galmudug Puntland South West Jubbaland Hirshabelle Rural Urban IDPs Nomads
State Location type

Source: High Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

44
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

In households with school-age children, In terms of literacy rates, half the popu-
results indicate improved access to infra- lation is estimated to have been literate
structure, including an improved water in 2017, regionally ranging from a low
source and electricity, across all popula- of 26 per cent in the Gedo region of
tion groups. The more worrying statistic Jubbaland, to a high of 71 per cent in
is that households with school-age chil- Banadir, as seen in Figure 1.8. This paral-
dren are more likely to experience hunger, lels the trend seen across population
again highlighting the issues of hunger groups, with the highest rates being seen
and food insecurity among children in the among urban dwellers and the lowest
country. among nomadic populations.

45
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

1.3 Macroeconomic context:

Progress has been made in rebuilding
taxation but more remains to be done
Somalia has had to rebuild both its state structure and its economy since the establish-
ment of the FGS in 2012. This has included adapting to a new economic system, which
shares revenue-generation between the FGS and FMSs. This section examines how both
the tax-collection systems and other revenue-gathering mechanisms have evolved in
the FGS and FMSs, with specific attention given to the reliance on remittances which is
prevalent in the country. It further highlights the main areas of FGS expenditure, framing
discussions of educational financing to be seen in Section 3.

1.3.1 National and per capita income: Significant national growth,

low in relative terms

GDP in Somalia is estimated to have Growth in constant GDP (in 2017 prices) is
reached almost $6 billion in 2018, having seen to be higher from 2012 to 2015 than
grown by 65 percent from under $4 billion at current prices, which indicates higher
in 2012. This demonstrates a strong inflation in 2017 than at 2018 prices, a
recovery with an average GDP growth trend that is confirmed by examining the
rate of 4.3 per cent annually (Table 1.10). Consumer Price Index.

Table 1.10 Evolution of GDP, 2012–2018

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
GDP current (US$ millions) 3,864 4,125 5,039 5,362 5,504 5,609 5,989

GDP constant (2017 prices, US$

millions) 4,586 4,762 5,023 5,255 5,486 5,609 5,893

GDP growth (%) n.d. 3.8 5.5 4.6 4.4 2.2 5.1

Per capita GDP current (US$) 326 339 403 417 416 412 428

Per capita GDP (2017 prices, US$) 387 391 402 409 415 412 421

Consumer Price Index n.d. 4.5 1.3 −1.2 0.0 5.3 3.5

Source: Central Bank of Somalia (2018).

Income per capita has grown by almost over the years, it is not clear whether this
$100 since 2012 at current prices, reaching small increase in household wealth has
a high of $428 in 2018. In constant been enough to make social services such
2017 prices, per capita GDP increased as education and health more affordable.
by $34 over the same period, the differ- Additionally, in relative terms, Somalia
ence between the real and current aver- continues to have one of the lowest per
ages absorbed by apparent inflation in capita GDPs in East Africa, falling well
the formative years (2012–2014). Although below the average of $1,061 in current
per capita GDP (2017 prices) has grown prices in 2018 (see Figure 1.9).

46
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 1.9 Comparison of current per capita GDP among East African countries, 2018 (US$)

3,141
3,000

2,500

2,000
1,684 1,708
1,516
1,500 1,416
1,061
1,000 770 772 783
503 527
500 381 428
272

0
Mozambique

Zimbabwe
Comoros
Malawi

Somalia
Burundi

Madagascar

Uganda

Ethiopia

Kenya
Rwanda

Tanzania

Zambia

Djibouti
Source: World Bank, National Accounts Data, 2021.

1.3.2 Federal government and federal state revenues

Total revenues at FGS level have 13 per cent found by the IMF to be condu-
increased 2.8 times since 2013, reaching cive to development growth globally, indi-
a total of $297 million in 2018, with cating weak tax policy and low tax rates,
58 per cent of this in tax revenue. Growth which serve to limit the state’s ability to
in foreign support has paralleled total increase revenue, and associated social
growth trends, increasing three times spending, further (Gasper, Jarmilio, and
since 2013 and varying between multilat- Wingender, 2016).
eral and bilateral donors. However, while
domestic revenues have represented most In the federal structure, each state retains
of the revenue, with a seven-year average significant levels of control over their
of 59 per cent, this is low in relative terms, public finances, most notably the right to
demonstrating a dependence of the establish their own taxes. As exhibited in
FGS on external support. The greatest Table 1.12, the amount of revenue generated
source of domestic revenue has consis- through taxes as a share of state spending
tently been taxes on international trade, varies greatly among the FMSs, ranging
largely composed of livestock,1 although from a high of close to 54 per cent in
tax streams are seen to have expanded to Jubbaland, to a low of 22 per cent in South
include taxes on goods and services and a West state. This difference is made up by
reestablishment of capital gains tax over the amount received in transfers from the
the time period considered here. Despite FGS, with a high of over 12 million received
these positive steps, the tax-to-GDP ratio in the South West state. The proportion of
in 2018, at 2.1 per cent, is far below the revenue received from the FGS demon-

1 Agriculture, including the rearing of livestock, is the largest sector in the country as well as the
largest export earner (Central Bank of Somalia, 2018)

47
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

Table 1.11 Evolution of FGS revenue, 2013–2018 (US$ millions)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Total revenue 110.8 145.2 199 167.8 260.2 297.2

Domestic revenue 69.1 84.3 113.8 112.7 137.6 172.6

Tax revenue 65 73.8 85.7 88.6 113.6 127.9

Tax on income, profit and capital gains 1.1 4.7 2.4 4 7.2

Tax on goods and services 19.4

Taxes on international trade 64.3 70.3 76.3 95 94.5

Other indirect taxes 4.8 6.4 2.9 8.1

Other taxes 3.6 4.3 7 6.5 6.8

Non-tax revenue 4.1 10.5 28.1 24.1 24 44.7

Foreign support 41.7 60.9 85.2 55.1 122.6 124.6

Bilateral 41.7 59 35.4 31.1 38.1 43.5

Multilateral 1.9 49.8 24 84.5 81.1

% Domestic revenues 62.36 58.06 57.19 67.16 52.88 58.08

Total revenues as % of GDP current 2.69 2.88 3.71 3.08 4.64 4.96

Tax revenues as % of GDP current 1.58 1.46 1.60 1.63 2.03 2.14

GDP current 4,125 5,039 5,362 5,440 5,609 5,989

Source: Central Bank of Somalia (2018).

Table 1.12 Revenues collected by FMSs, 2019 (US$)

Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West Banadir
Revenue and grants 6,476,734 5,984,825 38,431,463 21,335,204 25,641,333

Tax revenue 3,098,620 1,455,024 20,876,272 4,737,286 8,099,686

Tax revenue as % of total spending 48% 24% 54% 22% 32%

Taxes on income, profits, and capital - - 425,119 305,223 1,358,104

Taxes on payroll and workforce - 273 1,080,260 804,415

Taxes on goods and services 2,132,221 800,805 9,616,220 1,716,210 3,901,724

Taxes on international trade 499 653,946 9,644,551 1,250,727 2,839,858

Other taxes 896,950 - 110,122 329,661 -

Other revenue 68,950 - 452,322 331,050 2,026,078

Grants 3,378,114 4,529,800 17,102,867 16,597,918 15,515,568

From international organizations 2,359,034 - 11,748,887 4,288,742 -

From other governments units 1,019,080 4,529,800 5,353,980 12,309,176 15,515,568

Non-tax revenue as % of total revenue 53% 76% 46% 88% 68%

Source: FMS financial data, 2019.

48
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

strates diverse levels of dependence, meaning the amount available to states to

with Hirshabelle being reliant on these spend on social goods such as education is
transfers for over 75 per cent of its total also divergent. As such, this confirms the
revenue. Furthermore, the actual value need for an FMS-level approach to educa-
of total revenue is also hugely variable, tional financing and planning.

1.3.3 Remittances: Near-universalism and high levels of dependence

Somalia is dependent on internal and above $1,432 million, or 19 per cent of

external remittances, with nearly a fifth GDP in 2018. International remittances
of its GDP coming from remittances. are seen to have a significant impact on
Most Somali households receive remit- education and health expenditure, with
tances, with 62 per cent receiving inter- households that receive international
national remittances once per month in remittances being 67 per cent more likely
2017 (World Bank, 2019a). Remittances to increase expenditure on education than
are therefore the main source of income non-recipient households (World Bank,
for many Somali households, with fami- 2019a). With one of the greatest impacts
lies receiving an average of $743 per of COVID-19 expected to be a drop in inter-
year in international remittances in 2017, national remittances, it will be important
1.8 times the average GDP per capita in to monitor, and where necessary compen-
the same year (World Bank, 2019a). As sate for, decreases in levels of educational
seen in Figure 1.10, remittances stood at accessibility as a result.

Figure 1.10 Remittance transfers, 2013-2018, amount (US$ millions) and percentage of GDP

1,523

1,500 24% 24% 24% 25%

1500 23% 25

21% 1,432
1,424
1,400 19% 20%
1400 1,359 20
1,348

1,300
1,300
1300 15%
15

1,200
1200 10%
10

1,100
1100 5%
5

1,000
1000 0%
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Source: Central Bank of Somalia (2018).

Remittances (in million USD) Remittances % of GDP

49
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

1.3.4 Federal government and federal state expenditure

Government expenditure has grown by grants. Project expenditure, including

over 2.5 times since the emergence of the spending on development and infrastruc-
FGS. This has been driven by an increase ture, has seen immense growth, from
in the remuneration of employees and a being almost non-existent in the first
more than fourfold increase in the amount years of the FGS.
transferred to the FMSs in the form of

Table 1.13 Evolution of FGS expenditure, 2013–2018 (US$ millions and %)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Total government expenditure 117.5 151.1 199.0 171.0 245.7 297.0

Recurrent government spending 117.5 150.9 184.5 165.1 228.0 263.0

Remuneration of employees 50.4 77.2 79.1 55.1 124.6 145.0

Use of goods and services 56.1 57.6 75.8 64.4 67.2 76.4

Consumption of fixed capital 1.0 2.8

Transfers to the FMSs 7.5 10.1 15.2 9.4 23.4 32.9

Contingency 3.5 3.8 2.7 2.1 4.0 4.4

Repayments of arrears and advances 0.0 2.2 11.7 34.1 7.8 1.5

As % of GDP constant 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.6% 0.1% 0.0%

Project expenditure 0.0 0.2 14.5 5.9 17.7 34.0

Remuneration of employees 0.3 0.9

Use of goods and services 12.0 20.3

Purchase of non-financial assets 5.4 12.7

Grants 0.0 0.2

Project spending as % of total 0.0% 0.1% 7.3% 3.5% 7.2% 11.5%

Total spending as % of GDP constant 2.9% 3.0% 3.7% 3.1% 4.4% 5.0%

Development as % of GDP constant 0.0% 0.0% 0.3% 0.1% 0.3% 0.6%

Recurrent as % of GDP constant 2.9% 3.0% 3.4% 3.0% 4.1% 4.4%

Total as % of revenue 106.1% 96.1% 100.0% 101.9% 94.4% 99.9%

Balance −6.7 −5.9 0 −3.2 14.5 0.2

Balance as % of GDP constant −0.2% −0.1% 0.0% −0.1% 0.3% 0.0%

Source: Central Bank of Somalia (2018).

Recurrent expenditure continues to domi- ture, at 29 per cent in 2018, followed by

nate spending, accounting for 88 per consumption of fixed capital and repay-
cent of total public spending, with remu- ment of arrears and advances, at 1 per
neration of employees representing the cent and 0.5 per cent respectively. At
bulk, at 48 per cent of total spending. 5 per cent, total spending as a percentage
Goods and services represent the second- of GDP is incredibly low, indicating the
highest proportion of recurrent expendi- limited size and reach of the FGS; this is

50
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

reflective of the current process of state category across all states, reaching a high
reconstruction and the federal nature of of 90 per cent in Galmudug (see Table 1.14).
the system. Spending has been consis- Project expenditures are non-existent
tently between 100 per cent and 90 per across all states considered here, poten-
cent of GDP from 2013 to 2018, indicating tially as a result of the federal system,
an overall balanced budget with a slight which sees infrastructure investments
surplus in some years. made at the FGS level. All states spend
above 95 per cent of their total revenue,
Expenditure at the FMS level tends to indicating a maximization of inflows. Only
follow a similar pattern, with remunera- Jubbaland has a significant deficit, with
tion of employees making up the greatest the other states maintaining surpluses or

Table 1.14 Expenditure by the FMSs, 2018–2020 (US$)

State Expenditure classification 2018 2019 2020
Total expenditure - 226,567 1,140,812

Total recurrent expenditure - 226,567 1,140,812

Galmudug Remuneration of employees 220,007 994,740

As % of total expenditure 97% 87%

Goods and services 6,560 146,072

Total expenditure 2,000 6,000 446,882

Total recurrent expenditure 2,000 6,000 446,882

Hirshabelle Remuneration of employees 2,000 6,000 346,056

As % of total expenditure 100% 100% 77%

Goods and services 100,826

Total expenditure 637,766 677,644 822,504

Total recurrent expenditure 637,766 677,644 822,504

Jubbaland Remuneration of employees 530,292 578,121 616,713

As % of total expenditure 83% 85% 75%

Goods and services 107,473 99,523 205,791

Total expenditure 49,886 176,554 597,806

Total recurrent expenditure 49,886 176,554 597,806

South West Remuneration of employees 49,886 176,554 481,042

As % of total expenditure 100% 100% 80%

Goods and services 116,764

Total expenditure 24,463,571 25,513,344 30,132,770

Total recurrent expenditure 24,463,571 25,513,344 30,132,770

Banadir Remuneration of employees 11,811,225 12,366,422 16,411,063

As % of total expenditure 48% 48% 54%

Goods and services 4,797,697 5,378,168 5,598,633

Source: FMS financial data, 2021.

51
Chapter 1. Socio-demographic and macroeconomic context

slight deficits. Without GDP breakdown at similar pattern, with limited government
the FMS level, it is not possible to analyse presence in the economy and a minimal
expenditure in terms of overall spending. tax system, especially given the high
However, as a result of the nascent nature levels of fragility and low levels of acces-
of the FMSs, one would expect to see a sibility in some states.

1.3.5 Public debt: Commitment to debt repayment higher than education spending

Somalia is classified as ‘debt-distressed’ of all spending from 2013 to 2018, far

in 2021; one of only seven low-income exceeding the average percentage of GDP
countries globally to be labelled as such spent on education, as will be discussed
(World Bank and IMF, 2019). Total debt further in Section 3, with the actual value
exceeded GDP in 2013, and has since of debt increasing by 19 per cent over the
sat above the 80 per cent mark. Most of same period. However, positive progress
this debt is owed to bilateral lenders, was made in 2020 when Somalia reached
majority Paris club creditors including the the heavily indebted poor country (HIPC)
Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, decision-point (World Bank, 2020a). As
and the United States (Central Bank of a result, debt is expected to decrease in
Somalia, 2018). Repayment of public debt coming years, lifting some of this finan-
has represented an average of 6 per cent cial burden.

Table 1.15 Evolution of external public debt, 2013–2018 (US$ millions)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Multilateral 1,556 1,507 1,468 1,442 1,504 1,520

Bilateral 3,566 2,887 2,946 2,935 3,081 3,714

Total 4,394 4,394 4,414 4,377 4,585 5,235

Percentage of GDP current 106.5% 87.2% 82.3% 79.5% 81.7% 87.4%

Source: Central Bank of Somalia (2018).

52
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

1.4 Chapter summary

The macroeconomic picture that emerges them to access of basic services. There is
of Somalia through the preceding discus- hope, however, as seen in the expansion
sion reflects the rebuilding of the Somali of the national tax system, the strength-
state. While great strides have been ening of the system of transfers to the
made in terms of overall revenue and tax FMSs, and the anticipated decrease in
systems since the establishment of the public debt. Somalia will need to continue
FGS, this government continues to be these positive trends in order to main-
relatively small in terms of its economic tain its progress towards establishing
capacity and presence across the country. an economy which is able to support the
The majority of household spending education system at the scale its popu-
continues to sit outside the federal tax lation demands. It is further hoped that
system, meaning that levels of such Somalia and its development partners will
household spending are low in proportion be able to mitigate the negative economic
to GDP. To fill some of this gap, the popu- effects of COVID-19 in order to ensure it
lation has looked towards both internal does not cause a reversal in these positive
and international remittances to help growth trends.

53
 Chapter 2
Access, internal
efficiency, and
out-of-school children
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

The purpose of this section is to look retrospectively at the recent patterns of access
(intake), participation, and completion in general education, and to better understand
performance and efficiency from a quantitative point of view. This section focuses on
different disparities within the general education system and is divided into four main
sections, the first discussing the structure of education and the various programmes
delivered in the presented structure. This section also addresses data requirements and
availability, data collection, and limitations that the present data-management practices
have created as far as this section is concerned. The second section discusses access
patterns and internal efficiency, as well as out-of-school children, focusing on the evolu-
tion of associated parameters and comparing Somalia with other countries of similar
standing. The third section focuses on inclusive education, looking at the provisions
of the Special Educational Needs Policy, access to education for children with special
needs, and adaptation of schools to accommodate such children. The final section looks
at equity in and exclusion from general education, assessing differentials in terms of
gender, location, and socio-economic status.

56
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.1 Structure of education in Somalia

Somalia welcomes a new direction in family context’ (UIS, 2011). This level
education with the adoption of new legis- of education lasts for three years and
lation. The Somali Parliament adopted has a theoretical entry age of 3 years.
the General Education Act of the Federal According to the General Education
Republic of Somalia on 8 February 2021. Act, 2021, the purpose of pre-primary
The Act targets the delivery of education education is (1) to teach the basics of
at lower and upper primary, secondary, and Islam and instill in children a love of
higher education levels. Until the adop- Islam; (2) to instill in children good
tion of this Act, the education system was behaviour, such as respect, kindness,
regulated by the General Education Act friendship, and safety of property; (3) to
of 30 July 2017. At the FGS level, educa- strengthen their physical, mental and
tion is managed by the MoECHE. In each emotional well-being; (4) to encourage
of the FMSs, the ministries of education creativity, interaction with their peers
and the Banadir Regional Administration and love of people and country; and (5)
(Education Directorate) are responsible to teach reading, writing and numbers.
for the provision of education at the state b) Lower primary is compulsory and is
level. The regional education officers and intended for children aged 6–9 years.
quality assurance officers provide support The entry requirement for this level
to strengthen the education system at the that children have attained the age of
regional level, while at the district level, the 6 years. Lower primary education lasts
district education officers are expected to four years, i.e. Grades 1–4, and does not
oversee the school system. Until 2020, the result in a certification or diploma.
sector had a 6+3+3 system, i.e. six years of c) Upper primary is compulsory and is
lower primary, three years of upper primary, intended for children aged 10–13 years.
and three years of secondary, in parallel It covers Grades 5–8, with successful
to a 4+4+4 system, i.e. four years of lower completers getting a Level 1 certifi-
primary, four years of upper primary, and cate at the end of Grade 8. Apart from
four years of secondary. The new law has learners who join Grade 5 having been
harmonized the entire education system to promoted from Grade 4, learners who
a structure of four years of lower primary complete the Learning and Literacy
education, four years of upper primary, Programme, a non-formal programme
and four years of secondary. Accordingly, for adults aged 18 or over, can take an
the education system is divided into the entrance exam to join Grade 5.
following three orientations: d) General secondary education is
intended for children or adults who
1. General education, which comprises have a Level 1 certificate. It has a
seven sub-sectors: theoretical entry age of 14 years, and
a theoretical duration of four years,
a) Early childhood education encom- going from Form 1 to Form 4. Students
passes programmes that are ‘typi- who successfully complete this level of
cally designed with a holistic approach education are awarded a certificate of
to support children’s early cognitive, secondary education.
physical, social and emotional devel- e) Higher education is the last stage of
opment and introduce young children formal education and can be accessed
to organized instruction outside of the by students who have completed their

57
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

general secondary education or tech- grade levels in the formal stream and
nical secondary education, or who have the third covering the equivalent of two
successfully graduated from Islamic years, with the minimum entry age for
institutes or professional schools. At the first level being 18 years.
this level, successful students are
awarded Bachelor’s degrees, which 2. Religious education, which is divided
range from three to four years. into three components:
f) Alternative basic education (ABE) is
a formal education stream parallel to a) Integrated Quaranic schools (IQSs) are
general primary education, with an pre-primary education institutions with
entry age of 9 years, and which allows a theoretical starting age of 3 years
learners to sit the Primary Examination and a duration of three years. Learners
at the end of the cycle. The ABE who complete IQS can transition to
programme is a modification of the lower primary school. The content
formal primary school Grade 1–8 cycle. delivered in IQSs is oriented towards
It offers a flexible learning opportunity religious knowledge and preparation of
in that it enables students to complete learners for primary school.
primary education in only four years b) Level 1 Islamic institute is a non-formal
instead of the stipulated eight years. education institution which provides
It is characterized by a condensed upper primary education. It has an entry
syllabus, a faster learning process, age of 13 years and lasts two years.
flexibility in the learning process and This programme can only be accessed
calendar, and multiple entry and exit by students who have completed the
points. The ABE programme has four Halaqat programme.2 Students who
levels, each level covering compe- complete Level 1 programmes at Islamic
tences equivalent to two grade levels institutes are awarded the Islamic
in the formal stream. primary certificate and can only transi-
g) Adult basic education is an adult tion to other Islamic institutes for Level
education programme targeting young 2 programmes.
people who have dropped out of school c) Level 2 Islamic institute lasts for four
or who missed it altogether. It is a modi- years, after which a certificate can be
fication of the formal primary school awarded. It runs parallel to general
Grade 1–8 cycle. It offers a flexible secondary education, and awards an
learning opportunity in that it only lasts Islamic secondary education certificate.
three years instead of the stipulated
eight years of formal primary educa- 3. Technical and vocational education,
tion. It is characterized by a condensed which is divided into four sub-sectors:
syllabus, a faster learning process,
flexibility in the learning process and a) Vocational training institutes have a
calendar, and multiple entry and exit theoretical entry age of 18 years, require
points. The adult programme has three at least a lower primary certificate or
levels, the first two covering learning a numeracy and literacy programme
competences equivalent to three certificate (for a programme of

2 Halaqat is a religious gathering or meeting for the study of Islam and the Quran in mosques.

58
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

between 3 and 12 months), and have a enrolment age 18 years. They provide
duration of one to two years. training for future professionals and for
b) Technical secondary education is a Level teachers who wish to teach at all levels
2 programme requiring a Level 1 comple- of the education system except for
tion certificate. The minimum age of entry higher education.
is 14 years of age. It is centred around
technical areas of knowledge, focusing This division is shown graphically in
on subjects like engineering, fishing, Figure 2.1.
and agriculture. The programme has a
duration of four years, with successful Annex 1 shows how programmes are struc-
completers being awarded a technical tured in the 2021 General Education Act
secondary certificate. (MoECHE, 2021) published by the MoECHE,
c) Professional schools run parallel to including their minimum entrance require-
technical secondary education, have ments, duration, and age of entry. The
14 years as the theoretical age of entry, details confirm that the Somali education
and focus on subjects such as nursing. system structure is in line with Sustainable
The programme can last for two or Development Goal (SDG) 4, which aims at
three years and awards a professional ensuring compulsory basic education for
secondary certificate to successful all, as well as access to affordable tertiary
completers. education, as shown by its advocacy of flex-
d) Colleges and institutes are dedicated to ible learning pathways and different tracks.
the training of the teaching workforce Lower and upper primary schools are
and other professionals. Programmes compulsory, and multiple channels exist for
in these institutions last two years, with families to access good-quality education
the minimum entry requirement being a for their children, offering multiple avenues
secondary certificate, and the minimum to reach tertiary education.

Figure 2.1 Structure of the Somali education system, 2021

AGE
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

ADULT BASIC EDUCATION TECHNICAL SECONDARY

1–2–3 4–5–6 7–8 1 2 3 4

ECE/IQS PRIMARY EDUCATION

GEN. SECONDARY EDUCATION
HIGHER EDUCATION
EXAM

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
EXAM

Lower Primary Upper Primary

PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS Bachelor’s Degree
ABE
1 2 3 COLLEGES &
1–2 3–4 5–6 7–8 INSTITUTES
2–3 years
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 1 2
ISLAMIC INSTITUTES

1 2 3 4 Diploma
Numeracy & Vocational Job
Literacy Training Institute Market 3–4 years
(3–12 months) (1–2 years)

Halaqat Islamic Institutes

(2 years)

LEVEL 0 LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

Official entrance age: 9–16 years Minimum entrance age: 13 years Minimum entrance age: 18 years

Source: MoECHE.

59
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

2.2 Access, internal efficiency, and

out-of-school children in general education

This sub-section presents access patterns and internal efficiency, as well as out-of-
school children, focusing on the evolution of intake rates, completion, and repetition.
It covers these parameters in all the FMSs, namely Banadir Regional Administration,
Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubbaland, and South West state.

2.2.1 Schools and enrolment rates: Private providers dominate service delivery
in the education sector

Public or publicly supported schools were some form of financial support from govern-
attended by 4 in 10 learners at primary level ment, especially the ministries of education
and 1 in 4 at secondary level. School owner- in the FMSs. They are registered as ‘public’
ship in Somalia can be categorized into three schools within the Education Management
groups, namely public, publicly supported Information System (EMIS). The other cate-
(or ‘community’), and private. Public schools gory is private schools, which could be run
were first recognized in 2019; the term by the community, local NGOs, or interna-
relates to schools owned and managed by tional NGOs. Table 2.1 shows the distribu-
the ministries of education in the federal tion of schools by type of provider, educa-
states. All teachers in these schools are tional level, FMS, and region in 2020. At
paid entirely from the public coffers. The primary level, the majority of schools (6 in
second category includes schools receiving 10) are privately owned and/or managed,

Table 2.1 Distribution of schools by type of school and level of education, 2020 (%)
FMS Region Primary Secondary
Publicly Publicly
Private supported Public Private supported Public
Banadir Banadir 87 10 3 90 7 3

Galmudug Galgaduud 27 72 1 36 60 4

Mudug 29 68 3 43 55 2

Total 29 69 2 40 56 4

Hirshabelle Hiraan 61 37 2 85 15 0

Middle Shabelle 20 79 1 59 38 3

Total 40 58 2 76 23 1

Jubbaland Gedo 24 75 1 20 73 7

Lower Jubba 36 58 6 18 67 15

Middle Jubba NA NA NA NA NA NA

Total 30 66 4 20 67 13

South West Bakool 35 62 3 67 0 33

Bay 40 58 2 48 48 4

Lower Shabelle 64 34 2 45 53 2

Total 51 47 3 47 49 4

All FMSs 58 39 3 73 22 5

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020) and MoECHE teacher department list (2019, 2020).

60
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

and only a tiny minority (3 per cent) are cent in Lower Jubba region. The move to
fully public, while 39 per cent are publicly provide more support to schools that are
supported, bringing the total proportion of not owned by government is perhaps one
schools which the government has a hand in that will enhance stability as far as service
running to 42 per cent. There is stark vari- delivery is concerned, because schools can
ation between the regions in the propor- then be accountable to the government,
tion of private schools present, ranging as opposed to the current situation, where
from 9 in 10 schools in Banadir to 2 in 10 in they have a high degree of autonomy.
Middle Shabelle. A similar pattern is exhib-
ited among secondary schools, where Figure 2.2 further shows the diver-
nearly three-quarters of the schools are sity of school configurations across
privately owned, with only a paltry 5 per the four FMSs and Banadir Regional
cent fully owned by the public. As with Administration, based on the three cate-
primary schools, there are large variations gories of schools. There are large differ-
in the share of privately owned secondary ences between the proportion of public
schools, with 90 per cent of schools in schools in certain regions. For example,
Banadir being private, compared to 18 per only 1 per cent of Galmuduud’s primary

Figure 2.2 Distribution of schools by type of school and level of education, 2020 (%)
Primary

5 FMS 3 39% 58%

Total 3 46% 51%

South West

Lower Shabelle 2 34% 64%

Bay 2 58% 40%

Bakool 3 62% 35%

Total 4% 66% 30%

Jubbaland

Middle Jubba
Lower Jubba 6% 58% 36%

Gedo 1 75% 24%

Total 2 58% 40%

Hirshabelle

Middle Shabelle 1 79% 20%

Hiraan 2 37% 61%

Total 2 69% 29%

Banadir Galmudug

Mudug 3 68% 29%

Galgaduud 1 72% 27%

Total 3 10% 87%

Banadir 3 10% 87%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Public Publicly-supported Private

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020) and MoECHE teacher department list (2019, 2020).

61
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

Secondary

5 FMS 5% 22% 73%

Total 4% 49% 47%

South West

Lower Shabelle 2 53% 45%

Bay 4% 48% 48%

Bakool 33% 67%

Total 13% 67% 20%

Jubbaland

Middle Jubba
Lower Jubba 15% 67% 18%

Gedo 7% 73% 20%

Total 1 23% 76%

Hirshabelle

Middle Shabelle 3 38% 59%

Hiraan 15% 85%

Total 4% 56% 40%

Banadir Galmudug

Mudug 2 55% 43%

Galgaduud 4% 60% 36%

Total 3 7% 90%

Banadir 3 7% 90%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Public Publicly-supported Private

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020) and MoECHE teacher department list (2019, 2020).

schools are public, while 33 per cent of rates in the three sub-levels. For instance,
Bakool’s secondary ones are. lower primary schools experienced a 22 per
cent drop, upper primary schools a 9 per
The pattern of enrolment levels in the cent drop, and secondary schools a drop of
recent years is marked by periods of 18 per cent. The third phase is character-
growth, regression, and recovery. As shown ized by a rebound in enrolment, with a total
in Table 2.2, enrolment in the four FMSs increase of 28 per cent, mostly attributable
and Banadir Regional Administration grew to upper primary and secondary schools,
by 5 per cent between 2016 and 2017. This whose enrolment rates increased by 43 per
growth was uneven at different levels of cent and 47 per cent, respectively, while
education, with secondary growing by only lower primary schools saw an increase of
1 per cent, in contrast to the 10 per cent 8 per cent. This recovery also saw public and
growth in upper primary. The second phase publicly supported schools register strong
of evolution is observed between 2017 and comeback. The number of children enrolled
2019, with a sharp drop in enrolment in in public and publicly supported schools
2019, possibly due to the strong drought increased sixfold at lower primary level,
that occurred in 2017. The three levels of more than tripled in upper primary schools,
education saw a 19 per cent drop in enrol- and more than doubled in upper primary
ment between 2017 and 2019, with diverse schools in the course of a single year.

62
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 2.2 Student enrolment in general education by level and type of school, 2016–2020
(N. and % private)
2016 2017 2019 2020
Total 194,173 202,656 157,471 170,594
Public - - 5,021 16,818
Lower primary Publicly supported 25,502 29,370 12,469 81,820
Private 168,671 173,286 139,981 71,956
% of private 87% 86% 89% 42%
Total 102,752 113,018 103,138 147,139
Public - - 3,634 11,200
Upper primary Publicly supported 8,269 10,876 7,954 28,879
Private 94,483 102,142 91,550 107,060
% of private 92% 90% 89% 73%
Total 103,330 104,473 86,056 126,768
Public - - 1,990 7,593
Secondary Publicly supported 8,037 8,592 7,317 14,269
Private 95,293 95,881 76,749 104,906
% of private 92% 92% 89% 83%
Total 400,255 420,147 346,665 444,501
Public - - 10,645 35,611
Total Publicly supported 41,808 48,838 27,740 124,968
Private 358,447 371,309 308,280 283,922
% of private 90% 88% 89% 64%
Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020) and MoECHE teacher department list (2019, 2020).

Figure 2.3 Share of children enrolled, by type Apart from the recovery exhibited in
of school, 2016–2020 Table 2.2, there has been a steady increase
in the proportion of students enrolled
Lower primary

42% in public or publicly supported schools

87% 86% 89% in the four FMSs and Banadir Regional
48% Administration. As illustrated in Figure
13% 14%
8%
3% 10% 2.3, the proportion of students enrolled
in schools receiving any form of support
Upper primary

from government increased significantly

73%
92% 90% 89% at lower primary level and considerably at
upper primary and secondary level. In 2016,
20%
8% 10%
8%
4% 8%
only 13 per cent of enrolled students were
attending public lower primary schools, and
8 per cent in upper primary and secondary.
Secondary

92% 92% 89% 83% In contrast, the 2020 figures show that
government reached nearly 60 per cent of
9% 11% learners in lower primary schools, 28 per
8% 8% 2% 6%
2016 2017 2019 2020 cent in upper primary and 17 per cent in
secondary schools, giving credence to the
Public Publicly-supported Private
efforts of the FGS to strengthen devolved
Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020) and MoECHE
teacher department list (2019, 2020). services and consolidate education

63
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

services in the country. Notably, enrolment than tripled to 10 per cent in 2020; at upper
in public schools has also increased since primary level, the share doubled from 4 per
the introduction of the new categorization cent in 2019 to 8 per cent in 2020; and at
of schools. While strictly publicly owned secondary level, the share tripled, rising
schools enrolled 3 per cent of learners at from 2 per cent in 2019 to 6 per cent in
lower primary level in 2019, the share more 2010.

2.2.2 Enrolment rates: Despite recovery, school coverage remains low

Enrolment rates remain low, showing that low across all three levels of education,
many children eligible for school are not which may be indicative of the long-lasting
getting opportunity to learn. The admin- effects of the protracted civil conflict in
istrative data show that there were nearly the country. Nevertheless, Somalia must
171,000 learners enrolled in lower primary now find a way out of this conflict if the
schools in 2020 against the eligible popu- promise for universal education is to ever
lation of almost 1.2 million,3 resulting in a be fulfilled in the country.
gross enrolment ratio (GER) of 14 per cent
(Table 2.3). A similar pattern is apparent There exist large disparities in GER
in upper primary and secondary schools, between the FMSs, at all three levels of
where the GER is 14 per cent at both levels. education across the years of analysis. For
This means that the inferred capacity instance, in lower primary schools in 2016,
of the education system is far too low to there is a 30.9-percentage-point gap
accommodate all the eligible children. between the GER in Banadir (39 per cent,
Across the years, there has been a general highest) and South West state (8.3 per
decline in the GER at lower primary level. cent, lowest) (Table 2.4).
It dropped nearly 4 percentage points
between 2016 and 2020, and even with the Somalia’s low enrolment ratios are not
recovery between 2019 and 2020, this level similar to those of its peer countries from
of education has yet to get back to the GER East Africa. After years of effort towards
levels observed before the 2017 drought. the expansion of access to basic educa-
In upper primary schools, the GER seems tion, African countries have recorded
to have resumed its initial gradual rise. significant progress in the recent past.
The 2017 drought, which saw food insecu- Four comparative East African countries
rity and poverty rise across the FMSs, may reported a combined GER of 109 per cent
have pushed families to take their children in 2020 for primary schools, compared
out of school; hence the drop in the GER in to 14 per cent registered by Somalia.
2019. It is important to note, however, that Although the gap is lower at secondary
even before the drought, the GER was quite level, the rate of the comparator countries

3 Note that the school-age population displayed for the calculation of the respective GERs
corresponds to the year of the beginning of each learning cycle. This means that the population
presented for the calculation of the 2016 school year corresponds to the total population for
the specific age range in 2015; the population presented for the calculation of the GER in
2017 corresponds to 2016; and so on. Also note that the totals presented correspond to the four
FMSs, with the exclusion of Middle Jubba, where no information on students was available, so the
population estimates were adjusted to reflect this.

64
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 2.3 Gross enrolment ratio by education level, 2016–2020

2016 2017 2019 2020
Lower primary

No. of students 194,173 202,656 157,471 170,594

School-age population 1,079,297 1,110,065 1,168,304 1,196,188

GER 18.0% 18.3% 13.5% 14.3%

Upper primary

No. of students 102,752 113,018 103,138 147,139

School-age population 908,757 933,526 991,466 1,022,209

GER 11.3% 12.1% 10.4% 14.4%

Secondary

No. of students 110,018 111,533 86,056 126,768

School-age population 804,824 826,467 866,675 888,482

GER 13.7% 13.5% 9.9% 14.3%

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020).

Table 2.4 Gross enrolment ratio by state, 2016–2020 (%)

2016 2017 2019 2020
Lower primary
Banadir 39.0 37.7 26.7 24.1

Galmudug 9.6 9.3 10.5 10.3

Hirshabelle 12.5 12.3 9.4 7.6

Jubbaland 30.6 33.7 26.6 26.6

South West 8.3 8.7 4.7 9.1

Upper primary
Banadir 36.8 38.5 32.3 46.4

Galmudug 6.1 7.0 6.9 7.9

Hirshabelle 5.2 5.0 5.3 5.1

Jubbaland 10.8 12.7 10.1 9.7

South West 3.6 3.9 3.3 7.0

Secondary (General)
Banadir 50.6 49.4 38.1 57.4

Galmudug 3.9 4.0 5.2 5.9

Hirshabelle 5.5 5.2 4.5 4.0

Jubbaland 4.6 5.1 4.3 4.0

South West 4.0 3.9 2.3 4.6

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020).

65
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

is three times higher than that of Somalia, tries have closer estimates. For instance,
with the former reporting a combined Eritrea has a primary GER of 68 per cent,
GER of 41 per cent compared to 14 per while Madagascar has a secondary GER
cent for Somalia (Figure 2.4). Some coun- of 34 per cent.

Figure 2.4 International comparison of GER by level of education

134.1%

116.4%
109%

68.4%

47.7%
41.2%
35.4% 34.6%

14.3% 14.3%

Primary Secondary (General)

Somalia 4 FMS & Banadir Eritrea (2018) Mozambique (2019)

Madagascar (2019) Comparison countries

Source: EMIS (2020); UIS (2021).

2.2.3 Internal efficiency of the general education system

2.2.3.1 Schooling profile: Fairly good grades presented in a schooling profile

retention amid low access rates are calculated by dividing the number of
non-repeaters in each grade by the popu-
While GER is a good indicator for gauging lation for the theoretical age of the said
the system’s enrolment capacity for grade, so as not to inflate the quotient by
different age groups and educational repetition. For the calculation of the intake
levels, it fails to present a picture of rates, administrative data from the 2016,
schooling patterns. Cross-sectional 2017, 2019, and 2020 school censuses
schooling profiles, such as those in were used, together with Somalia’s
presented in Figure 2.5, provide a visual UN-adjusted population obtained from
representation of school careers, and WorldPop unconstrained estimates,4
allow for comparisons of access with which were broken down by applying the
completion. The intake rates in each of the Sprague multipliers.5

4 WorldPop is an organization that provides open, high-resolution geospatial data on population

distribution. Information on the different methodologies they use can be found here:
www.worldpop.org/methods/top_down_constrained_vs_unconstrained
5 The Sprague multipliers is a data interpolation technique that takes five-year age groups and breaks
them down to single years of age, which can be then used to reconstruct school-appropriate age
groups for any administrative unit. See Gagnon & Vargas, 2021.

66
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Access to school in Somalia is charac- possibly as a result of the protracted

terized by low intake rates and signif- effects of the 2017 drought. What is
icant loss of learners from all grades also observable from the two schooling
across the years. The impact of the profiles is the general decline in the intake
2017 drought cannot be over-empha- rates as the grades advance. In 2016, the
sized, its consequences on patterns of intake rate at the end of primary school
access and completion across the levels drops to 10 per cent, implying that half of
of general education being quite evident the children who begin primary school are
in Figure 2.5, which shows an evolution unlikely to see the end of this cycle, and
of the cross-sectional schooling profile by end of lower primary, 2 in 10 children
for Somalia in 2016 and 2020. The gross who began school have dropped out. The
intake rates are 20 per cent and 17 per 2020 schooling profile is characterized by
cent in 2016 and 2020 respectively, irregularities across the grades, possibly
confirming that the low averages seen indicating a pattern of return to school by
in the GER are not only a function of the the older children first. For instance, the
loss of children from school, but a residual intake at Grades 7 and 8 is much higher
of low access. The intake of 20 per cent than those of preceding grades. This
in 2016 shows that 4 in 5 children antic- could also be the effect of non-declared
ipated from the eligible generation did repeaters, since the intake rates are
not enter school, and this drops in 2020, computed based on non-repeaters.

Figure 2.5 Evolution of cross-sectional schooling profile, 2016 and 2020 (%)

20%
18%
17% 17%
16% 16%
15% 15%
17% 14%
13% 13% 13%
14%
13% 13% 13% 13%
12% 12%
11% 11%
10%

7%

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Lower primary Upper primary Secondary (General)

2016 2020
Source: EMIS (2016, 2020).

Contrasting the schooling profile from (see Figure 2.6). The intake rate from the
the administrative source with the 2018 2018 DHS for instance is 51 per cent,
Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), compared to 17 per cent in 2020. This
which allows the construction of a prob- disparity might be caused by multiple
abilistic schooling profile for 2018, there reasons. One is that the information from
are stark disparities in the access levels the 2020 school census is incomplete,
but similar patterns in general retention with many schools failing to report infor-

67
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

mation. Another reason may be the quality 59 per cent and 37 per cent, respectively.
of the interviews conducted during This difference is even bigger between
the DHS. The results show a big differ- primary and secondary, with a drop from
ence between lower and upper primary, an average GER of 48 per cent to just
with the average level for each being 5 per cent.

Figure 2.6 Probabilistic schooling profile, 2018 (%)

69%

59%
51%
55% 42% 40%

34%
32%

4% 5% 6%
3%

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Lower primary Upper primary Secondary (General)

2018
Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018.

Table 2.5 Grade-specific GER according to cific GER for the first and last grade for
different data sources (%) each educational level, both from admin-
Administrative data istrative sources and from the 2018 DHS.
DHS 2018 2016 2020 It also reflects the change in both indica-
Lower primary
tors from 2016 to 2020, according to the
administrative data.
Grade 1 51.2 20.3 16.9

Grade 4 68.7 15.7 13.0

2.2.3.2 School life expectancy:
Upper primary Insufficient schooling to guarantee
Grade 5 33.8 12.8 13.3 functional literacy
Grade 8 39.7 10.0 16.6
An average child in Somalia receives
Secondary
less than two years of schooling, with
Form 1 3.1 14.2 13.3
a clear advantage for boys over girls.
Form 4 6.3 7.3 16.4 School life expectancy is the number of
Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018; EMIS years of learning children of school age
2016, 2020. expect to receive in their lifetime, under
the assumption that during that period
This difference between the adminis- enrolment rates will remain unchanged.
trative school census data and the data (For an explanation of how school life
obtained from the DHS is also shown in expectancy is calculated, see Box 2.1.) As
Table 2.5, which presents the grade-spe- expected from the low enrolment ratios

68
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

observed in 2020, children of school to the education sector have recorded

age can expect to receive an average of higher school life expectancy. Compared
1.72 years of education, against the ideal to its peers in the region, Somalia has the
of twelve years of primary and secondary lowest school life expectancy, as well as
schooling. Moreover, with the gender the lowest investment in education (educa-
bias against girls on the enrolment ratios, tion spending as a percentage of GDP),
girls can expect to receive less education with the gap between Somalia and its
(1.48 years) than boys (1.95 years). To put peers quite stark.
this into perspective, boys can expect to
spend 30 per cent more time in school Figure 2.7 School life expectancy by gender,
than girls, as shown in Figure 2.7. 2020 (years)

1.76
This low school life expectancy demon- 1.62
strates how far back the civil war put the 1.48
education system in Somalia and also
signals the need for the next phases of
sector planning to dedicate a great amount
of effort not only to expanding access to
education for the eligible population, but
also to ensuring that children can stay in
school. Attention also needs to be paid to
the gender differentials observed in the life
Female Male Total
expectancy. As shown in Figure 2.8, coun-
tries that have committed more resources Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020).

Figure 2.8 Education expenditure vs school life expectancy in selected East African countries

12
Malawi Burundi
Rwanda (2019)
School Life Expectancy (years)

(2019)
Comoros (2019)
10 (2018)
Mozambique
Madagascar Tanzania (2017)
(2019) (2019)
8
Ethiopia
(2015)

2
Somalia
5 FMS
(2020)
0
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%

Expenditure in education as a % of GDP

Source: EMIS, 2020; UIS (2021)

69
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

BOX 2.1

Method for calculating school life expectancy

School life expectancy (SLE) is the average number of years a student is expected to
spend in the education system, should the enrolment patterns prevailing at the time
they enter school be applied to their individual experience, and is constructed by
adding up all the age-specific enrolment rates for the education system as a whole.
It can also be calculated for individual levels of education. Its purpose is to ‘show the
overall level of development of an educational system in terms of the average number
of years of schooling that the education system offers to the eligible population,
including those who never enter school’ (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2009).

The formula to calculate this indicator is presented below:

t
y n Ei
SLEa = ∑ i = a t , where
Pi
y
SLEa is the school life expectancy at an age a in year t;
t
Ei is the enrolment of the population of age i (for i = a, a+1, …, n) in school year t;
n denotes the theoretical upper age-limit of schooling; and
t
Pi is the population of age i in school year t. Age of Level l denotes the total school-
age population of that level.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2009: 7).

2.2.3.3 Internal efficiency and grade resources. Analysing repetition and dropout
repetition is key to understanding where inefficien-
cies exist within the education system and
Somalia’s education system is character- allows policy-makers to design policies to
ized by low levels of declared repetition and address them. In 2020, repetition was rare
low levels of internal efficiency, owing to in Somalia, with only 1.6 per cent of students
high levels of dropout and likely non-decla- having repeated a grade. As illustrated
ration of repetition. Every education system in Figure 2.9, the proportion of repeaters
should strive not only to get children into varies across grades. Students in Grade 1 of
school but to have them finish their learning primary school were almost six times more
cycles within a set number of years. Being likely to repeat than students in Form 4.
unable to do so is not only detrimental for Overall, the proportion of repeaters in lower
the children’s school careers, but for the primary school was 2.1 per cent, while in
system at large, since having students both upper primary and secondary school it
drop out or repeat grades is a waste of was 1.2 per cent.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 2.9 Proportion of repeaters by grade and education level, 2020 (%)
2.9%

1.9%
1.8%
1.6% 1.6%
1.3% 1.3% 1.3%
1.2%
1.1%
0.9%

0.5%

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Lower primary Upper primary Secondary (General)

Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020).

Comparison between Somalia and its Figure 2.10 International comparison of share
peer countries shows that there are of repeaters, 2019 (%)
more students repeating grades in the 12.2%

comparator countries than the children in

Somalia. As seen in Figure 2.10, children 7.6%
in primary school are seven times more
likely to repeat a grade in comparator
countries than in Somalia. Similarly, in 1.7% 1.2%
secondary school, students are six times
more likely to repeat in comparator coun- Primary Secondary (General)
tries than in Somalia. Somalia Comparator countries
Source: Source: EMIS (2016, 2017, 2019, 2020).
UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2021).

2.2.4 Out-of-school children: The majority have never attended school

Out-of-school children are a worrisome out of school, and where they are. It is also
phenomenon in any education system fundamental to determine the character-
and society. Being out of school means istics of children of school age who are not
that children are being denied the right enrolled, to better target policies aimed
to education, which increases their like- at enrolling or re-enrolling them. For the
lihood of participating in child labour, calculation of out-of-school children, two
being forced into early marriage, or main methods can be used: self-reported
being recruited into armed and crim- school attendance, or administrative data.
inal groups, among other things. Being With the first, declarative surveys, such as
out of school also reinforces the poverty the DHS, are used to estimate the propor-
cycle, and usually affects most those who tion of children declared as not going to
are already in precarious situations. It is school over the total number of school-age
therefore important to determine who is children surveyed, after applying expan-

71
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

sion factors. With the second, the total 6 in 10 children eligible for primary and
school-age population is calculated from secondary education in Somalia are outside
the population projections and the total the education system, with almost half
number of students is deducted. For the having never attended school in the first
purposes of this ESA, the first method, place (46 per cent). Given this situation, the
using the 2018 DHS database, is used. children who never enrol, or who enrol and
later drop out before obtaining any type of
More than half the children eligible for certification or diploma, could be a priority
school in Somalia are not attending. for educational policy in Somalia.
Table 2.6 presents the population eligible
for lower and upper primary school as well One of the reasons for this high volume
as those eligible for secondary school, of out-of-school children is late entry to
alongside the learners currently enrolled school, with many children entering formal
in school. We can also see the proportion education after the age of 6 and up to
of learners enrolled in school by school- age 13. Most of those who haven’t entered
level age group, as well as the number of by age 6 never enrol without targeted
out-of-school children, and the propor- interventions. This slight improvement
tions that have never attended school and across time is more explicit when looking
have dropped out. The proportion of chil- at Figure 2.11, which shows that after low
dren enrolled in formal education decreases levels of uptake at an early age (those
with age group, ranging from 45 per cent aged 3 to 5), which is to be expected,
in the 6–9 age group to 25 per cent in the since the official entrance age to Grade
14–17 age group. Notably, the proportion of 1 is 6 years of age), the proportion of chil-
children who have dropped out is observed dren and young people having reported to
to be moving in the other direction. In addi- have ever been in Grade 1 declines slightly
tion, while there appears to have been from a high of 60 per cent to 43 per cent
some improvement across generations in at age 24. While this speaks of an overall
the proportion of children who have never improvement in access to the education
enrolled in school, going from 50 per cent system across time, the reality remains
of children aged 14 to 17, to 45 per cent of that the levels of out-of-school children
those aged 6 to 9, the issue remains that are still high in Somalia.

Table 2.6 Out-of-school children by age category

Out of school
Total Never Dropped out
Age population No. Enrolled % Enrolled Total attended (%) (%)
6–9 1,168,304 519,699 44.5% 648,605 44.6% 10.9%

10–13 991,466 399,999 40.3% 591,467 44.9% 14.8%

14–17 866,675 218,171 25.2% 648,513 50.2% 24.7%

6–17 3,026,445 1,193,508 39.4% 1,888,585 45.9% 14.7%

Source: DHS, 2018.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 2.11 Children and young people who have ever been in Grade 1 (%)
59% 60%
58% 58% 58%
56%
55% 55% 55%
53% 53% 54% 52%
51%
49%
47% 47% 48%
43%

27%
25% 25%

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Source: DHS, 2018.

When looking at administrative data, Figure 2.12 Proportion of out-of-school

which enable us to compare the number children, 2016–2020
of children not enrolled in primary or
88.5%
secondary school with the total number 85.7% 85.4% 85.7%

of children of that age group for the four

FMSs and Banadir Administrative Region,
it is evident that the 2017 drought had a
slight detrimental effect on enrolment, as
shown in Figure 2.12. Somalia went from
having an average proportion of children
not enrolled in school of around 85 per
cent to over 88 per cent in 2019. The results
of the same analysis using the DHS data
2016 2017 2019 2020
show that overall, 61 per cent of children
and young people aged 6 to 17 are out of Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS (2016,
2017, 2019, 2020) and WorldPop (2021).
school, with 46 per cent reporting never
having attended, and 15 per cent reporting These levels are not homogeneous across
having dropped out. It is important to note the four FMSs and Banadir. For 2019, while
that this is constructed not using enrol- the average proportion of out-of-school
ment data but declarations of attendance, children was 86 per cent, Banadir had a
and might be subject to usual survey bias level below the national average in 2020,
(such as socially acceptable answers), of 59 per cent, while states such as South
with families reporting their children as West state or Hirshabelle had levels closer
attending school. to 95 per cent, as shown in Figure 2.13.

73
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

Figure 2.13 Proportion of out-of-school children by FMS, 2020

100
100 94.2% 92.9%
91.7%
85.7% 85.4%

80
80

59%
60
60

40
40

20
20

0
0
5 FMSs Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS (2020) and WorldPop (2021).

Once the out-of-school children have ence). Regarding the geographical loca-
been identified, it is necessary to find out tion of children, the difference between
more about why they are not attending, urban, rural, and nomadic children is
in order to formulate targeted, specific stark. Boys and girls in urban areas are
policies to encourage them to enrol or 2.5 times more likely not to access school
re-enrol. Figure 2.14 presents the disag- than nomadic children. For those who do
gregation of the out-of-school children enter the education system, urban chil-
aged 6 to 14 years by sex, location, wealth, dren are 20 times more likely to drop out
and age, both for those who have never than nomadic students. In contrast to
enrolled in school, and for those how have the first scenario, rich students are more
dropped out. In the first case, we see that likely to drop out, and there seems to be
girls are at a marked disadvantage: they no direct correlation between age and the
are 1.35 times more likely not to enrol in likelihood of leaving school.
school than boys. Urban children are also
far more likely not to enrol, with nomadic Finally, Figure 2.15 presents the proportion
children only failing to access school of Somali children who have (1) attended
15 per cent of the time. Poorer children Quranic school; (2) participated in pre-pri-
are also more likely not to access school, mary education; (3) attended primary
with poorer students more than twice as school (regardless of whether it was lower
likely not to enrol as richer ones. Finally, or upper); (4) attended secondary school;
we see that there is a nuanced downward (5) participated in higher education; and
correlation between age and likelihood (6) never attended school at all. The graph
of not accessing school, consistent with appears to show that the biggest chal-
earlier discussions relating to Figure 2.11. lenge to access and retention appears
As for children who enrol and then drop to be an access problem for children of
out or are pushed out of school, girls are primary-school age, followed closely by
at a slight disadvantage compared to of increasing levels of dropout as children
boys (with a 2-percentage-point differ- get older.

74
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 2.14 Prevalence of out-of-school children by sex, location, wealth, and age (%)
Never had access to school Dropped out of school

Male 32% Male 13%

Female 43% Female 15%

Urban 40% Urban 20%

Rural 21% Rural 6%

Nomadic 15% Nomadic 1%

Q1-Poorest 23% Q1-Poorest 3%

Q2 17% Q2 5%

Q3 14% Q3 6%

Q4 12% Q4 6%

Q5-Richest 9% Q5-Richest 7%

6 years 13% 6 years 2%

7 years 11% 7 years 3%

8 years 11% 8 years 2%

9 years 7% 9 years 2%

10 years 9% 10 years 2%

11 years 6% 11 years 2%

12 years 8% 12 years 2%

13 years 7% 13 years 2%

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 5 10 15 20 25

Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018.

Figure 2.15 Retention in education by age

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Quranic Pre-school Primary Secondary Higher Never Dropped-
accessed out

Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018.

75
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

2.3 Inclusive education:

In the shadows of Education 2030

2.3.1 Persons with disabilities in Somalia: Prevalence of disability largely unknown

Somalia officially identified persons mated the proportion of persons with

with disabilities as a vulnerable popula- disabilities in Somalia to be close to
tion in its Humanitarian Response Plan 20 per cent, while the 2020 Somali Health
for 2020, signifying its recognition of the and Demographic Survey estimated
challenges such people face in accessing that just 3.6 per cent of the school-age
public services (Humanity and Inclusion, population had some form of disability
2020). However, the proportion of the (Directorate of National Statistics, 2020).
population living with disabilities remains In further contrast, a study by the Somali
unclear. On a global level, persons with Institute of Special Educational Needs
disabilities are estimated to represent and Disability (SISEND) reported that in
15 per cent of the population, and children 60 per cent of households, at least one
with disabilities are estimated at 10 per child was living with a disability (SISEND,
cent, with this rising in humanitarian 2020). In the first instance, it is clear that
contexts and developing nations, both if Somalia is to address the specific needs
of which apply to Somalia (Independent of the disabled population, and particu-
Advisory Group on Country Information, larly children with disabilities, an accu-
2020). In 2014 the Swedish International rate picture of their representation in the
Development Cooperation Agency esti- population is needed.

2.3.2 The special needs education policy framework

The provisional constitution of Somalia IE and the provision of fee-free educa-

enshrines rights for all citizens regard- tion in public institutions for learners with
less of disability status. This was explic- special needs and disabilities. It further
itly extended to the right to education in recognizes the need to include develop-
the FGS’s Special Educational Needs and ment partners in mainstreaming activities
Disability and Inclusive Education (SEND as a result of the large role they play in
& IE) Policy of 2018. The policy outlines Somalia in ensuring access to education.
a vision of Somalia as ‘a nation where all In 2020, there were five special educa-
children with special needs and those tional needs schools in Somalia, which
out of school are supported to develop focused on specific disabilities such as
fully in their potential’ (MoECHE, 2018). hearing or visual impairment. One of the
It goes on to outline its mission to main- main constraints remains the lack of a
stream special needs education, including standardized teacher training curric-
ensuring the accessibility of physical ulum, which obviously limits the extent
infrastructure, introducing a respon- to which children with disabilities can
sive and adaptable curriculum, providing access services run by qualified staff. The
community sensitization activities and FGS has been unable to fulfil its goal of
education around disabilities, introducing introducing specific SEND training and
specific training for teachers in SEND & certification.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.3.3 Children with disabilities and access to education

As with the total population, it is not Using international estimations of children

known what proportion of the total with disabilities, at 10 per cent, SISEND
school-age population consists of chil- data suggest that a higher proportion
dren with disabilities. In reviewing the of the disabled population is attending
most prominent sources, it is clear that school. However, using SDHS estimates of
this issue may be related to the confusing 3.6 per cent, this would indicate over-rep-
definition of children with disabilities, and resentation, which, within the context of
a lack of access to health-care infrastruc- barriers to access as discussed below, is
ture related to identifying disabilities, unlikely. The SDHS estimates may also
as well as the persistence of community be affected by the lack of knowledge
norms which may dissuade parents from surrounding disability as well as the soci-
identifying their children as disabled. In etal pressures that may constrain iden-
an attempt to overcome some of these tification. This under-reporting of chil-
challenges, SISEND conducted screening dren with disabilities was seen in similar
and assessment of students in 60 schools research conducted in Kismayo, where
across the four FMSs and Banadir, so as only 15 children were reported to have a
to identify those who were living with a disability, whereas if WHO estimates had
disability without having an official diag- been used, which put the proportion of
nosis and to combat some of the social the population with a disability at 14 per
pressures surrounding identification. cent of, the total disabled population in
Results demonstrated varying proportions Kismayo would have been 11,957 (Shikuku,
of disabled children across the FMSs, 2017). This can be explained in part by the
ranging from a high of 26 per cent of boys fact that the role of reporting children with
having a disability in Banadir to a low of disabilities for each school falls to the
3 per cent of girls in Hirshabelle. In total, head teacher, who might not be aware of
just over 9 per cent of students enrolled the actual number of students with disabil-
in the sampled schools were identified as ities beyond the most obvious cases.
having a disability, with the most common
being hearing impairment, followed by One of the facets limiting the identifi-
visual impairment (SISEND, 2021). cation of students with disabilities in
Somalia is that this indicator was not
Table 2.7 Prevalence of disabilities among included in EMIS data before 2019. There
children attending school, by FMS and sex, is only one year of EMIS data to work with
2021 (%) in examining proportions, complemented
FMS Boys Girls by the 2019 GPE school mapping data,
Banadir 26 15 which also included information on chil-
Galmudug 11 7 dren with disabilities, albeit in primary
schools only. As seen in Table 2.8, the
South West 7 6
two datasets present varying proportions
Hirshabelle 6 3
of students with disabilities, with the
Jubbaland 12 8
highest prevalence rates among enrolled
Source: SISEND (2021). learners reaching around 2.3 per cent in

77
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

Table 2.8 Share of children with disabilities enrolled in primary school, by type of disability,
2019 (%)
Mobility Hearing Visual Speech Mental Overall
Data source FMS impairment impairment impairment impairment impairment prevalence
GPE Banadir 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.5 - 2.1

Galmudug 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.4 - 2.1

Hirshabelle 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.5 - 1.8

Jubbaland 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.6 - 2.3

South West 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.3 - 1.6

EMIS Banadir 0.1 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 0.2

Galmudug 0.1 0.1 0.0 - 0.0 0.2

Hirshabelle 0.0 0.0 0.1 - 0.0 0.1

Jubbaland 0.1 0.1 0.0 - 0.1 0.4

South West 0.1 0.8 0.0 - 0.0 0.9

Source: Authors’ calculations based on data from the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) (2019) and EMIS (2019).

Figure 2.16 Proportion of school-age population with disabilities, by type of disability, 2020
75%
71%
67% 67%
64%
60%
56% 56%

40%

30%

24%

15% 15%
13% 12%

6% 6%
2% 2%
0% 1% 1% 1% 1%

Other Sight Sight Hearing Speech Speech Learning Mobility Mobility Self-Care Mental Total
and and Self-Care
Source: Authors’ calculations based on SDHS data, 2020.
Hearing Mobility

Jubbaland, which contrasts starkly with total disabled school-age population.

the proportion identified by SISEND in This would suggest children with disabil-
the screening process. Using interna- ities are under-represented in the school
tional estimates of 10 per cent, which population, pointing to the existence of
seem more robust than the SDHS esti- barriers to education for this population.
mates, the proportion of students with To estimate the overall proportion of chil-
disabilities enrolled in education is lower
than the estimated proportions of the

78
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

dren with disabilities that are enrolled, FMSs and Banadir, it is impossible to
one method is to compare that number to accurately calculate access and enrol-
the overall population enrolled. ment rates.

While the above evidence suggests that Further evidence from the SDHS indi-
they are not represented in the school cates that of the children with disabili-
population in the same proportion esti- ties who are currently not enrolled, the
mated in the general population, the majority have been in some form of educa-
SHDS suggests relatively high propor- tion, suggesting that greater proportions
tions of the school-age population with drop out rather than never attend school,
disabilities are currently attending school, as shown in Figure 2.17. Across both sets
with an overall average of 56 per cent, as of data, students with mental disabilities
shown in Figure 2.16. However, this must and speech- and mobility-related disabil-
be considered in the light of the limita- ities are seen to have the lowest levels of
tions seen around self-identification of educational access, both currently and
living with a disability, which most likely previously. This indicates that there are
under-represents total proportions and particular challenges associated with
therefore would lower the overall enrol- these types of limitations, which make
ment rate. Without an accurate count of educational access less likely, as will be
the children with disabilities in the four explored in later sections.

Figure 2.17 Share of out-of-school children with disabilities who dropped out of school, by type of
disability, 2020 (%)
76%
74%

67%

60%

52% 53%

39%

32%

25%

Sight Hearing Speech Speech Mobility Mobility Mental Other Total

and Self-Care
Mobility
Source: Authors’ calculations based on SDHS data, 2020.

79
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

2.3.4 Discrimination and community attitudes bar children with disabilities from
education

While evidence is mixed regarding the Those girls with disabilities who do
proportion of children with disabilities who manage to access formal education face
are able to access education in Somalia, high levels of discrimination, with 92 per
additional research suggests there exist cent of the girls with disabilities in the
many levels of discrimination and some SISEND study reporting that they had
physical barriers to access to schools. experienced some form of discrimination
The FGS recognized this in the SEND & IE at school (SISEND, 2020). These nega-
policy, citing a variety of challenges chil- tive attitudes are seen to be prevalent
dren with disabilities face in accessing across the whole community, even among
education, including poverty, lack of school parents of students with disabilities, with
preparedness, isolation and hiding of chil- many stating they did not believe that
dren with disabilities, physical barriers, persons with disabilities would ever be
and negative teacher and community atti- able to contribute to the household after
tudes (MoECHE, 2018). SISEND research completing the education cycle, because
on children with disabilities confirmed of social norms present in the commu-
this, with 25 per cent of parents citing nity that would prevent them from being
bad or negative attitudes on the part of successful, regardless of their educa-
teachers, the school administration and tional accomplishments (SISEND, 2020).
the broader community as the primary Taking this into account, it would seem
reason for keeping their disabled children that parents have limited motivation to
out of school. It is also recognized that girls enrol their children in education, even
with disabilities are particularly liable to be where opportunities and barrier-free
excluded from education, with boys with access do exist.
disabilities tending to get the few oppor-
tunities available for students with disabil-
ities overall (Manku, 2018).

2.3.5 School accessibility and adaptation: Varying signals from different sources

While official policy indicates the inten- relevant given the dominance of visual
tion to have all schools made accessible and hearing impairments. More promis-
by and adapted for students with disabil- ingly, 43 per cent of schools stated that
ities, the majority of schools still present they ran parental education or aware-
many physical barriers. In an assessment ness-raising sessions regarding children
of 58 schools across the four FMSs and with disabilities at the school. Sixty per
Banadir, SISEND found that 68 per cent cent reported running these sessions for
of schools did not have accessible toilet students and 22 per cent for community
facilities and only 38 per cent had acces- members. Similar results were seen in the
sible sources of clean drinking water other SISEND study, with 47 per cent of
(SISEND, 2020). No schools in the study schools reporting having accessible toilet
had access to braille books, audio books facilities, while 63 per cent said they had
or hearing loops, which are particularly introduced community sensitization activ-

80
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

ities and 58 per cent said they ran parent ties than there are schools with such chil-
disability-education activities (SISEND, dren enrolled. This may suggest that even
2021). This suggests that while many if facilities are accessible, there exist
schools continue to lack adapted facil- other elements, such as community atti-
ities, there is some movement in terms tudes or school-based discrimination, that
of sensitization programmes, which are serve as bigger deterrents to enrolment.
equally necessary for encouraging the Conversely, GPE data evidence a much
enrolment of children with disabilities. lower proportion of accessible schools in
comparison to schools with children with
EMIS and GPE data demonstrate varying disabilities enrolled, offering the reverse
proportions of schools having at least issue of high demand and low supply. In
one disabled student. This may be related both GPE and EMIS data, there are more
to some of the issues around the robust- schools with children with disabilities, and
ness of EMIS data collection, as previ- more schools with adaptations than those
ously discussed. Proportions of schools with both, suggesting some misalignment
with accessible facilities are seen to be in supply and demand in terms of accessi-
similar, with this including elements such bility. This indicates the potential need for
as ramps and rails, as well as accessible redistribution of students with disabilities
toilet facilities. Interestingly, EMIS data to accessible schools, where geographi-
show that there are more schools with cally feasible.
adaptations for children with disabili-

Table 2.9 Share of schools with disabled learners and accessible facilities, by FMS, 2019 (%)
Schools with Schools with Schools with
disabled accessible disabled learners and
Data source FMS learners facilities accessible facilities
Banadir 9.2 23.4 3.5

Galmudug 7.9 17.1 3.6

EMIS Hirshabelle 4.9 19.4 2.9

Jubbaland 15.7 19.9 0.5

South West 11.0 21.1 2.8

Banadir 63.4 33.1 21.8

Galmudug 50.3 11.5 8.9

GPE Hirshabelle 54.7 19.5 11.1

Jubbaland 55.7 10.0 6.4

South West 40.2 27.1 14.9

Source: Authors’ calculations based on GPE data (2019) and EMIS data (2019).

81
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

2.3.6 Teacher preparation: No specific teacher training for special needs

While schools may be adapted to the needs Similar challenges were observed by the
of students with disabilities, this does not Somali Disability Empowerment Network,
mean teachers are similarly prepared to who have argued there is a lack of skills
accommodate the special needs of these and knowledge among teachers on how
students. Research across the sector has to work with learners with disabilities,
pointed to a lack of knowledge and skills and have even maintained that most
among teaching staff to address these teachers take negative attitudes towards
needs, with SISEND stating that none students with disabilities (Farah, 2015). As
of the teachers in the 18 schools consid- mentioned above, while the FGS SEND &
ered in its survey had received training on IE policy highlights the intention to create
special educational needs (SISEND, 2020). specialist training courses and certifica-
The research further highlighted that tions in SEND, this has not been imple-
teachers working at the al-Basiir School mented. There is an urgent need to train
for the Blind and Deaf-Blind in Mogadishu, teachers not just to provide good-quality
one of the SEND institutions considered in education for students with special
the study, had all received their training at needs, but also to help to alleviate some of
the Kenya Institute of Special Education, the pressures and barriers children with
suggesting no programmes existed within disabilities face in accessing education.
Somalia itself to provide this specialized
teacher training.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.4 Equity and exclusion in general

education

The second sub-section of this section dealt with schooling globally, and with challenges
linked to internal efficiency, dropout, and out-of-school children. This sub-section deals
with the way in which the challenges presented so far affect certain groups differently,
be it because of their socio-economic characteristics or their location. Using schooling
profiles, this section analyses existing disparities in access to education, focusing on
gender differentials, disparities attributed to children’s location, and those attributed to
children from families with different income statuses.

2.4.1 Gender disparity: Diminishing but persistent discrimination against girls

Analysis of access and retention patterns intake rates in each grade (between 3 and
in 2016 and 2020 shows that girls were 4 percentage points). In 2020, although
at a disadvantage at all grades, and this the gap is small at the start of primary
increased with age, especially in 2020. school, we observe that it grows with
Figure 2.18 decomposes schooling profiles advancing grades. At the beginning of
in 2016 and 2020 by gender, showing the primary school in 2020, the difference
access and retention patterns across in intake is a mere percentage point, in
grades in the primary and secondary favour of boys. It grows to 7 percentage
cycles of education. In 2016, the profiles points, in favour of boys, by the end of
show a consistent gender gap in the secondary school.

Figure 2.18 Cross-sectional schooling profile by sex

22%
20% 20%
19% 19% 19%
18% 18%
17% 17%
16% 16% 17% 16%
15% 15% 15%
14% 14% 14%
16% 13% 16% 13%
15% 14% 13% 12%
14% 14% 12% 14%
11%
13% 13% 12%
12% 11% 12% 9%
11% 11% 11%
10% 10% 10%
9%

6%

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Lower primary Upper primary Secondary (General)

Female – 2016 Female – 2020 Male – 2016 Male – 2020

Source: School census, 2015; Somalia Demographic and Health Survey, 2018.

The disadvantage suffered by girls boys. The biggest difference is seen in

abounds at the sub-national levels. Hirshabelle, where boys can expect to
Figure 2.19 illustrates the school life have 0.86 years of education, which is
expectancy for boys and girls in the 34 per cent more than girls. The results
FMSs as well as Banadir Regional also highlight variation between states,
Administration. In all the states girls with Banadir having a clear advantage
have lower school life expectancy than over the four FMSs.

83
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

Figure 2.19 School life expectancy by gender and FMS, 2020

6.44

4.84

2.04
1.67 1.76
1.48
1.29
1.12
0.99
0.86 0.77
0.64

Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West 5 FMS

Female Male

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data (2020).

Figure 2.20 Probability of having entered formal school, by age and sex, 2018 (%)

64 63 63
62 62 62 62 62 61 60
59 59 60
57 56 55 54
53
50
57
54 54 54 54 52 52
49 49 50 49
47
44 43 44 44 42 43
29
27 27 37

23 25
22

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Female Male
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Somali Demographic and Heath Survey.

Figure 2.20 presents a probabilistic Boys also had higher real access than
approach to understanding real access to girls, their access peaking at 64 per
school for boys and girls. The results show cent, 6 percentage points higher than
a clear advantage held by boys over girls, the 57 per cent reached by girls. It is also
at all the ages, from 3 to 24 years old. The important to note that boys had an early
official school entry age in the country is peak, their real access peaking at age 11,
6 years, with the results showing that at while girls peak a year later, suggesting
this age half of boys had entered school, that boys are offered more opportunities
compared to only 44 per cent of girls. to go to school than girls.

84
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.4.2 Location disparity: Larger disparities from location than gender

Location (urban or rural) also plays a part rural counterparts, with the difference
in determining which children are able between them and rural dweller being
to go to school. Urban dwellers are more bigger than that between boys and girls
likely to have been in Grade 1 than their of the same age.

Figure 2.21 Probability of having entered formal school, by age and location, 2018 (%)

67 67 66 67 68
63 63 64 65 65
62 61
58 60 59 58
57 56
52
57 55
52 54 54
51 48 50 48 48
32 47 45 46
42 44
30 29 41
39 37 36

21 22
19

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Urban Rural

Source: Authors’ calculations based on Somali Demographic and Heath Survey (2018).

2.4.3 Poverty disparity: Glaring gap in between socioeconomic classes

The poorest children are up to Grade 1 for the richest children peaks at
50 percentage points less likely to have age 12 (80 per cent), this is only a marginal
attended formal school than children increment from the 78 per cent observed
from the richest families. As is often the by age 9, meaning that nearly all the chil-
case, household wealth plays a pivotal dren who go to school from the richest
role in determining the probability of an families do so by age 9, compared to the
individual ever attending formal school. those from the poorest families, who have
As seen in Figure 2.22, children from the a two-year lag when compared to chil-
richest families are more likely to start dren from the richest families, but even
school at the right age, with 7 in 10 chil- then, only manage a generational access
dren from the richest families entering of 31 per cent. This shows that the average
formal school by age 6, compared to 2 in difference between the real access of the
10 from the poorest families. Although richest and the poorest children is nearly
the probability of having had access to 50 percentage points.

85
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

Figure 2.22 Probability of having entered formal school by age and wealth status (%)

78 78 78 80 78 78 79
75 77 75 77
73 74 74
71 69 69
67 65

37 38
34

29 30 31 30 29 30 31
26 28 27 26
24 22 22 24 23
21 19
17
12 13 14

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Poorest Richest

Source: Authors’ calculations based on Somali Demographic and Heath Survey (2018).

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

2.5 Chapter summary

Data availability remains an issue that to the quantity and quality of education
prevents in-depth analysis, and this received, time spent in school does predis-
is likely to be reflected in the level of pose children to the acquisition of literacy.
targeted response to some of the issues Having children access school and stay
affecting the development of the sector. there will need to be a principal focus of
The education sector has made efforts the next sector plan. Targeted strategies
to improve the collection and availability will be needed to re-enrol children who are
of data and has, in the process, changed yet to go back to school after the drought.
information-collection methodologies.
This has resulted in somewhat incom- Apart from the low access to school in the
plete data for some topics, and incom- country, there are stark disparities in terms
parable data across years, and some of gender, location, and family wealth.
sub-sectors have only ad hoc data. Lack Boys have a considerable advantage over
of robust data may result in mundane poli- girls in accessing school and staying there,
cies that may not have the transformative and this is quite evident in the calculated
effect required in a context like Somalia’s. school life expectancy, where boys can
While the changes in the data-manage- expect to have 30 per cent more time in
ment processes at the FGS and FMS school than girls. Although the disparity
levels should be encouraged, there will be in access to school is considerable when
need to be a clear outline of the long-term comparing boys and girls, the gap becomes
vision for the EMIS, with clear short-term even more conspicuous when comparing
sprints, which can allow for the establish- children from rural and urban locations.
ment of a basic and strong foundation for However, the gap is largest between chil-
a system-wide information system. dren from the richest and the poorest fami-
lies, with available estimates showing that
The education system has suffered the the present education system is largely
dire consequences of the protracted civil for the elite in the country. Moreover, the
stand-off and the severe drought of 2017. proportion of children who never enrol in
The benefits of political stability had begun the education system has remained high
showing in the gradual increase of number throughout the years analysed, particu-
of children enrolled in school, but prog- larly outside of Banadir. This proportion is
ress was impeded by the climate-related even higher among disadvantaged groups,
catastrophe. Some states, like Banadir, such as children from poor families, those
have recovered to their levels of enrol- living in rural areas, and girls. The rate of
ment before the drought, for some levels of dropout also remains high throughout the
school, and this is laudable. Nevertheless, four FMSs and Banadir. Steps will need
broadly speaking, many children who to be taken to guarantee that all children
are eligible for school are not in school, have equal access to school, and to ensure
more than half of them either having not that they finish the compulsory levels of
attended school at all or having dropped formal education, in order to break cycles
out. The combined effect of low enrol- of intergenerational poverty and improve
ment rates and weak internal efficiency is outcomes later in life.
emphasized by the school life expectancy,
which is worryingly low. While the number Children with disabilities continue
of years spent in school may not equate to encounter systemic barriers that

87
Chapter 2. Access, internal efficiency, and out-of-school children

block their access to school, with some also discussed the higher dropout rate for
being societal while others are within children with disabilities when compared
the control of education-sector poli- to children without disabilities. Particular
cy-makers. Children with disabilities attention should be given to providing
have less access to school than children an environment that is adapted to their
without disabilities. Those who manage learning needs. In respect of all teacher
to go to school face further challenges, professional training, a training mech-
with only a fraction of the schools having anism should be developed and imple-
facilities and equipment that are adapted mented for teachers in order to increase
for the children with disabilities. In terms their effectiveness when teaching chil-
of teacher preparedness, the section dren with disabilities. Additional efforts
has highlighted the lack of professional should also be made to improve data
training for teachers on how to deal with collection within the EMIS, especially
children with disabilities, putting into towards improving the depth of informa-
doubt the implementation of inclusive tion collected on children with disabilities
education in the country. The section has and their education.

88
 Chapter 3
Education expenditure
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

This section discusses the findings on education expenditure in Somalia, focusing on

spending by national and local government (the FGS and FMSs) as well as spending at
private level (households and development partners). In the case of the latter the finance
goes directly to schools or administrative offices without going through the federal trea-
sury or the ministries of finance in the FMSs. The section begins by setting the frame-
work used in the analysis and then discusses the evolution of public spending on educa-
tion. This will include details of its coverage and of what public funds are spent on. The
second sub-section presents estimates of household spending on education as well as
off-budget spending by development partners. The results presented here are largely
based on budget implementation reports from the FGS and FMSs, the second wave of
the High-Frequency Survey carried out in 2017, and expenditure reports from develop-
ment partners, compiled in 2021.

Figure 3.1 Framework for analysis of education spending

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE PRIVATE EXPENDITURE

DIRECT SPENDING
DOMESTIC FUNDING BUDGET SUPPORT FAMILIES
BY PARTNERS

TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION

Source: MoECHE & IIEP, 2021.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the framework employed in the analysis. Given the share of commu-
nity, private and public schooling in the Federal Republic of Somalia, as discussed in
Section 2, this framework has allowed a comprehensive coverage of spending on educa-
tion. The framework divides the spending into public and private expenditure, the former
constituting of expenditure supported by domestic revenue (including tax and non-tax
revenue) as well as budget support (grants and loans) provided by development part-
ners. All these go through the treasury’s single budget account. Public expenditure on
education is executed by MoECHE and authorized agencies under its auspices, including
the Somali National University, the Somali Academy of Sciences and Arts, and the
Intergovernmental Academy of Somali Language. The execution of the public budget is
captured in the annual budget utilization reports, which are generated by the Integrated
Financial Management Information System, both for FGS ministries and for the FMSs.
As regards private expenditure, the framework covers expenditure by families which is
paid directly to schools as fees, levies, payment for school supplies, etc., as well as the
support directed to public schools or education agencies by development partners.

90
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

3.1 Public expenditure on education:

Showing strides of improvement

Public expenditure on education is executed by the MoECHE and state ministries of

education in the FMSs, including Banadir Regional Education Directorate, Galmudug,
Hirshabelle, Jubbaland and South West.

3.1.1 Priority of public expenditure on education: Low investment in education

Public expenditure on education remains Incheon Declaration of 2015, 160 countries

low, which reflects the size of the public agreed to spend at least 20 per cent of their
education sector in the country and the budget on education, in order to achieve
difficult past the government has been SDG 4 –inclusive and equitable high-quality
working to overcome. The 2020 budget education and promote lifelong learning
utilization report shows that overall opportunities for all their citizens – by
spending by the FGS and FMSs was about 2030 (UNESCO, 2015). Public expenditure
$338 million, compared to $248.3 million on education in Somalia falls below this
in 2016, which represents a 36 per cent threshold by a long way, but in spite of this
increase in spending over the five-year low expenditure, our findings demonstrate
period selected for review. In educa- that much has been done in the five-year
tion, the government spent $17.4 million period. Expenditure on education has gone
in 2020, accounting for only 5 per cent of from $1.8 million in 2016 to $17.4 million, a
total government spending. As part of the near ten-fold increase (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Evolution of public expenditure on education (US$)

Spending 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Total govt spending 248,327,901 248,300,000 268,473,268 315,717,297 337,800,000

Spending on education 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

ESA 2016 1,800,000

Education as % of total govt spending 0.7% 1.5% 3.2% 4.7% 5.2%

Education spending as % of GDP 0.03% 0.07% 0.15% 0.25%

Source: FGS & FMS budget utilization reports; ESA 2012–2016.

The level of public expenditure on educa- primary and secondary school in the last
tion is inherently linked to the size of the six years, in order to assess the state of
public education sector in the country. For education in the country and to improve its
instance, out of the children and young quality, although the FMSs are in different
people attending school in 2020, only about phases of implementation of the examina-
10 per cent were enrolled in public schools. tions. The FGS has also introduced other
In this context, the spending presented in reforms in the education sector, including
Table 3.1 remains short of levels that could establishing the Commission for Higher
support an expansion of public education Education to operationalize quality assur-
and associated services, as promoted in ance in universities; passing the Education
government strategic documents, which Bill as an Act; and developing a TVET
seek to make public education the prin- policy that will see TVET integrated into
cipal stream. Notably, the government the education sector rather than delivered
has introduced examinations at the end of on an ad hoc basis by NGOs and private

91
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

bodies. Regrettably, these reforms and Table 3.1, which means that the implemen-
aspirations are not adequately reflected tation of these programmes and the assur-
in the public expenditure on education, ance of quality they seek to inject to the
judging by the level of funding revealed in sector remain in jeopardy.

3.1.2 Credibility of education budgets: Mixed signals on budget execution

The low expenditure on education is utilization reports from the FGS and FMS
partially attributed to low compliance to levels indicate that notwithstanding
education budgets, which has fluctuated approvals of the annual budgets, utiliza-
in recent years. There exists a system- tion of the budgets in full remains a chal-
atic budgeting and expenditure process lenge. For instance, in 2020, 40 per cent
in the country, according to which the of the approved budget was not executed
MoECHE has to present future expendi- (see Table 3.2), which is a huge part of the
ture estimates to the Federal Ministry of resources that could have gone towards
Finance for collation, which is followed the delivery of education services in the
later by approval from the legislature. country. The reasons behind the increase
The approved budgets are executed by in the non-executed budget – from 26 per
the MoECHE and associated entities once cent in 2019 to 40 per cent in 2020, after
the Ministry of Finance gives them the a three-year stability around 75 per cent –
authority to incur expenditure. The budget are not immediately clear.

Table 3.2 Credibility of public budget on education (US$)

Spending 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Approved budget 4,893,374 4,827,040 11,538,415 20,011,703 29,178,461

Resource allocation 2,267,297 4,092,933 10,575,628 15,598,051 18,503,856

Actual expenditure 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

Allocation as % of budget 46.3% 84.8% 91.7% 77.9% 63.4%

Actual as % of approved 37.2% 76.8% 74.9% 73.5% 59.6%

Actual as % of allocation 80.3% 90.5% 81.7% 94.3% 94.0%

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

The overall low expenditure on education in 2016 and 63 per cent in 2020. Although
is partly due to the fact that approved execution of allocated resources remains
budgets are not fully utilized, with credi- relatively high, averaging 88 per cent over
bility concerns nearly halving the expen- the last five years, these results demon-
diture. Budget compliance concerns may strate the absence of full execution of
be attributed to inefficiencies in budget budgets nonetheless. This trend affects
supply, given that the FGS has consis- the predictability of budgets and expen-
tently failed to fulfil the approved budget, ditures, which is meant to help the educa-
with the highest levels of supply reported tion sector to plan with certainty and to
in 2018 (92 per cent supply against credibly identify activities to be imple-
approval). In other years, the budget mented during a given fiscal period.
supply has been fairly low – 46 per cent Denying the sector this predictability risks

92
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

forcing the sector to reorganize the way it 2018). A review of results from low-in-
implements policy, which may have unin- come countries in sub-Saharan Africa
tended consequences. Budget credibility reveals mixed results, with most countries
is tracked across countries as one of the where data are available showing lack of
SDGs because of its role in ensuring that budget credibility at the national level
public policy is implemented (Herrera, (see Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2 Government expenditures as a proportion of approved budget across 17 countries in

sub-Saharan Africa

149

118 122

103 107
96 98 98 99 100
95
86 89 90
80
69 70
Burkina Faso

Togo

Sierra Leone
Mali

Somalia

Ethiopia
Guinea-Bissau
(2017)
Niger
(2016)

(2018)
Guinea
(2016)
Malawi
(2017)
Uganda
(2019)
Chad
(2017)

(2016)

(2020)
Liberia
(2015)

(2018)
Rwanda
(2017)

(2015)

(2016)
Madagascar

Sudan
(2018)
(2016)

South Sudan
(2019)
Source: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability, World Bank, circa 2017.

3.1.3 Public expenditure by funding Source: Strong commitments from government

Eighty per cent of the public expenditure larger proportion (80 per cent) came from
on education is provided by the govern- government’s own resources. The budget
ment, with increasing resources going utilization reports indicate that budget
to the FMSs, which shows a willingness support from development partners
to help them become fully operational. towards education began in 2018, initially
Public expenditure on education can grew nearly sevenfold between 2018 and
either come from public revenue or from 2019 before dropping by 16 per cent
budget support given by development between 2019 and 2020. According to the
partners. Although the general volume findings in Table 3.3, education expen-
of public expenditure on education diture at the FMS level increased from
remains small, a large part is committed $89,600 to $2.6 million between 2018 and
by the FGS. Out of the $17.4 million spent 2020, an increase more than 400 per cent,
on education in 2020, $3.44 million (or indicating the willingness of the FGS to
20 per cent) came from development part- enable the FMSs to become fully opera-
ners as budget support, implying that a tional, which is a good sign for the decen-

93
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

Table 3.3 Public expenditure on education, by funding source (US$)

Spending 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Federal government
Public 1,819,509 3,696,457 7,951,561 10,522,868 11,315,716

Partners - - - 3,093,350 3,076,018

Sub-total 1,819,509 3,696,457 7,951,561 13,616,217 14,391,734

% partners 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 22.7% 21.4%

Federal member states
Public 997 8,826 89,595 108,080 2,644,648

Partners - - 600,056 978,684 363,356

Sub-total 997 8,826 689,652 1,086,764 3,008,003

% partners 0.0% 0.0% 87.0% 90.1% 12.1%

Overall spending
Public 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,041,157 10,630,948 13,960,364

Partners - - 600,056 4,072,034 3,439,374

Sub-total 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

% partners 0.0% 0.0% 6.9% 27.7% 19.8%

Source: Federal and FMS budget utilization reports.

Table 3.4 Budget support towards education by partners and government (US$)
Development partner 2018 2019 2020
Federal Government of Somalia 515,868 3,860,242 3,076,018

Global Partnership for Education - 778,542 959,457

World Bank 515,868 3,081,699 2,116,561

Federal Member States 84,188 211,792 363,356

ADRA 6,760 22,440 35,379

Africa Education Trust - - 76,500

American Refugee Committee - - 19,351

Care International 31,058 74,470 19,668

CISP - 18,900 16,200

Concern Worldwide - - 3,500

Lutheran World Federation - 2,512 1,140

Mercy Corps - 1,330 -

Norwegian Support 33,620 42,140 24,600

Save the Children 12,750 50,000 123,600

Trocaire - - 4,964

United Nations - - 14,800

World Food Programme - - 23,654

Total 600,056 4,072,034 3,439,374

Source: Federal and FMS budget utilization reports.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

tralization and the overall efficiency in Table 3.4 presents the contributions of the
the delivery of education services in the 15 organizations behind the on-budget
country. Moreover, the share of education support for public education expendi-
expenditure at the FMS level coming from ture. There has been a notable increase
the government increased dramatically in the number of organizations providing
between 2018 and 2020, growing from support through the government systems
13 per cent to 88 per cent, which is further since 2018. Particularly notable is the large
evidence of this willingness. Although increase in support between 2018 and
our overall findings show that develop- 2019, with the volumes increasing from
ment partners made a significant contri- $600,000 to more than $4 million in a
bution to public expenditure, their confi- single year. There is also an observed drop
dence in government systems remains in development partners’ contributions in
low, which is evident from the volume of 2020, which is attributable to the cash
resources they channelled to the country flow projected in the Somalia Recurrent
through off-budget support, as compared Cost and Reform Financing Project under
to the on-budget support (see sub-section International Development Association
3.2.2 for a detailed discussion). (IDA) Additional Financing (P167224).

3.1.4 Public expenditure by spending type: Vision of expansion with limited capital

Nearly all the public spending on educa- ment of public amenities, including public
tion is dedicated to recurrent items, schools. Although the political landscape
leaving a huge investment gap to fill has changed and now allows for this kind
in the expansion of public education. of investment, budget utilization reports
The protracted political impasse in the reveal that there has only been limited
country transferred most of the delivery expansion of infrastructure in schools.
of education from the public sector to Out of the $17.4 million spent on education
community and private streams, with in 2020, only $109,000 went on capital
public providers of education showing expenditure, as presented in Table 3.5,
only marginal recovery in the recent years. with further details showing that these
The growth in public schooling is depen- resources were spent on the acquisition of
dent on a return to civilian governance at non-financial assets (mostly information
the political level, which is expected to and communications technology equip-
provide more confidence in the establish- ment) at the FGS level.

Table 3.5 Public expenditure on education by type of spending (US$)

Spending 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Recurrent 1,820,506 3,705,283 7,746,566 13,569,041 17,290,557

Capital - - 894,648 1,133,941 109,180

O/w, fixed assets - - 894,648 1,133,941 470

O/w, machinery and equipment - - - - 108,710

Total 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

% capital - - 10.4% 7.7% 0.6%

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

95
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

Notably, although political normalcy was from 10 per cent in 2018 to 8 per cent in
brokered in Somalia in 2012, it was not 2019 before plummeting to less than 1 per
until 2018 that the country saw a trace cent in 2020. If public education is going
of capital expenditure directed towards to expand in the country, the government
education. The budget execution reports has to go into overdrive to expand existing
show that all the capital expenditure in public schools. Moreover, the huge
2018 and 2019 went towards fixed assets, increase in recurrent spending should be
which mainly includes the construction of accompanied by an improvement in facil-
classrooms and other facilities in schools. ities in existing schools so that teachers
As a share of the public spending on and students, on whose heads this recur-
education, capital spending has been on rent spending is directed, can have appro-
a downward trend since 2018, dropping priate spaces in which to teach and learn.

3.1.5 Public expenditure by state: Resources still concentrated at the centre

Although spending by the FMSs has diture by the FMSs is only in a limited
increased tremendously over recent number of schools.6 As such, a huge part of
years, the centre still executes a huge public expenditure on education remains
part of the education sector’s expendi- in the control of the FGS. For instance,
ture. The budget utilization reports show in 2020, out of the $17.4 million spent on
that six years after the establishment of education, $12.7 million was executed at
the FGS, there was still almost no public the FGS level, accounting for 73 per cent
spending on education below the that of the total spending, and indicating the
level. Only small traces of expenditure authority that the FGS continues to exer-
were observed in Jubbaland and South cise, even now that the FMSs have become
West states before then (see Table 3.6). It operational. This imbalance is partly due
is also important to note that the expen- to the responsibility assigned to the FGS,

Table 3.6 Public expenditure on education by the FGS and FMSs (US$)
FMS 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Banadir - - 841,513 949,533 1,724,791

Galmudug - - - 226,567 1,140,812

Hirshabelle - - 2,000 6,000 446,882

Jubbaland 997 (2,326) 637,766 677,644 822,504

South West - 11,152 49,886 176,554 597,806

FGS 1,819,509 3,696,457 7,110,048 12,666,684 12,666,943

Total 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

% FGS 99.9% 99.8% 82.3% 86.2% 72.8%

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

6 Of the more than 2,000 schools in the country, fewer than 30 are public schools. Only in 2020 did
the government start appealing to private schools to register as public schools in exchange for some
grants in the future.

96
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

which relates to the daily functioning of agencies involved at various levels, a sense
schools. It also emanates from the fact that of good governance, and strong systemic
the FGS, having stronger revenue-collec- and human capacity, all of which seem to
tion streams, ends up executing the larger have been achieved through the creation
part of the spending on education. On the of the FMSs. The second condition given
flip side is the rise in the share of expendi- by the duo is the decentralization of expen-
ture executed by the FMSs. In 2018, expen- diture, accompanied by a decentralization
diture at the FMS level accounted for of revenue collection which is essential
18 per cent of the total spending on educa- for the implementation of priority activ-
tion; this increased to 27 per cent in 2020, ities in the FMSs. Although this section
in a matter of three years. does not delve into the detail of existing
institutional arrangements for the FMSs
There is a wealth of evidence pointing in delivery of education services (this is
to the effectiveness of decentraliza- covered in greater detail in Section 6), the
tion in improving the efficiency of results presented in Table 3.6 demonstrate
service delivery, especially in education. that one of the two conditions mentioned
According to Sow and Ivohasina (2015) above remains unmet, with more than
one of the necessary conditions for effec- 80 per cent of public expenditure still
tive decentralization is the establishment being executed at the FGS level, a situa-
of an adequate institutional environment, tion that raises concerns about the effec-
including autonomy at the decentralized tiveness of the decentralization arrange-
levels, strong accountability among the ment in the country.

Table 3.7 Public expenditure on education, by state and type (US$)

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Galmudug 226,567 1,140,812

Hirshabelle 2000 6,000 446,882

Jubbaland 997 (2,326) 637,766 677,644 822,504

South West 11,152 49,886 176,554 597,806

FGS 1,819,509 3,696,457 7,951,561 13,616,217 14,391,734

Capital 894,648 1,133,941 109,180

Recurrent 1,819,509 3,696,457 7,056,914 12,482,277 14,282,554

% capital 0.0% 0.0% 11.3% 8.3% 0.8%

Total 1,820,506 3,705,283 8,641,213 14,702,981 17,399,737

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

Note: Federal expenditure includes spending in Banadir Regional Administration.

According to Table 3.7 capital expenditure states. This raises concerns regarding
on education is focused at the FGS level, the effectiveness of the present form of
with no investment in facilities and infra- decentralization, whereby political will is
structure at the state levels, including not demonstrated by the establishment
no public provision for the setting up of of structures for delivery of services and
offices or generally improving the work associated operational expenditure.
environment for the recently created

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Chapter 3. Education expenditure

3.1.6 Public recurrent expenditure on education

Recurrent expenditure on education nearly 60 per cent in 2020 (see Table 3.9).
grew almost tenfold in the five years Although the budget utilization reports
from 2016 to 2020, driven by a huge do not detail the operational use of the
increase in salaries. The sector spent a expenditure under grants and transfers,
total of $17.3 million on recurrent items it is largely considered to support the
in 2020, this being nearly all of the public training of teachers, in acknowledgement
spending on education, since only limited of the huge capacity required to improve
expenditure was directed to capital the quality of education in the public
items. Out of the total recurrent expen- sector.
diture, $14.2 million went towards sala-
ries for teachers and administrators at Expenditure on goods and services, on
FGS and FMS levels. The expenditure the other hand, is focused on operations
patterns show that salaries increased at the administrative level and includes
from $1.7 million in 2016 to $14.2 million in the following, just to list the principal
2020, an eightfold increase (see Table 3.8). items: rent and bills for utilities such as
On the other hand, slightly more than electricity, water, and telephone; provi-
$3 million was spent on non-salary items sion of working stations, stationery, and
in 2020, accounting for about 17 per cent equipment, as well as their maintenance;
of the recurrent expenditure, increasing staff training and expenses for confer-
from a paltry $140,000 in 2016, and repre- ence attendance; and travel-related
senting more than twenty-fold growth. expenses. The use of goods and services
Consequently, the share of non-salary as an expenditure category drives service
spending on recurrent expenditure more delivery in the sector since it enables
than doubled from 8 per cent in 2016, to education staff to be mobile, especially
reach 18 per cent in 2020, which can be those whose mandate requires travel,
considered a positive sign in the context such as quality assurance and curric-
of a system that is seeking expansion and ulum support staff. Although as a share of
improvement of service delivery. However, non-salary expenditure it may look large,
this positive sign is largely negated by the the spending on goods and services looks
generally low level of public expenditure very small relative to the entire expendi-
on education. ture on education. Since 2016, spending
on goods and services increased nine-
Non-salary expenditure is focused on fold, although when considered with the
grants and transfers (resources trans- bigger increase in grants, its overall share
ferred to specialized institutions to carry has dropped from 100 per cent in 2016 to
our statutory functions as prescribed almost 40 per cent in 2020.
in their institutional mandate) as well
as goods and services. Expenditure Details of the use of goods and services
on grants increased enormously, from show that in 2020, training, conferences,
$24,000 in 2017 to almost $1.8 million in and consultancy services accounted
2020, with the overall share of grants and for nearly half of the spending in the
transfers growing from only 10 per cent sector, which may be reflective of the
of the non-salary expenditure in 2017 to spending patterns in the wake of the

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 3.8 Salary and non-salary recurrent expenditure on education (US$)

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Salary 1,680,509 3,465,750 6,608,525 11,394,711 14,245,276

Non-salary 139,997 239,533 1,138,040 2,174,330 3,045,282

Total 1,820,506 3,705,283 7,746,566 13,569,041 17,290,557

% Non-salary 7.7% 6.5% 14.7% 16.0% 17.6%

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

Table 3.9 Decomposition of non-salary expenditure on education (US$)

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Grants and other transfers 24,400 724,514 1,281,277 1,759,508

Use of goods and services 139,997 215,133 413,526 893,053 1,285,774

Administration and utilities 76,565 127,533 268,382 290,894 278,883

Office operations and maintenance 39,000 38,000 80,429 81,247 229,353

Training, conferences and consultancy 9,600 31,390 333,703 578,923

Travel and related 24,432 40,000 33,325 187,209 198,615

Total 139,997 239,533 1,138,040 2,174,330 3,045,282

% Grants and transfers 0.0% 10.2% 63.7% 58.9% 57.8%

% Use of goods and services 100.0% 89.8% 36.3% 41.1% 42.2%

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

COVID-19 pandemic. There was a need Figure 3.3 Composition of the use of goods
to train teachers and administrators in and services, 2020
the development of online materials, the Travel and
related Administration
setting up of associated infrastructure and utilities
and the use of the platform to continue 15%
22%
teaching during school closures. The
other three categories (utilities, opera-
tions, and travel) shared the balance of
goods and services expenditure in more
or less equal proportions.
Office
operations
and
Training, maintenance
conferences
and consultancy 18%
45%
Source: Authors’ computations based on FGS and FMS
budget utilization reports.

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Chapter 3. Education expenditure

3.1.7 Intra-sector spending: Growing dominance of primary education

Seventy-five per cent of public recurrent rent items, $7.35 million went to primary
expenditure on education is spent directly education and $5.7 million to post-sec-
on programmes, with the rest focused on ondary education, while $4.3 million went
administration. The recurrent expendi- to administration (Table 3.10). The spending
ture in Somalia can be divided into three on primary education is particularly driven
main categories, namely primary educa- by a huge increase in the teacher wage bill,
tion, post-secondary education (covering which increased by nearly 20 times in the
tertiary colleges and university education), five years from 2016 to 2020. Considering
and administration, which covers general that public primary education has only
administrative services, curriculum devel- registered marginal growth in the period,
opment, examinations, and quality assur- in terms of learners, and teachers as well,
ance, all of which are focused on the primary the growth in salary may be attributed to
and secondary levels of education. Out of a growth in the average salary paid to the
the $17.3 spent by the government on recur- teachers and other staff.

Table 3.10 Public recurrent expenditure on education by function/level (US$)

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Administration 330,995 690,557 1,943,020 3,507,524 4,273,738

Administrative services 268,582 557,031 1,541,163 2,622,530 3,092,807

Curriculum development 10,543 22,556 67,885 149,500 199,492

Examination and assessments 8,411 17,994 54,153 119,259 159,139

Quality assurance 43,459 92,976 279,819 616,234 822,300

Primary 377,984 808,658 2,433,725 5,359,698 7,352,294

Primary education services 11,476 24,551 73,889 162,722 417,478

Primary teacher management 366,508 784,107 2,359,837 5,196,977 6,934,815

Post-secondary education 1,111,527 2,206,068 3,369,821 4,701,818 5,664,526

Academy of Somali Language 86,000 189,633 219,400 241,389 249,623

Somali Academy of Sciences &Arts 122,353 279,510 491,021 589,595 589,309

Somali National University 903,174 1,736,925 2,659,400 3,870,834 4,825,594

Total 1,820,506 3,705,283 7,746,566 13,569,040 17,290,558

Source: FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

Notes: Spending on secondary education is included in the administration vote

Further details show that out of the for 30 and 70 per cent respectively. At the
$5.7 million spent on higher education Somali National University, $4.55 million
institutions in 2020, $4.8 million was spent (or 94 per cent) of the total expenditure
on the Somali National University, while in 2020 was dedicated to the salaries
the balance of $839,000 was spent on and wages of teaching and non-teaching
the Intergovernmental Academy of Somali staff, leaving only $278,000 (or 6 per cent)
Language and the Somali Academy of for the use of goods and services (see
Science and Arts, this spending accounting Table 3.11). This means that quality assur-

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

ance, which is already a challenge for the towards research, which is a key aspect
Higher Education Commission, owing to of tertiary education and is highlighted
its limited funding, cannot be practically as one of the duties of higher education
implemented. In addition, the expenditure institutions in the General Education Act
returns do not show any spending going (MoECHE, 2017).

Table 3.11 Expenditure on higher education in Somalia (US$)

2019 2020
Somali National University 3,870,834 4,825,594

Compensation to employees 3,641,894 4,547,435

Goods and services 228,940 278,159

As percentage

Compensation to employees (%) 94.1 94.2

Goods and services (%) 5.9 5.8

Academy of Somali Language 241,389 249,623

Somali Academy of Sciences and Arts 848,157 589,309

Total 4,960,380 5,664,526

Source: Somali National University.

Figure 3.4 Public recurrent expenditure by sub-sector (%)

2020 25% 43% 1 3 28%

2019 26% 39% 2 4% 29%

2018 25% 31% 3 6% 34%

2017 19% 22% 5% 8% 47%

2016 18% 21% 5% 7% 50%

0
0 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100

Administration Primary IASL SOMASA SNU

Source: Authors’ computations based on data from FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

In the light of the consideration that the TVET at the administrative level has been
spending on administration is heavily linked limited. The government recently created
to basic education, basic education thus the Commission for Higher Education to
consumed two-thirds of public recurrent offer quality assurance to universities.
resources in 2020, having increased from However, lack of financing, as seen in the
half of recurrent expenditure in 2016 (Figure lack of spending on administrative func-
3.4). The spending on post-secondary tions at post-secondary level, together with
education has mainly been on the Somali lack of political will regarding the opera-
National University, the only public univer- tions of the Commission will continue to
sity in the country, and the expenditure on undermine its full operationalization.

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Chapter 3. Education expenditure

3.1.8 Average public expenditure on education per learner

Table 3.12 presents the decomposition of the corresponding availability of data on the
2019 recurrent expenditure on education, number of students in public schools. These
with details on how much was spent on sala- estimates show that out of the $11.4 million
ries, goods and services as well as grants spent on salaries in 2019, $8.5 went towards
and transfers at primary and secondary, teacher/instructor salaries, while more than
post-secondary, TVET and university levels. $2.9 million went to administrators’ salaries,
We choose 2019 expenditure because of mostly in basic education.
Table 3.12 Salary and non-salary expenditure by level of education, 2019 (US$)
Salaries
Goods and Grants and
Teachers Administrators Sub-total services transfers Total
Primary &
secondary 4,273,488 2,837,873 7,111,361 723,551 1,032,311 8,867,223

Primary 4,273,488 133,807 4,407,295 392,464 559,940 5,359,698

Indeterminate - 2,704,066 2,704,066 331,087 472,371 3,507,524

Post-secondary 4,215,129 4,283,350 4,283,350 169,502 248,966 4,701,818

TVET - 68,221 68,221 10,265 15,078 93,564

University 4,215,129 4,215,129 4,215,129 159,237 233,888 4,608,254

Total 8,488,617 2,906,093 11,394,711 893,053 1,281,277 13,569,041

Source: Authors’ computations based on data from FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

Public spending in Somalia favours learners about 58 per cent of per capita GDP, falling
in primary schools. In 2019, the govern- to 25 per cent in the case of secondary
ment spent an average of $268 on each school students, and in the case of univer-
learner attending public primary school, sity students, the spending is almost five
$117 on each secondary school learner, times the per capita GDP. We observe that
and $2,280 on each student attending the the figures for the spending on primary and
Somali National University. Although there secondary schools may not be a true reflec-
is some limited expenditure on TVET, there tion of the effort of government, as many
is no public TVET programme. Relative learners from these lower levels of educa-
to the average wealth in the country, the tion have failed to come back to school
spending per learner in primary schools is following the 2017/2018 drought.

Table 3.13 Average spending per student in public institutions, 2019

Recurrent expenditure (US$) Spending per student
Students
Salaries Goods Grants Total (public) US$ PCGDP Coef
Primary 6,272,021 620,782 885,687 7,778,490 29,078 268 57.5% 1.0

Secondary 839,340 102,769 146,624 1,088,733 9,307 117 25.2% 0.4

TVET 68,221 10,265 15,078 93,564 - NA NA NA

University 4,215,129 159,237 233,888 4,608,254 2,021 2,280 489.2% 8.5

Total 11,394,711 893,053 1,281,277 13,569,041 48,440

Source: Authors’ computations based on data from FGS and FMS budget utilization reports.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

3.2 Private spending on education

The discussion in Section 2 provided an education, based on the second wave of

overview of education service delivery the High-Frequency Survey carried out in
in Somalia focusing on the contributions 2017. We compare expenditure on educa-
made by the education service providers. tion with other consumption catego-
From this discussion, it was seen that ries in the household, providing insights
education is largely private, with public into the affordability of education at
education accounting for an average of the household level. Besides the contri-
10 per cent of learners in general educa- butions from households, this section
tion (lower primary, upper primary, and explores the direct spending by develop-
secondary), and 11 per cent in higher ment partners on schools or support for
education. This means that for 90 per the oversight of education delivery. The
cent of learners, education is largely the contributions of development partners
responsibility of their parents and guard- are based on self-reported data obtained
ians. Section 3.1 has demonstrated that from the partners themselves. The find-
even in public schools, the government’s ings presented in this sub-section,
financial contribution is largely teacher together with those on public expendi-
salaries. It is therefore conceivable that ture, provide some overview of the expen-
school supplies in public schools are the diture incurred in keeping learners and
responsibility of parents. These facts students in school during an academic
underscore the important role played by year. We emphasize that this focuses on
households in the provision of education expenditure and not not the standard unit
in the country. In this section we discuss resources required to deliver high-quality
estimates of household contributions to education services.

3.2.1 Household expenditure on education: Food and housing preoccupy households

Outlay on food tops household spending the $3.7 million spent by government
priorities, with education representing in the same year on public schools; yet,
only a tiny fraction of household like the government contribution, which
consumption. In 2017, the High-Frequency is seen to be low, household expenditure
Survey estimated that households spent on education is estimated to have been
a total of $4.46 billion, with $3.23 billion less than 1 per cent of the total house-
of that going on food, which represented hold consumption and only 2 per cent of
72 per cent of household consumption the total non-food consumption – another
(Table 3.14). The remaining $1.23 billion is indication of the ranking of education in
estimated to have been spent on non-food consumption hierarchy of households.
items, which represented 28 per cent of
the total household consumption. This In households containing children and
highlights the consumption priorities in young people who attended school,
a poor country. The non-food consump- non-food expenditure was slightly higher,
tion covers expenses like housing, educa- at 31 per cent, with education expenditure
tion, health, household assets, leisure, accounting for 1.4 per cent of total house-
etc. These results further indicate that hold consumption and about 5 per cent
households spent a total of $24 million of non-food consumption. The results
on education in 2017, nearly seven times further show that household expendi-

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Chapter 3. Education expenditure

Table 3.14 Household expenditure on education compared to other needs among households with
and without school-going children (US$)
All households (with and w/o Households with school-
school-going children) going children
Household consumption 4,461,174,605 1,673,874,605

Food consumption 3,226,000,000 1,158,000,000

Non-food consumption 1,235,174,605 515,874,605

o/w spending on education 24,174,605 24,174,605

o/w spending on tuition 16,073,085 16,073,085

o/w spending on books 8,101,520 8,101,520

Non-food spending as % of HH cons. 28% 31%

Education as % of HH cons. 0.5% 1.4%

Education as % of non-food cons. 2.0% 4.7%

Source: High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

Note: HH cons. = household consumption.

Figure 3.5 Household expenditure on education by location, type of household and wealth
quintile

58

39

28
23
20
17 18
14

Urban Rural IDP Nomads Poorest Poor Middle Rich Richest

Source: Authors’ computations based on the High-Frequency Survey (World Bank, 2019a).

ture on education is focused on tuition The average household spending on a

and books, with households having spent child or young person attending school
$16 million on tuition in 2017, twice the is $28 annually, with marked dispari-
amount spent on books ($8.1 million). The ties between different places of resi-
high-frequency survey does not delve dence and socio-economic status.
into the details of the tuition expenditure, Figure 3.5 illustrates the average spending
but like the government contribution, it is per student attending school during the
possibly focused on paying teachers, as 2016/2017 school year. Results show huge
estimated in Table 3.15. differentials in the amounts spent on rural

104
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

and urban children as well as on children ries for teachers in public primary and
from rich and poor households. Urban secondary schools.This appears to indi-
households spent nearly $40 in 2017, more cate the lower salaries that teachers in
than double the amount spent by rural private schools earn, considering that
households and the households of IDPs, 90 per cent of enrolments are in private
and more than five times the average spent schools but that the estimated salary bill
by nomadic households. With respect to is only four times the wage bill in public
socio-economic status, the top 20 per cent schools. Apart from the lower salaries
of the households are estimated to have that teachers in non-state schools have
spent $58 on children attending school, to contend with, there is also consider-
four times higher than the spending by able variation in average teacher sala-
the poorest households ($14), and more ries between states, which raises an
than double the spending by households important question of equity and moti-
in the second-richest wealth quintile, high- vation of teachers, and how this could
lighting the disproportionate privilege affect the delivery of their responsibili-
that children from relatively wealthy back- ties in schools. In primary institutions, the
grounds have in the pursuit of education. average teacher salary in private schools
is $124, ranging from a low of $83 in the
Complementary sources on private South West state to a high of $150 in
spending show that private primary Banadir (almost double the average in
and secondary schools paid an esti- South West). At secondary level, the gap
mated $27.2 million to teachers, possibly is even wider, with teachers in South
contributed by households through West paid an average of $146 compared
school fees, which is nearly four times to $248 paid to teachers in Galmudug.
the $6.9 million the FGS spent on sala-

Table 3.15 Teachers’ wages in private schools, 2020 (US$)

Number of teachers Average salary Monthly wage bill
Annual
State Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary wage bill
Banadir 3,534 4,312 150 212 529,796 914,265 17,328,726

Galmudug 838 362 128 248 106,879 89,676 2,358,654

Hirshabelle 627 285 123 210 77,385 59,915 1,647,594

Jubbaland 1,337 299 113 218 150,426 65,073 2,585,982

South West 1,870 796 83 146 155,280 116,466 3,260,940

Total 8,206 6,054 124 206 1,019,765 1,245,394 27,181,896

Source: Authors’ computations based on data from the 2020 annual school census.

105
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

3.2.2 Direct spending on education by development partners

Off-budget support to education from off-budget expenditure by development

development partners exceeds public partners shows that the latter outspent
expenditure on education. The long the government by nearly $2.6 million:
absence of a stable government in the their spending was equivalent to 114 per
country may have limited the opportu- cent of the public spending. This certainly
nities and public channels for providing underscores the importance of develop-
support to schoolchildren. Under these ment partners to the delivery of education
circumstances, the international commu- in the country. Similar to the growing list
nity stepped in to fill this gap. In addition to of development partners providing direct
the support provided through the treasury budget support (on the public expenditure
single source account, which was enumer- side), we note an additional two organiza-
ated in Section 3.1, education develop- tions adding to the off-budget side since
ment partners spent nearly $20 million 2019, with considerable additional portfo-
on education in 2020, almost doubling lios – Adam Smith International with nearly
their aggregate expenditure in 2018 $1 million in 2020 and Care Somalia with
($10.5 million, see Table 3.16). The growth in nearly $1.8 million since 2019. The consol-
development partners’ direct engagement idated off-budget spending only reflects
was particularly large between 2019 and the information shared by partners during
2020; an 82 per cent increase in expen- the ESA process; which may not be exhaus-
diture is recorded. Comparison between tive of all the resources spent off-budget
public spending on education and the by the development partners.

Table 3.16 Off-budget expenditure on education by development partners

Agency 2018 2019 2020
Adam Smith International - - 969,418

ADRA 2,106,635 2,265,649 2,315,330

American Refugee Committee 548,095 599,468 805,163

Care Somalia - 584,020 1,205,665

Concern Worldwide 611,273 604,307 3,269,527

Norwegian Church Aid 570,320 1,085,054 1,079,632

Save the Children 968,000 741,500 3,183,201

Trocaire 173,499 256,518 384,748

UNHCR 1,919,834 1,113,520 369,758

UNICEF 3,562,047 3,713,762 6,386,088

Total 10,459,703 10,963,797 19,968,531

Source: Compilations from development partners’ expenditure reports.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

3.2.2.1 Off-budget expenditure by state was executed, and allows for assessment
of coverage of where the development partners’ direct
weight is placed (Table 3.17). We observe that
Development partners’ off-budget support of the $11.5 million, Galmudug received the
to education is focused on Jubbaland least support, at $190,000, while Jubbaland
and South West state. Of the $20 million received the most, at nearly $4 million. In
of off-budget support to education from fact, the support given to Jubbaland and
development partners, $8.5 million was South West state in 2020 accounted for
not given to a specific region or state. The two-thirds of the off-budget spending
balance of $11.5 million has clear budget (when considering expenditure where the
definition of the state in which the support FMS of implementation is defined).

Table 3.17 Off-budget expenditure on education by state

FMS 2018 2019 2020
Banadir 498,420 965,200 1,891,581

Galmudug 138,540 250,860 189,974

Hirshabelle 333,110 0 622,750

Jubbaland 2,704,071 3,082,853 3,911,863

MoECHE 228,102 966,606 1,007,366

South West 2,934,729 1,507,640 3,866,219

Undefined 3,622,730 4,190,637 8,478,778

Total 10,459,703 10,963,797 19,968,531

Source: Compilations from development partners’ expenditure reports.

Among the FMSs, Banadir Regional 3.2.2.2 Off-budget spending on

Administration was the last to be estab- education by expenditure type
lished, with its operations beginning
in 2019. A look at the support received Development partners are contributing
directly from development partners shows significantly towards capital expenditure,
that Banadir recorded the largest growth yet this is unlikely to fill the gap occa-
during the past three years, increasing sioned by non-investment by the govern-
from nearly $500,000 in 2018 to ment. In Section 3.1, we observed the lack
about $2 million in 2020. To put this in of government expenditure on capital proj-
context, the support to Banadir Regional ects or programmes. The High-Frequency
Administration in 2020 was more than the Survey also recorded no expenditure on
government’s total expenditure on educa- infrastructure development from house-
tion in 2016. Also notable is the general holds. The absence of development expen-
growth of direct support in all states, diture from these two streams leaves a
possibly an indication of a desire to make huge lack of infrastructure, which is neces-
FMS-level administration work. sary for the continuity of learning, not only

107
Chapter 3. Education expenditure

in public schools but in private schools as vation is that in 2020, when the govern-
well. The data presented by development ment’s seemingly rising capital expen-
partners, however, show that out of the diture on education dropped, perhaps
$20 million spent on education in 2020, because of a budget reorganization caused
nearly $3.9 million was spent on infra- by COVID-19, development partners added
structure and related items, accounting more than $1 million in support to capital
for 19 per cent of the total off-budget investments, rising from $2.73 million in
support. Further details show that unlike 2019 to $3.9 million in 2020. What we do
the government spending, whose limited see though is that even though the volume
capital expenditure was focused on central of development expenditure increased, its
and administrative offices, development share in the total off-budget support has
partners provided infrastructure support been coming down, indicating a larger
directly to schools. Another notable obser- increase in support for recurrent spending.

Table 3.18 Off-budget expenditure on education by type (US$)

2018 2019 2020
Recurrent 6,441,633 8,231,197 16,105,397

Development 4,018,070 2,732,600 3,863,134

Total 10,459,703 10,963,797 19,968,531

% Development 38.4% 24.9% 19.3%

Source: Compilations from development partners’ expenditure reports.

The larger part of off-budget spending by development partners on the rehabil-

on capital is focused on construction and itation of classrooms, nearly $1.2 million
refurbishment of classrooms, with the rest out of the $4 million spent on develop-
focused on water, sanitation, and hygiene ment, or 39 per cent of the resources
(WASH) and recreational facilities (see spent on classrooms overall. In 2019 and
Table 3.19). In 2020 for instance, develop- 2020, the spending returns show that
ment partners spent $2.3 million on class- more and more resources were dedicated
rooms, accounting for 76 per cent of their to the construction of new classrooms, the
capital spending. We also observe that in share rising from 61 per cent in 2018 to
2018, considerable resources were spent 79 per cent in 2020.

Table 3.19 Capital off-budget expenditure on education

2018 2019 2020
Construction of classrooms 1,826,435 1,508,419 2,320,109

Refurbishment of classrooms 1,178,560 548,000 617,300

WASH and recreational facilities 1,013,075 676,181 925,725

Total 4,018,070 2,732,600 3,863,134

% Classroom construction/refurbishment 74.8% 75.3% 76.0%

% Towards new construction 60.8% 73.4% 79.0%

Source: Compilations from development partners’ expenditure reports.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

The public education system is reeling improvement, and school supplies, among
from decades of neglect and requires other things, as seen in Table 3.21. In 2020,
expansion in order to provide education development partners spent a total of
to the thousands of children and young $16.1 million on recurrent items, which was
people who are eligible for school. The nearly double the amount spent in 2018.
expenditure structure followed by the
development partners seems to be aligned Out of the $16.1 million spent on recur-
to this priority, with details of expendi- rent items in 2020, teaching and learning
ture showing growth in the number of materials consumed $6.15 million
classrooms constructed or refurbished while teacher salaries accounted for
(Table 3.20). This needs complementary $4.05 million, both accounting for nearly
effort from the government to ensure its two-thirds of the recurrent off-budget
expansion ambitions are not just on paper. spending. Development partners also
supported school improvement to the
Table 3.20 Capital off-budget expenditure on tune of $1.4 million, based on priori-
education ties identified by the schools. One of the
2018 2019 2020 outstanding challenges for the sector is
Construction/ that in spite of this considerable spending
refurbishment of on learning materials by households and
classrooms 407 372 461
development partners, pupil/textbook
WASH and ratios in public schools, according to the
recreational
facilities 10,184 12,445 8,496 annual school census data, remain high,
Source: Compilations from development partners’
with the best scenario being four chil-
expenditure reports. dren sharing an Arabic textbook (see
Section 4 on school resources for in-depth
3.2.2.3 Recurrent off-budget support discussion on pupil/textbook ratios).
by expenditure item
In addition to the direct spending on
Salaries, together with teaching and schools, development partners also facil-
learning materials, account for two-thirds itated policy planning and coordination at
of the recurrent off-budget expenditure by the MoECHE to the tune of $1.75, which
development partners. In Section 3.1, we accounted for 11 per cent of the total recur-
note that the government recurrent expen- rent expenditure. Although not included in
diture was mostly on salaries of teachers the data compiled from the development
and administrative staff. In the case of partners, almost all the direct expendi-
households, two-thirds of the contributions ture from development partners focused
from families were on tuition (presumably on primary education, underscoring the
used for paying teachers). By contrast, for main priority of the government and
development partners, direct recurrent development partners, but also raising
expenditure covers salaries for teaching critical questions about the state of other
and non-teaching staff, capacity devel- sub-sectors, which are hardly receive any
opment, school meals, grants for school funding from the government.

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Chapter 3. Education expenditure

Table 3.21 Recurrent off-budget expenditure on education

2018 2019 2020
Capacity development and awareness 1,089,829 1,122,498 1,154,423

Remuneration of support staff 11,900 26,688 90,043

Remuneration of teachers 2,555,210 2,729,518 4,048,106

Policy and planning support 239,222 680,251 1,750,165

Response to COVID-19 hygiene - - 217,185

School grants and related 1,225,998 1,265,013 1,367,446

School meals 428,640 990,399 1,123,661

Support to girls’ hygiene 25,712 174,804 200,302

Teaching and learning materials 865,122 1,242,026 6,154,066

Total 6,441,633 8,231,197 16,105,397

Source: Compilations of development partners’ expenditure reports.

Figure 3.6 Off-budget expenditure on education by development partners (US$ thousands)

6154

4138

1750
1367
1124 1154

200 217

Menstrual COVID-19 School Capacity School Policy and Teacher T&L

hygiene PPEs meals building grants planning salaries materials

Source: Compilations from development partners’ expenditure reports

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

3.3 Chapter summary

The country is shedding a difficult past, and overall public expenditure remains small,
it was always going to be difficult to change the non-executed budget could nearly
the financing landscape immediately, which double the resources available for running
becomes evident from the findings of this programmes in the sector. This is an area
section. Although the government has where MoECHE would need to engage with
made tremendous progress in increasing its counterpart in the Ministry of Finance to
its commitment to education, the overall find a systemic solution and ensure effec-
financing of education remains much lower tiveness of budgeting process.
than the recommended spending for coun-
tries pursuing SDG 4. Moreover, in the case of The limited expenditure in the sector is
Somalia, the proportion of public schooling focused on primary education and the Somali
in the education sector remains generally National University, leaving other important
low, although it is increasing, and perhaps sub-sectors without clear public financial
the share of public financing should be read footing. This raises an important question
with this in mind. Somalis are dependent on of equity as well as calling into question the
remittances to access goods and services effectiveness of the delivery of high-quality
locally, including education. By volume, there education, especially in early childhood
is a large contribution coming from house- education, secondary, and tertiary education.
holds towards education. Even though the The government is in the process of reviving
contribution is only a small fraction of house- professional technical schools, which will
hold expenditure, the household contribu- help equip students in secondary schools
tion is very high compared to the resources with skills that are in demand in the labour
spent by government. In addition to govern- market. This will further enhance the effi-
ment and household spending, development ciency of education from an external point of
partners directly support the development view and is the very reason for which educa-
and expansion of the sector, with this contri- tion is established –to produce skilled gradu-
bution exceeding the resources spent by the ates who then transition to the labour market.
government.
The broad reconstruction of the country
Based on the present needs of the sector is predicated on the political solution of
in terms of reconstruction and expansion, devolving responsibilities to the FMSs. The
this section establishes that a lot needs to effectiveness of this solution is dependent
be done if the promise of education is to be on a commitment to devolve resources
fulfilled for all children and young people alongside responsibilities. With nearly
in the country. A clear resource mobiliza- three-quarters of 2020 expenditure being
tion mechanism for the sector is needed. executed at the FGS level, the effective-
Besides, there is a need to engage with ness of decentralization is being called
development partners and build their into question. The established structures
confidence in government systems so that at FMS level are not accompanied by a
education investment can be pooled for decentralization of budget and revenue.
better results. The low public expendi- There may be a need for further dialogue
ture on education is partially attributable on how to strengthen the FMSs in carrying
to low compliance on approved budgets. out their functions, which should include
In 2020 alone, 40 per cent of the approved having them execute the larger part of the
budget was not executed. Even though expenditure on education.

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 Chapter 4
Quality of education
and management of
resources
Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

The effectiveness of an education system can be assessed both in terms of outputs,

in the form of student learning outcomes, and of inputs, in terms of its infrastruc-
ture and management. This section seeks to examine both elements, first considering
student achievement in the Grade 8 and Form 4 national exams. Secondly, it explores
the management of the education system, including teacher distribution, school infra-
structure, and learning materials, so as to assess the strength and efficiency of the
current structure. For learning outcomes, data originate from the FMSs and FGS, while
for teachers and infrastructure, the majority of data are based on EMIS data, comple-
mented by the 2019 GPE school mapping. This section considers schools according to
authority type, rather than ownership type, as was discussed in Section 2. This is reflec-
tive of the role of the FMSs prior to 2019, which saw them provide management support
and guidance, rather than financial contributions. As such, public schools in this section
refer to those that are under government authority according to the 2019 EMIS. This
further allows the section to consider the nuances related to school authority type by
also including community schools alongside public and private schools, as best charac-
terisizes the system as it was in 2019.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

4.1 Student learning outcomes

Because of the recent reconstruction of first year the examination was introduced,
the Somali state and the evolving nature while Form 4 exam data are available from
of its education system, there exist only the inception of the examination in 2015 to
two sources of data on learning outcomes, the present. That these learning assess-
both originating from standard exams, ments began not long ago, has affected
with Grade 8 exams administered at the their uptake, limiting the comparability
FMS level and Form 4 exams at the FGS of trends over time. As such, it is appro-
level. Furthermore, both sets of exam priate to consider results as a snapshot
data are historically limited, with Grade of current learning trends rather than as
8 state-level exam data only available for comprehensive indicators of the quality or
the 2019/2020 school year as this was the evolution of the system.

4.1.1 End of primary school examinations: Strong performance and coverage

in 2020

Grade 8 examinations are taken at the end in 2020 were male, at 59 per cent, with
of the primary cycle and a pass is neces- female students representing 41 per cent
sary for a student to progress to secondary (see Table 4.2). Female representation
education. They are taken across seven varies across states, with a low of 35 per
subjects, with a pass awarded according cent seen in Hirshabelle. In general, there
to a total across all seven, meaning that is lower female representation across
students can fail one or more examina- the board, which is reflective of the lower
tions on a subject level, and still pass levels of female enrolment.
overall. According to 2020 enrolment
figures, the great majority of students The large majority of Grade 8 students
enrolled in Grade 8 classes across the passed the national exam in 2020. Pass
country took the final examination in the rates were high across all states, with
2019/2020 school year. This ranges from a a high of 99.5 per cent of all students
low of 91 per cent of all enrolled students passing in South West state, and a national
in Galmudug, to a high of 100 per cent in average of 90 per cent (see Table 4.3).
Hirshabelle (see Table 4.1).
Across states, average scores were
From a gender perspective, the majority highest in Somali and social studies, with
of students sitting Grade 8 examinations students achieving an average of above

Table 4.1 Learners enrolled in Grade 8 vis-à-vis examination candidates, 2020

FMS Enrolled in Grade 8 Examination candidates % of enrolled who took exams
Banadir 26,525 25,426 95.9%

Galmudug 2,573 2,334 90.7%

Hirshabelle 2,806 2,808 100.1%

Jubbaland 2,307 2,285 99.0%

South West 6,077 5,761 94.8%

Total 40,288 38,614 95.8%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Table 4.2 Primary examination candidates by gender, 2020

FMS Female Male Total % Female
Banadir 11,046 14,380 25,426 43.4%

Galmudug 972 1,362 2,334 41.6%

Hirshabelle 989 1,819 2,808 35.2%

Jubbaland 856 1,429 2,285 37.5%

South West 2,156 3,605 5,761 37.4%

Total 16,019 22,595 38,614 41.5%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FGS data, 2020.

Table 4.3 Primary examination pass rates, 2020

FMS Sitting candidates Candidates who passed Pass rate (%)
Banadir 25,426 22,146 87.1

Galmudug 2,334 2,177 93.3

Hirshabelle 2,808 2,638 93.9

Jubbaland 2,285 2,026 88.7

South West 5,761 5,730 99.5

Total 38,614 34,717 89.9

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

67 per cent in both subjects. Conversely, changing as a result of the influx of INGOs
English had the lowest overall average into the country and the growing Somali
score, at 55 per cent, followed by Islamic diaspora, teachers today may still lack
studies at 60 per cent (see Table 4.4). adequate English language skills, which
Across all subjects, most of the average has spillover effects on current learning
scores in the different states were above outcomes.
50 per cent (the pass level), with only
Islamic studies in Galmudug and English Breaking down grades further (see
in Banadir falling below this point. South Figure 4.1), English emerges clearly as
West state had the highest overall scores, the subject in which students exhibited
with an average of 78 per cent across all the weakest performance, being the only
subjects, leading to the highest pass rate subject to see the majority of students
overall, as exhibited in Table 4.3. Banadir fail. However, this average is deflated
had the lowest scores, with an average of by particularly low grades in English
59 per cent across all subjects, contrib- in Banadir state, where 78 per cent of
uting to the second-lowest overall pass students failed this subject, compared to
rate. Low levels of achievement in English only 36 per cent in Galmudug, 10 per cent
can be seen as a result of historical under- in Hirshabelle, 10 per cent in Jubbaland
valuation of the subject, with Somalis and 11 per cent in South West state.
tending to place greater emphasis on Arabic scores are also low, with 35 per
Somali and Arabic languages, often as cent of students scoring between 26 and
a result of national pride. While this is 50 per cent. Looking at this regionally,

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 4.4 Mean score per subject in primary examination, 2020

Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle South West Jubbaland Average
Islamic studies 59.0 36.9 64.5 72.2 61.6 60.2

Arabic 53.9 56.7 77.7 86.9 68.4 61.5

Social science 62.9 62.0 72.5 83.7 72.6 67.2

Somali 62.9 78.0 73.9 76.7 79.4 67.6

Science 60.4 71.2 79.3 79.5 75.8 66.2

English 47.3 55.9 73.4 74.1 73.5 55.3

Maths 64.0 73.3 69.6 71.7 46.9 65.2

Overall 58.6 62.8 73.2 77.8 64.4 59.3

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS exam data.

Figure 4.1 Distribution of grades in primary exams by subject, 2020

Somali 1 11% 56% 32%

Social Science 1 8% 59% 32%

Science 1 11% 60% 28%

Maths 1 14% 57% 28%

Islamic Studies 3 28% 48% 21%

English 3 54% 26% 17%

Arabic 2 35% 37% 26%

0
0 10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
0-25% 25-50% 51-75% 76-100%

Source: Authors’ calculation based on FGS data, 2020.

low Arabic scores are predominately seen with the highest proportion of students
in Banadir, with 48 per cent of students scoring in the 76–100 per cent bracket, at
scoring in the 26–50 per cent bracket, and 33 per cent and 32 per cent respectively.
Galmudug with 34 per cent of students This may be caused by the greater number
scoring in this bracket, in sharp contrast of teachers who specialize in these areas,
with South West state where 87 per cent in comparison to science and maths.
of students scored in the 75–100 per cent
bracket. This shows large disparities in There is parity in pass rates between
achievement across states. Furthermore, female and male students, with female
the low pass rates in Banadir are partic- students outperforming male students in
ularly concerning, given the population three subjects. Female students outper-
size of this region and the concentration formed males in science, Somali and
of wealth. Social science and Somali are maths (see Table 4.5). The lowest levels
observed to be the strongest subjects, of parity were seen in English, with

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Figure 4.2 Share of students scoring above the national averages, 2020

50% 49%
46% 47%
45%

39%
35%
32%

Arabic Islamic Maths Somali Social Science English National

Studies Science average

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FGS data, 2020.

nearly 5 per cent more male students of students scored above the national
passing this subject than female ones, average, again reflecting the difficulties
even though this subject was also seeing students had in this particular subject
the lowest overall pass rates overall. As area. Low levels of English achievement
such, because more males are seen to be bring into question the usefulness of
taking the exam than females, gender is including this language alongside Arabic
not seen to have large effects on grades and Somali in the standard curriculum.
achieved. It must be noted that we are
unable to differentiate between urban, Table 4.5 Gender parity in pass rates by
rural, and nomadic populations in exam- subject, 2020 (% and GPI)
ination results. As such, future iterations Male (%) Female (%) GPI
of the examination system would do well Islamic studies 71 69 0.97
to include this indicator so that gendered
Social science 39 35 0.89
aspects of learning outcomes in these
Arabic 65 61 0.95
communities can be considered further.
Science 87 88 1.01

Across all subjects, the majority of Maths 84 85 1.01

students scoredabove the national English 45 40 0.88

average of 35 per cent, demonstrating Somali 87 88 1.01
that, despite high pass rates, students Overall 90 90 1.00
are demonstrating average, rather than
Source: Authors calculation based on FGS data, 2020.
exceptional performance. English is the Note: GPI = Gender Parity Index.
subject in which the lowest proportion

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

4.1.2 End of secondary school examinations: Patchy coverage and declining

performance

Pass rates in the end of secondary school awarded if this meets or exceeds 50 per
examinations declined from a high of cent. The number of students sitting the
97 per cent in 2015 to a low of 75 per Form 4 examinations has increased by
cent in 2020. Form 4 examinations mark 858 per cent since 2015. The decline in
the end of the secondary school cycle and pass rates over the same time period can
have been carried out since 2015. The full be attributed to the standardization of the
examination is made up of 10 subjects, with exam process, including improvements in
the average score calculated according to quality and supervision and a reduction in
a student’s top seven scores, and a pass malpractice.

Figure 4.3 Evolution of candidates and pass rates in end of secondary school examinations,
2015–2020

35,000 33,727 100%

97% 29,434
30,000 90%
25,675
87%
25,000 84% 80%
78%
20,000 18,239 76% 75% 70%

15,000 60%
11,573

10,000 50%

5,000 3,522 40%

0 30%
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Secondary examination candidates Pass rate

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data.

The increase in the number of students the Form 4 exam, have been returning to
sitting the Form 4 exam has not sit the exam after having officially gradu-
been consistent with the increase in ated, so as to obtain the certificate, which
Form 4 enrolment. Instead, the number has since become necessary for admis-
of candidates exceeded total enrol- sion to higher education institutions. This
ment in 2016 and 2019. This may be is also linked to repeaters, who might not
explained by the fact that students from be included in present enrolment figures,
previous years, including those who sitting the exam, as was also the case at
completed school before the creation of Grade 8.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

While female students made up less than pace than those of male students, having
40 per cent of all students sitting the more than doubled since 2017, while the
Form 4 exam in 2020 (see Table 4.7), their number of male candidates has increased
numbers have been growing at a faster by 74 per cent.

Table 4.6 Students enrolled in Form 4 vis-à-vis candidates, 2015–2020

FMS Students enrolled in Form 4 Examination candidates % of enrolled who took exams
2015 n.d. 3,522 NA

2016 14,016 11,573 82.6%

2017 16,743 18,239 108.9%

2018 n.d. 25,675 NA

2019 21,544 29,434 136.6%

2020 34,716 33,727 97.2%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS and exam data, 2015-2020.

Table 4.7 Evolution of secondary exam candidates by gender, 2017–2020

Female Male Total % Female
2017 6,175 12,064 18,239 33.9

2018 9,123 16,552 25,675 35.5

2019 10,850 18,584 29,434 36.9

2020 12,720 21,007 33,727 37.7

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

Table 4.8 Gender parity in secondary examination pass rates, 2020 (% and GPI)
Subject % of females who passed % of males who passed GPI
Somali 97.0 95.1 1.02

Geography 90.5 91.9 0.98

Chemistry 71.3 72.4 0.98

English 93.2 93.3 1.00

Maths 73.0 75.1 0.97

Arabic 79.3 79.2 1.00

Biology 59.8 60.5 0.99

History 93.0 94.6 0.98

Physics 82.0 82.3 1.00

Islamic studies 69.1 71.8 0.96

Average 73.9 75.1 0.98

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

Note: GPI = Gender Parity Index.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

There are no gender differentials in the pass being reached in history, biology, Somali
rates for the end of secondary school exam- and geography. Somali and history stand
inations. Exact gender parity was achieved out as the two subjects with consistently
in three out of ten subjects in 2020 –physics, high averages. The mean scores were
Arabic, and English –with all subjects falling 72 per cent and 68 per cent respectively
within the range of 0.95–1.05. from across the six years. Conversely,
maths stands out as the subject with
Mean scores have never fallen below the lowest mean scores, with a six-year
50 per cent for any subject over the average of 56 per cent, followed by chem-
six-year period, demonstrating consis- istry at 60 per cent. It is important to note
tently high grades. All subjects except that the mean scores have never fallen
English have seen a decrease in the below 50 per cent for any subject over the
average score over time, although these six-year period, which demonstrates the
declines have not been linear (see consistency of high performance, along-
Table 4.9). The year 2017 stands out as a side the expansion in the total number of
high-performing one, with peak scores students sitting the examination.

Table 4.9 Mean score per subject in secondary examination, 2015–2020 (%)
Six-year
Subject 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 average
Somali 78.6 77.3 78.0 63.6 65.9 66.6 71.7

Physics 64.1 68.3 62.1 69.1 56.5 60.1 63.4

History 68.4 66.6 76.2 65.9 61.9 67.7 67.8

Biology 65.4 55.0 72.9 60.3 53.5 46.9 59.0

Arabic 69.8 54.5 63.1 55.9 68.3 60.6 62.0

Maths 59.1 61.3 52.8 52.4 53.7 55.3 55.8

English 60.4 62.2 49.5 63.8 68.2 67.7 62.0

Chemistry 59.0 58.9 60.5 67.0 59.1 55.3 60.0

Geography 53.1 55.8 81.3 69.7 65.2 64.4 61.6

Overall 70.3 70.2 70.0 69.8 67.0 66.0 68.9

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

There is no subject where the majority of which chemistry and maths are seen to have
students failed. Biology had the highest the lowest averages over time. The subjects
proportion of students scoring in the lowest with the highest proportion of excellent
category (0–25 per cent), at 18 per cent, and marks (over 75 per cent) were English and
the largest proportion of students (40 per history, with 18 per cent and 17 per cent of
cent) failing this subject, at (see Figure 4.4). students scoring between 76 and 100 per
This differs from longer-term trends, in cent in these subjects respectively.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Figure 4.4 Distribution of grades in end of secondary examinations by subject, 2020

Somali 1 3 90% 6%

Geography 1 8% 85% 6%

Physics 2 16% 76% 6%

Islamic Studies 12% 18% 67% 4%

History 6% 77% 17%

Biology 18% 22% 57% 3

Arabic 7% 14% 63% 16%

Math 6% 20% 72% 2

Chemistry 10% 18% 62% 10%

English 1 6% 75% 18%

0
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
50
50
60
60
70
70
80
80
90
90
100
100

0-25% 25-50% 51-75% 76-100%

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data, 2020.

Figure 4.5 Distribution of grades in secondary exams by subject, 2020

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Somali Geography Chemistry English Maths Arabic Biology History Physics Islamic
Studies

Source: Authors’ calculations based on FMS data.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 4.5 demonstrates the grade range Conversely, Somali, history and geog-
by subject for 2020, with the top and raphy are seen to have smaller ranges,
bottom lines indicating the highest and indicating higher proportions of students
lowest score per subject. The boxes indi- scoring around the mean.
cate the difference between the first
and third quartiles, with 50 per cent of Overall, examination outcomes in both
scores therefore falling within this range, primary and secondary institutions are
and the line across indicating the mean. strongly positive, with the majority of
It is clear that physics and chemistry students passing both the Grade 8 and
have the widest ranges of, evidencing Form 4 examinations. This is a hopeful
a large difference between the stron- indication for the quality of education
gest and weakest student performances. being offered in schools.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

4.2 Teacher management

Teachers lie at the heart of every educa- education. This section reviews teacher
tion system and are a key factor in the characteristics at an individual level,
quality of learning. It is therefore imper- including gender and qualifications, as
ative to evaluate a system’s ability to well as the ability of the FMSs to manage
manage its teachers, as well as looking at their teachers efficiently in terms of
the characteristics of the teachers them- deployment and payment of salaries.
selves, when assessing the quality of

4.2.1 Characteristics of teachers: A young, male-dominated teaching force

4.2.1.1 Gender of teachers: Males profession can be related to a wide variety

dominate the profession of factors, including an observed prefer-
ence of females in other professions such
Male teachers account for more than as health and social work, as discussed
80 per cent of the total teaching force in further in Section 5. There are further
primary and secondary schools. Figure cultural barriers to females entering the
4.6 presents the distribution of teachers by teaching profession, as well as barriers
gender, level at which they teach (primary related to employment terms and condi-
or secondary), and FMS. Across all the tions, with the government aiming to
FMSs and at both levels of education, improve benefits such as maternity leave
men dominate the teaching force. Primary in order to encourage more women to
schools tend to have a greater proportion of become teachers. Furthermore, the higher
female teachers, with an average of 14 per representation at the primary level can be
cent, compared to secondary schools, seen as an outcome of the security context
where female teachers account for only in the country, with female teachers
3 per cent of the teaching staff. The low feeling safer in primary schools, whose
representation of females in the teaching young children are less frequently the

Figure 4.6 Proportion of teachers in primary and secondary schools, by gender and FMS, 2020

85% 85% 87% 82%

88%
97% 95% 99% 96% 97%

15% 15% 13% 18%

12%
3% 5% 1% 4% 3%
Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West

Primary Secondary

% Female % Male

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

targets of attacks. The under-representa- the large proportion of teachers who fall
tion of females in the teaching profession into this category, as well as the trigger
has been noted and prioritized in current for different policy targeting (i.e. skills
policy, with an all-female teacher training upgrading versus initial training). At the
institute to be opened in late 2021, with the secondary level, this also includes those
aim of creating greater levels of parity in teachers who have completed a teacher
years to come. training diploma, which is not consid-
ered an adequate qualification for this
4.2.1.2 Teacher qualifications: Evolving level of education. In this way, completely
system with unsettling levels of unqualified teachers are those who have
qualification completed no tertiary education; only
having completed primary or secondary
The official teacher training policy intro- education.
duced in 2020 outlines that to be consid-
ered a qualified teacher in Somalia at Only 1 in 3 teachers in primary schools
primary level, individuals must have is considered to be qualified, with the
completed secondary education, taken remainder being either underqualified or
an 18-month to two-year primary teacher unqualified. Table 4.10 presents the distri-
training course resulting in either a post- bution of teachers across different types
graduate diploma in education or a teacher of primary school according to their cate-
training diploma, completed a mandatory gory of qualification. The results show
period of practical teaching, and passed that overall only 35 per cent of teachers
the requisite examination (MoECHE, in community schools are qualified, only
2020). Primary teachers are also consid- 36 per cent in public schools and only
ered qualified if they have completed a 35 per cent in private schools. There are
Bachelors or Masters degree in Education. large variations across the states in these
Secondary school teachers are required to proportions, ranging from a low of 5 per
undertake a degree course that may take cent in private schools in Jubbaland, to
up to four years, resulting in a Bachelor of a high of 51 per cent in public schools
Education degree. There is also the option in Hirshabelle. Jubbaland stands out as
for secondary teachers to complete a having particularly low levels of quali-
two-year postgraduate diploma in educa- fied teachers in government-supported
tion, followed by additional practical schools, at 19 per cent, and private
in-class training. (MoECHE, 2020). schools, at 5 per cent. There is no clear
trend observed between types if school,
At both levels, the definition of qualified with public and private schools having the
only graduates trained specifically in same average rate of qualified teachers,
education, and does not consider others at 35 per cent. The share of underqual-
who have attained diplomas or degrees ified teachers is equally high, aver-
in other subjects. As such, we consider aging 20 per cent in community schools,
them ‘underqualified’, indicating teachers 16 per cent in public schools, and 24 per
who have attained diplomas or degrees cent in private schools, with consider-
in subjects other than education. While able variation across states and types of
underqualification is not considered in school. This suggests that the teacher
official policy, it is added here due to policy should favour offering in-service

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

teacher training to teachers who have qualification in Jubbaland can be consid-

no formal qualifications, alongside peda- ered surprising, given it is the only FMS
gogical training opportunities in order outside Banaadir to have a national teach-
to provide teaching-specific qualifica- er-training institution. The disparities in
tions to those who lack them. Significant the share of qualified teachers across the
attention should be given to staff in FMSs may reduce access to high-quality
Jubbaland, where over 50 per cent of education, although there is no docu-
teachers are unqualifed. The low rates of mented evidence of this in Somalia.

Table 4.10 Qualified, underqualified, and unqualified primary school teachers, 2019, by state
and type of school (%)
Community Public Authority Private
Underqualified

Underqualified

Underqualified
Unqualified

Unqualified

Unqualified
Qualified

Qualified

Qualified
Banadir 17 38 46 34 26 39 41 28 31

Galmudug 40 17 43 29 20 51 48 10 42

Hirshabelle 47 15 38 51 19 30 40 25 36

Jubbaland N/A N/A N/A 19 18 63 5 42 53

South West 38 17 45 49 0 51 40 15 44

Average 35 20 45 36 16 48 35 24 41

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

Proportions of qualified teachers are of the need for secondary teachers to have
generally lower at the secondary level, an a Bachelor’s degree to be considered qual-
element which can be attributed to the fact ified, or that many of these teachers were
that teachers in these institutions need in post before this policy was introduced
higher levels of education to be consid- and have not been given an opportunity to
ered qualified. This is further reflected increase their level of qualification. Public
in the higher proportion of underquali- secondary schools have some of the lowest
fied teachers at secondary level, where rates of qualified teachers, with only 19 per
many teachers only have a teacher training cent of secondary teachers in Jubbaland
diploma; however, this is not accepted as being qualified. This suggests that at
an adequate qualification at this level (see secondary level, a greater emphasis could
Table 4.11). This explains the higher rates be placed on upskilling underqualified
of underqualification observed. The rela- teachers, especially those with teacher
tive novelty of the teacher training policy training certificates, as well as training the
may mean that some schools are unaware large proportions that remain unqualified.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 4.11 Qualified, underqualified, and unqualified secondary school teachers by FMS and type
of school, 2019 (%)
Community Public Authority Private

Underqualified

Underqualified

Underqualified
Unqualified

Unqualified

Unqualified
Qualified

Qualified

Qualified
Banaadir 30 48 22 7 68 25 20 51 29

Galmudug 14 60 26 12 43 45 37 33 29

Hirshabelle 38 13 49 14 60 27 46 19 35

Jubbaland N/A N/A N/A 11 34 56 N/A N/A N/A

South West 13 61 25 33 30 36 17 47 36

Average 24 46 31 15 47 38 30 38 32

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

Since 2018, the MoECHE has been putting levels of qualifications are observed,
teachers onto the government payroll with South West state having the highest
– a key step in the process of devel- proportion of teachers with a Bachelor’s
oping public education in the country. degree in education, at 56 per cent, and
Currently, there are 50 teachers in each Hirshabelle having the highest propor-
of the four FMSs (Galmudug, Hirshabelle, tion of teachers with no higher education,
Jubbaland, and South West states) who at 46 per cent (see Table 4.12). As it is not
are paid by the government, and a further clear whether teachers are working at the
752 in Banadir. While these teachers primary or secondary level, we are unable
are all employed in public institutions, to comment on rates of qualification at the
some of them are paid by private-sector different levels. However, all states except
bodies or through international organi- South West state exhibit high rates of
zations such as the World Bank. Among underqualified teachers, with 20–30 per
the 952 teachers who receive their sala- cent of teachers holding degrees but not
ries directly from the government, mixed having any pedagogical training.

Table 4.12 Distribution of government-paid teachers by academic training, 2020 (%)

Bachelor’s
Bachelor’s degree in Diploma
degree in another in another Diploma in Secondary No
education subject subject education education Qualification
Banadir 34 22 0 27 13 4

Galmudug 42 22 8 22 0 6

Hirshabelle 20 20 6 8 46 0

Jubbaland 24 30 2 32 0 0

South West 56 2 0 30 12 0

Source: FMS teacher payroll data, 2020.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

It is important to note that teacher in order to identify future training needs.

training is currently evolving and is not The results of this test, which was admin-
standardized, and that there is no uniform istered across all FMSs, highlight the
teacher training curriculum in the country. gap between qualifications and teacher
The MoECHE is attempting to change this performance. In particular, low knowl-
through its new Teacher Policy, introduced edge levels across both secondary and
in 2020, which promise the development primary school teachers are apparent,
of a detailed teacher-training syllabus with secondary teachers performing
to be used in approved teacher-training better across the majority of subjects (see
institutions. In the meantime, the quality Tables 4.13 and 4.14). Pedagogy is seen
of training provided at existing institu- to be the weakest area of knowledge for
tions is widely variable, often resulting both primary and secondary teachers,
in a lack of pedagogical skill and subject with an average pass rate of 18 and 32 per
knowledge. In this way, proportions of cent respectively, suggesting a lack of
qualified teachers are not necessarily coverage of this subject in existing teach-
the best reflection of teaching quality in er-training courses. The TPT shows that
Somalia, reflecting educational attain- teachers possess better subject-level
ment rather than practical teaching skills. knowledge, specifically in Islamic studies
and Somali, than practical teaching skills,
As part of the MoECHE’s efforts to stan- which limits their ability to deliver content
dardize and improve teacher training, all to students in an effective manner
teachers were required to take a Teacher (MoECHE, 2020).
Proficiency Testing (TPT) in 2019/2020,

Table 4.13 Primary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%)

Subject Banadir South West Jubbaland Galmudug Hirshabelle Average
Pedagogy 16.8 17.5 16.3 24.0 14.9 17.9

Mathematics 36.9 35.5 43.6 37.2 20.3 34.7

Somali 95.3 95.5 96.9 98.1 91.3 95.4

Islamic studies 43.4 62.9 59.3 54.8 62.9 56.6

English 36.2 54.9 82.0 69.7 54.2 59.4

Overall 45.7 53.3 59.6 56.7 48.7 52.8

Source: FGS, Teacher Proficiency Test, 2020.

Table 4.14 Secondary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%)

Subject Banadir South West Jubbaland Galmudug Hirshabelle Average
Pedagogy 22.5 22.0 42.9 43.1 29.4 32.0

Mathematics 65.1 4.8 83.3 37.5 20.0 42.1

Somali 100.0 67.9 72.7 100.0 100.0 88.1

Islamic studies 67.6 69.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 87.5

English 28.6 32.1 68.4 80.0 88.9 59.6

Overall 56.8 44.7 73.5 72.1 67.7 62.9

Source: FGS, Teacher Proficiency Test, 2020.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

As seen in Figure 4.7, there is little to no be attributed to the high proportions

difference between the pass rates of of underqualified teachers seen in the
trained and untrained teachers at primary profession, many of whom have studied
level in different subjects, with untrained English at university, whereas previ-
teachers actually performing better in ously, teachers were not obliged to study
English than trained teachers. This may English as part of their training.

Figure 4.7 Primary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%)

96.7% 94.8%

82.2%

74.6%
67.4%
60.9% 62.3%
58% 58.3% 57.2%
56.%
50.6%

34.2% 34.3%

18.9% 17.5%

Pedagogy Mathematics Somali Islamic Studies English Science Social Studies Overall

Trained Untrained

Source: FGS, Teacher Proficiency Test, 2020.

This pattern is amplified at the secondary is largely exclusive to teacher training.

level, with untrained teachers outper- Results from primary and secondary
forming trained teachers in seven of the TPTs demonstrate the inability of existing
nine subjects covered (see Figure 4.8). teacher-training systems to adequately
This may be due to the fact that many prepare teachers for the profession,
‘untrained’ teachers are not completely again highlighting the weakness of using
unqualified, but rather possess proportions of qualified teachers in
non-teaching qualifications such as a Somali schools as an accurate reflection
Bachelor’s degree in another subject. As of the quality of teaching and learning.
such, these teachers may score relatively Moreover, it suggests that in parallel to
well on subject-level knowledge tests the standardization of teacher-training
as a result of their studies. What may be institutions and curricula, there is need to
alarming, however, is how these teachers invest in upgrading the skills of qualified
are able to outperform those with qual- teachers within the system as well, espe-
ifications in pedagogy, a subject which cially in pedagogy and teaching practice.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Figure 4.8 Secondary TPT pass rates by subject, 2020 (%)

100% 100%
97.6%
90.9%

73.3%
70.3%
67.9% 69.2% 66.7%
64%
58.5% 60%
56.1%

42.1%
36.6%
34.2%
30.8% 30.8%

Pedagogy Mathematics Somali Islamic Studies English Chemistry Physics Biology Geography

Trained Untrained

Source: FGS, Teacher Proficiency Test, 2020.

4.2.1.3 Teacher pay: Low renumeration private or community)’ (MoECHE, 2020a).

levels for the majority of primary In addition, it outlines four levels of remu-
teachers neration, set according to academic qual-
ifications, with the highest amounts
In the Teacher Policy of 2020, the FGS expected to be paid to secondary school
outlines the teacher remuneration policy teachers with a Bachelor of education
for the first time, stating it will be applied degree and the lowest to unqualified
to ‘teachers working in all schools (public, primary school teachers who have no

Table 4.15 Distribution of teachers by salary range and gender, 2019 (%)
Primary Secondary
Range (US$) Female Male Female Male
0 10 7 1 1

1–50 11 10 5 3

51–100 38 32 18 11

101–150 14 23 16 22

151–250 9 17 23 39

251–500 17 11 36 23

501–1,000 1 0 0 1

Above 1,000 0 0 0 0

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

official teacher training. While the policy Figure 4.9 Distribution of primary teachers
does not specify the exact amounts and by age and gender, 2020 (%)
has only just begun to be implemented,
66.3
Table 4.15 suggests that it is already in 62.3
force to some extent, with secondary
teachers receiving the highest levels of
payment. Moreover, primary teachers,
and particularly women, are more likely
to be volunteers, or not to be receiving
any remuneration, compared to teachers 25

at secondary level. However, there is also 19

a higher proportion of women receiving

8.1
salaries in the $251–500 range than 4.8 5.9 4.1
1.8 2.6
0 0.1
men. Considering the fact that govern-
ment-paid teachers, who represent a 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 64+
small proportion of the overall teaching Female Male
population, receive $330 a month, it
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.
is clear that the majority of teachers,
especially at the primary level, recieve a Figure 4.10 Distribution of secondary
lower salary than what is offered by the teachers by age and gender, 2020 (%)
government.
17.8 18.1
17.3 17.0 17.3 17.3 17.4
16.5 16.4
4.2.1.4 Teacher age: An influx of young 15.3 15.7
14.1
teachers

The mean age of teachers in the country

is 31, which is reflective of the age of
the general population. In 2020, nearly
two-thirds of teachers in primary were
reported to be less that 25 years old,
effectively making this very young
teaching force bear the burden of growing
15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 64+
the education system in the country.
The youth of teachers is indicative of Female Male

a growing education system and the Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.
entrance of new teachers into it. Teachers
are slightly older in secondary schools, The youthf of teachers is positively
and in primary schools female teachers correlated with the low levels of expe-
are slightly younger than male teachers. rience seen across the country, with an
While we have been unable to evaluate average of 8.3 years of teaching experi-
teacher retention, owing to data incon- ence (see Figures 4.11 and 4.12). Primary
sistencies, it will be important to monitor school teachers have significantly fewer
this moving forward, so that the benefits years of experience than secondary
of the influx of young teachers into the teachers, suggesting that more teachers
workforce are sustained. are entering the profession at primary

131
Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Figure 4.11 Distribution of primary teachers Figure 4.12 Distribution of secondary

by years of teaching experience and gende, teachers by years of teaching experience and
2020 gender, 2020

64.4 64.9
62.7
60.6

19.3
16.3 15.3
13.8 14.2
11.9 11.8
9.3
6.8
3.8 4.8 4.9
2.1 1.5 1.7 0.9 2.9 2.0 2.9 1.4

5 years 6 to 10 11 to 20 21 to 30 31 to 40 40+ 5 years 6 to 10 11 to 20 21 to 30 31 to 40 40+

or less years years years years years or less years years years years years

Female Male Female Male

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.

Figure 4.13 Average years of teaching experience, 2020

12
11
10
9 9 9 9
8 8
7
6
5

Average Banadir Galmudug Hirshabelle Jubbaland South West

Primary Secondary

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.

132
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

level than secondary, an element that can result of household pressures. If gender
be linked with the higher qualifications parity is to be achieved, monitoring this
needed to teach in secondary schools. female teacher attrition and addressing
Female teachers at the primary level are it through policy will be necessary.At
the least experienced, with 61 per cent the FMS level, Galmudug stands out as
having taught for five years or fewer. This, having the least experienced teachers at
coupled with the evidence regarding the both primary and secondary levels, with
age of teachers, suggests an influx of an average of five and six years of expe-
young women into the primary teaching rience respectively. Hirshabelle has the
profession. It will be important to monitor most experienced teachers, far exceeding
this in order to observe whether these national averages. The trend of more
teachers remain within the system, or experienced teachers at the secondary
leave as they get older, potentially as a level is seen across all states.

4.2.2 Teacher distribution: Varying pupil/teacher ratios and poor teacher

deployment

4.2.2.1 Pupil/teacher ratios: Low rates of higher PTRs. In Somalia, pupil/teacher

qualification undermine fairly good ratios ratios are higher among public schools
than among community and privately
Large differences between pupil/teacher managed schools in all states except
ratios (PTRs) and pupil/qualified-teacher South West. This suggests that there is
ratios (PqTR) reflect the low levels of overcrowding in public schools, potentially
qualification among primary teachers. as a result of the fee-free or lower-fee
Pupil/qualified-teacher ratios emphasize access provided in these institutions. The
the severe lack of qualified teachers in difference between PTRs and PqTRs is
the education system. PTRs are calculated very high. Jubbaland stands out as having
using the total school enrolment divided a severe shortage of qualified teachers.
by the number of teachers. As such, While Jubbaland has a PTR of 38:1 in
they are not necessarily reflective of the public schools, and 28:1 in private schools,
number of students and teachers in each this worsens to 2.1 1 and 5.2 1 respectively,
classroom, with lower grades tending to when considering qualified teachers only.
have higher enrolment and, accordingly, There is a clear need for more teachers,

Table 4.16 Primary pupil/teacher ratios by type of school, 2019

Community Public Authority Private
FMS PTR PqTR PTR PqTR PTR PqTR
Banadir 32:1 191:1 41:1 120:1 31:1 75:1

Galmudug 33:1 84:1 43:1 148:1 60:1 124:1

Hirshabelle 41:1 87:1 53:1 106:1 40:1 102:1

Jubbaland NA NA 38:1 201:1 28:1 542:1

South West 48:1 126:1 44:1 90:1 39:1 39:1

Average 39:1 122:1 44:1 133:1 40:1 182:1

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

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Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

especially in public schools, as well as teachers listed in a school teach secondary

better in-service training opportunities classes as well, or just a portion. As such,
for those unqualified or underqualified the numbers presented in Table 4.17 may
teachers already working in the system. be inflated because primary teachers who
do not actually work in secondary class-
Pupil/teacher ratios are considerably rooms have been counted twice. There is
lower at the secondary level, reflecting an even greater jump between PTRs and
the lower enrolment in these institutions. PqTRs than at the primary level, with ratios
It is important to note that the majority of rising to over 100 students per qualified
schools in Somalia (60 per cent nationally teacher in most of the states and school
in 2019) function on a double shift system, types, and even exceeding 300:1 in public
where primary students generally attend schools in Banadir. However, a reverse
school in the afternoon and secondary trend is seen in secondary schools in terms
students in the morning. As such, many of type of school, with public institutions
schools do not have dedicated secondary having the lowest PTRs across all states
teachers but rather use the same teachers except Banadir. Overall, the picture at the
to teach both primary and secondary secondary level emphasizes the need to
classes. However, it is not clear through prioritize in-service teacher training over
the 2019 EMIS data whether all primary teacher recruitment.

Table 4.17 Secondary pupil/teacher ratios by type of school, 2019

Community Public Authority Private
FMS PTR PqTR PTR PqTR PTR PqTR
Banadir 20:1 120:1 23:1 307:1 21:1 107:1

Galmudug 27:1 176:1 20:1 165:1 28:1 72:1

Hirshabelle 40:1 105:1 31:1 223:1 43:1 93:1

Jubbaland NA NA 16:1 174:1 NA NA

South West 30:1 228:1 17:1 52:1 21:1 126:1

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

4.2.2.2 Teacher deployment: Uneven Figure 4.14 Distribution of teachers in public

distribution across schools authority primary schools, 2019
R² = 0.34075
2,500
There is a weak correlation between the
numbers of students and teachers in 2,000

public primary schools. There should be 1,500

a relationship between these two groups: 1,000
schools with higher student popula- 500
tions should also have higher numbers of
0
teachers. As seen in Figure 4.14, there is a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
weak correlation with a degree of random- Source: Authors’ calculation based on EMIS data, 2019.
ness of 66 per cent, meaning that deploy- Note: The R² coefficient is the proportion of the variation
ment in nearly two-thirds of the schools in the dependent variable that is predictbale from the
independent variable. In other words, it reflects the level
does not follow enrolment, as it should.
of correlation that exists between two variables.

134
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

4.3 Other school resources

The most decentralized level of any tion of the physical quality of schools in
education system is the school and the the country, considering key indicators
physical infrastructure therein, with the such as access to electricity, water, and
environment in which students func- toilet facilities, as well as the number of
tion influencing the quality of educa- classrooms and desks available, before
tion they receive. School infrastructure turning its attention to learning materials,
and learning materials are key aspects including textbooks, workbooks, pencils,
a good-quality learning environment. and chalkboards, based on the availability
This section will begin with an examina- of school-related data.

4.3.1 Mass school construction since the end of the civil war

More than half the schools in the country inevitably going to focus on rebuilding.
were established after 2011. As a result of This is demonstrated in Figure 4.15. In
years of civil war, many schools in Somalia Jubbaland, which seems to have borne the
had been destroyed. The period after the greatest burden, nearly 70 per cent of the
establishment of the FGS, in 2012, was schools were established after 2011.

Figure 4.15 Timelines for the establishment of schools in Somalia

South West 9% 38.2% 52.8%

Jubbaland 6.3% 24.4% 69.3%

Hirshabelle 2.7 37.6% 59.7%

Galmudug 1.2 43% 55.8%

Banadir 4.1 35.6% 60.3%

0
0 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100

Before 1991 1991-2010 After 2011

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2020.

The majority of schools in four out of using English as their language of instruc-
the five FMSs use Somali as their main tion is seen in Banadir, an element that
language of instruction. Hirshabelle is can be related to the high proportions of
the exception, with the majority of schools private schools seen in the state, as well
using a combination of Somali, Arabic, and as its urban, international nature. Overall,
English. In Jubbaland, Somali is predomi- evidence aligns with the Education Act,
nant, with almost 90 per cent of schools which provides that the language of
citing this as their language of instruc- instruction in primary school should be
tion. The highest proportion of schools Somali.

135
Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

Table 4.18 Language of instruction in primary schools, 2019 (%)

Arabic & Arabic & Eng & Arabic, Eng,
FMS Arabic English Somali Eng Somali Somali & Somali
Banadir 1.2 17.6 20.9 3.1 1.4 50.9 4.8

Galmudug 0.6 2.8 71.0 1.1 0.6 21.6 2.3

Hirshabelle - 0.3 27.5 1.6 12.9 3.6 54.0

Jubbaland - 5.3 87.6 0.0 3.1 0.9 3.1

South West 0.7 4.3 39.9 0.4 5.8 15.5 33.5

Average 0.5 6.1 49.4 1.2 4.8 8.5 19.5

Source: Authors’ calculations based on GPE data, 2019.

4.3.2 Availability of desks: Undersupply of desks seen across states

Students across all types of schools share Table 4.19 Pupil to desk ratio by type of school,
desks, with the highest amount of desk- 2019
sharing seen in public schools. Ratios are Public Community Private
lowest in community schools: no other type Banadir 5:1 2:1 3:1
of school sees ratios of 2:1. However, there
Galmudug 4:1 12:1 3:1
are multiple factors that influence how
Hirshabelle 3:1 3:1 4:1
these ratios function in reality, including the
Jubbaland 5:1 NA 3:1
fact that different types of schools have
different types of desks. For example, South West 3:1 3:1 3:1

private institutions are more likely to have Average 4:1 2:1 3:1
single-student desks, while public schools Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.
are more likely to have benches at which
multiple students sit together. As this differ- Figure 4.16 Relationship between students
and desks in schools, 2019
ence is not reflected in EMIS data, it is diffi-
cult to gain a precise understanding of the R² = 0.00025
3,000
levels of under-supply. Furthermore, it must 2,500
be considered that the majority of schools in 2,000
Somalia function in shifts and therefore, not 1,500
all students are present in the school at the 1,000
same time. Accordingly, pupil/desk ratios 500

are likely lower than Table 4.19 indicates. 0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

The number of desks in a school is weakly
correlated with the total number of construction. However, as mentioned above,
students. While the main trend seen is because the Somali education system oper-
an undersupply of desks, there are some ates in shifts, relationships may be stronger
schools which have significantly more than indicated in Figure 4.16. If a 1:1 ratio is to
desks than are necessary to support their be achieved, attention will need to be given
student population, confirming a degree of to making up gaps between desk numbers
mismanagement in desk distribution and and enrolment in a systematic manner.

136
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Trends are mixed when examining the rooms to be constructed at some institu-
number of pupils per classroom, with a tions, or for students to be redistributed.
large difference between the lowest ratios
seen in Galmudug community schools, Table 4.21 Students per classroom in
at 27 students per classroom, and the secondary by type of school, 2019
highest at 61 students per classroom in Community Public
public schools in Banadir. Pupil/classroom schools Authority Private

ratios are similar to PTRs, suggesting the Banadir 15 19 30

use of single classrooms per grade, when Galmudug 40 43 32
allowing for the prevalence of the double- Hirshabelle 30 19 55
shift system. Furthermore, examining only
Jubbaland N/A 25 N/A
the pupil/classroom ratios obscures some
South West 28 17 22
of the nuances related to classroom size,
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.
with public schools, for example, being
known to have larger classrooms, wherein In a similar way to the total number of
larger class sizes are more feasible. teachers, the number of classrooms in a
school is also assumed to have a relation-
Table 4.20 Pupils per classroom in primary ship with the number of students, with more
schools by type of school, 2019 populous schools assumed to have more
Community Public Private classrooms. The number of classrooms in
schools Authority schools a school is correlated with the number of
Banadir 51 61 33 students in only 31 per cent of all schools,
Galmudug 27 39 48 exhibiting a weak relationship. However,
Hirshabelle 46 40 40 given the fact that the majority of schools
in Somalia operate on a shift system, distri-
Jubbaland N/A 52 42
bution may be slightly more aligned than
South West 38 42 38
Figure 4.17 suggests. Moreover, given the
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.
high PTRs exhibited above, there is an indi-
Pupil/classroom ratios are generally lower cation of a need to re-evaluate student
at secondary level, although there is much distribution, with some classroom facilities
inter-state variation. Ratios are higher not being used to their full capacity and
than PTRs in the case of community and others being overcrowded.
public schools in Galmudug, as well as in
private schools in Hirshabelle, suggesting Figure 4.17 Distribution of classrooms and
that there are not enough classrooms enrolment of primary and secondary levels, 2019
to support one grade per room, thereby R² = 0.31418
80
indicating the existence of multi-grade 70
teaching. On the other hand, there are 60
50
also instances of lower pupil/classroom 40
ratios than PTRs, for example in commu- 30
20
nity schools in Banadir, suggesting an 10
oversupply of classrooms for secondary 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
populations. Areas with very high ratios
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.
should be considered more carefully, in
order to assess the need for additional

137
Chapter 4. Quality of education and management of resources

4.3.3 The Somali national curriculum

While the private sector played a signif- has been put into providing access to the
icant role in delivering education during new primary curriculum and significant
the years of civil war, the lack of a progress has been made. The process
uniform curriculum in the country was a of unifying access to learning materials
major challenge to reviving the educa- across the country has begun in earnest.
tion system when the war was over. The That being said, 2020 EMIS data did not
MoECHE noted this deficiency and made it collect information on textbooks, and,
a priority to remedy it when redeveloping therefore, the discussion below relies on
of the sector, leading to the first National 2019 data, which do not reflect this most
Curriculum Framework in 2014. Following recent mass distribution. As such, ratios
a series of state-level consultations, the at the primary levels are likely signifi-
first draft syllabus was produced, and cantly lower than what is presented below,
itwas piloted in selected schools in June although it is important to note that text-
2017. The development of the curriculum books did not reach all schools listed in
was paralleled by the creation of new the EMIS. Additionally, as similar mass
learning materials. Before this standard- distribution at the secondary level has not
ization, more than 40 curricula were used yet been carried out, the ratios presented
across Somalia, with textbooks also being below can be seen to still hold. It will be
varied and often not available in Somali essential to capture this information in
(Sheikh and Hussein, 2019). In June 2018, future EMIS data collection, in order to
the new lower primary, upper primary, fully capture these mass efforts as well as
and secondary textbooks were launched, identifying areas of shortfall.
aligned with the new national curriculum.
Since their launch, about 250,000 free Textbook distribution mismanagement
primary-level textbooks have been distrib- has led to a shortage of books in schools,
uted across all the states. and in some cases a complete absence.
Learners across the education system
4.3.3.1 Pupil-textbook ratio: High have to contend with high pupil/textbook
ratios result from mismanagement of ratios, with the lowest ratios being seen
distribution in public schools in the early grades (see
Table 4.22). Private schools see increasing
Textbooks were distributed to a total ratios with grades, while the inverse
of 428 primary schools in 2020; 97 in is seen in community schools, demon-
Jubbaland, 91 in Banadir, 88 in Galmudug, strating diverse trends across different
76 in Hirshabelle and 76 in South types of schools. There are no significant
West state in 2020, with a total of over differences among subjects in terms of
1.7 million primary textbooks given out. textbook supply, with all class levels and
While it is not clear what pupil/textbook school authorities showing that ratios
ratios were achieved in this distribution are far above the 1:1 goal outlined in the
process, it is clear that significant effort previous ESSP (MoECHE, 2017).

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 4.22 Primary pupil/textbook ratios by subject, grade, and type of school, 2019
Community schools Private schools Public Authority
Somali Science Maths Somali Science Maths Somali Science Maths
Grade 1 24:1 24:1 27:1 13:1 18:1 13:1 8:1 8:1 8:1

Grade 2 25:1 25:1 28:1 13:1 18:1 13:1 9:1 9:1 9:1

Grade 3 26:1 25:1 29:1 14:1 19:1 15:1 14:1 13:1 14:1

Grade 4 24:1 24:1 27:1 15:1 20:1 16:1 17:1 14:1 15:1

Grade 5 19:1 18:1 19:1 19:1 23:1 19:1 24:1 17:1 22:1

Grade 6 17:1 16:1 17:1 24:1 30:1 23:1 21:1 15:1 19:1

Grade 7 16:1 15:1 16:1 29:1 35:1 31:1 17:1 12:1 15:1

Grade 8 15:1 14:1 14:1 37:1 43:1 39:1 16:1 11:1 15:1

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS, 2019.

Textbook provision is almost non-ex- with ratios consistently increasing each

istent at secondary level, with higher year, leading to the highest ratios in
ratios observed than at primary level, and Form 4. Additionally, while textbooks
government-supported schools again were distributed to primary schools in the
evidencing lower ratios (see Table 4.23). last two years, secondary schools have
Trends are more similar between different not yet benefited from the textbook distri-
types of school at the secondary level, bution programme.

Table 4.23 Secondary pupil/textbook ratios by subject, grade, and type of school, 2019
Community schools Public Authority Private schools
Somali Science Maths Somali Science Maths Somali Science Maths

Form 1 29:1 29:1 29:1 15:1 21:1 17:1 9:1 9:1 9:1

Form 2 40:1 40:1 42:1 18:1 25:1 21:1 11:1 13:1 12:1

Form 3 44:1 44:1 46:1 24:1 31:1 26:1 24:1 30:1 26:1

Form 4 117:1 117:1 130:1 64:1 72:1 73:1 42:1 50:1 45:1

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

All school authorities have high propor- across this type of school. This suggests
tions of schools reporting that they have that the government has been unable to
no textbooks, ranging from a high of reach its target in the former ESSP of
77 per cent of public secondary schools, distributing adequate numbers of text-
to a low of 29 per cent of public primary books to all schools by 2020 (MoECHE,
schools. More secondary schools reported 2017). Furthermore, a complete lack of
having no textbooks than primary schools learning materials indicates that the
across all types of school. While public quality of education being received in
primary schools have a relatively high these institutions must be low as well.
proportion of schools with ratios in the However, it is not clear why, when text-
9:1 range, they also have the highest books are absent in a large majority of
proportion of schools reporting ratios of institutions, learning outcomes are high,
over 100:1, demonstrating wide variation as discussed in Section 4.1.

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Table 4.24 Pupil/textbook ratio ranges in mathematics, 2019 (%)

Range of pupil/textbook ratio ( textbooks per student)
Level of
education Type of school 0 1–9 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–99 100+
Primary Community 42 23 19 6 2 3 4 2

Private 50 15 11 7 4 2 4 7

Public authority 29 20 12 7 3 2 6 23

Secondary Community 50 9 9 2 4 2 11 13

Private 71 9 4 1 1 3 3 6

Public authority 77 16 5 0 2 0 0 0

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

4.3.3.2 Access to key school cited access to toilet facilities. In schools

infrastructure: Variations show much has in Galmudug, Banadir and South West
yet to be developed state, access to facilities for students
with disabilities is greater than access to
Access to water, toilet facilities, and hand-washing facilities. Furthermore, it is
electricity is high across the majority of clear that there tends to be better access
institutions, but hand-washing facilities to water than to hand-washing facilities,
and facilities for children with disabili- suggesting that water is used for other
ties remain scarce. As Table 4.25 shows, purposes. There is a need to consider
Jubbaland has the lowest levels of access repurposing the water supply for sanitary
to water, toilets, and electricity, while in use, especially under COVID-19.
Hirshabelle over 90 per cent of schools

Table 4.25 Access for schools to key amenities and facilities by FMS, 2019 (%)
Hand-washing Facilities for children
Water facilities Toilet facilities with disabilities Electricity
Banadir 83 20 87 24 85

Galmudug 88 11 91 17 83

Hirshabelle 83 23 94 19 74

Jubbaland 70 29 65 20 54

South West 79 12 83 21 60

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

Examining infrastructure by type of private institutions are more likely to have

school reveals mixed results, with facilities for students with disabilities,
community schools tending to have the suggesting that some of these schools
greatest access to water, toilet facilities, may be targeted towards this population.
and electricity (see Table 4.26). However, There is a clear need to develop infrastruc-
public schools are seen to have the ture in all types of institutions, including
greatest access to hand-washing facil- those receiving government support, with
ities, suggesting stricter implementa- only 85 per cent of public schools having
tion of infrastructure regulations, while access to water and only 75 per cent to

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 4.26 Access for schools to key amenities and facilities by type of school, 2019 (%)
Hand-washing Facilities for children
Water facilities Toilet facilities with disabilities Electricty
Community 89 14 91 11 74

Government 85 33 75 19 67

Private 74 16 83 26 75

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

Table 4.27 Average number of toilets per pupil in primary schools, 2019
FMS Community schools Public schools Private schools
Banadir 314 226 168

Galmudug 124 90 344

Hirshabelle 140 152 236

Jubbaland N/A 156 434

South West 220 159 225

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EMIS data, 2019.

toilet facilities. Furthermore, given the numbers of students sharing one toilet
dominance of private institutions in terms (see Table 4.27). This ranges from a high
of enrolment, it is clear that access to key of 434 students to a low of 90 students
school infrastructure is limited for many per toilet, evidencing high levels of stress
students across the country. placed on these facilities. This is addition-
ally concerning as it suggests that many
It is important to note that even when schools do not have separate facilities for
schools do have access to toilet facilities, girls and boys, something that has been
these are not numerous, leading to high seen to be a barrier to girls’ enrolment.

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4.4 Chapter summary

Recent years have seen the country on upskilling the currently under- and
establish end-of-cycle examinations at unqualified teachers, as well as ensuring
Grade 8 and Form 4, which provide a snap- that future recruitment brings in more
shot of the outputs from those two levels qualified teachers. Apart from the qual-
of education. The evolution of these exam- ifications of teachers, another staff-re-
inations, especially at secondary level –for lated problem is that the deployment of
they have been in place for longer at his teachers to schools is not equitable. Some
level – suggest that the administration of schools have too many teachers, but the
examinations is getting more stable by bigger concern is that some have too few.
the year. The support this has received There is a need to develop and implement
in terms of public resources also breeds redistributive policies to ensure equitable
confidence in the credibility and validity use of available teaching resources, espe-
of the examinations going forward. The cially in government-supported schools.
examination results are relatively strong While the General Education Law states
but highlight some subjects which may the necessity of having manageable
require particular attention, especially class sizes and PTRs, there is a need for
mathematics, biology, and chemistry at agreed standards, like an approved PTR,
the secondary level. Although the fact which would help limit the gaps between
that Grade 8 exams are so recent makes schools.
it difficult to provide concrete recommen-
dations, they exhibit high pass rates, indi- Textbooks are in very short supply across
cating strong performance from students. states, levels of education and types of
In general, attention should be given school. The absence of a national text-
to maintaining the high proportions of book policy that outlines the responsibil-
enrolled students sitting these exams ities of community and private schools in
in the coming years. Moreover, with the textbook acquisition constrains our ability
summative examinations getting stable, to implement improved or redistributive
focus should now shift to school-based policies. This certainly limits the extent to
assessment for all grades, in order to which the relatively new national curric-
provide a more comprehensive picture of ulum can be effectively implemented. In
learning outcomes, rather than focusing addition to the shortage of books, large
solely on the results from the terminal proportions of schools in the country lack
grades. access to key infrastructure and ameni-
ties such as electricity, water, and toilet
Under-qualification and non-qualifica- facilities. There is also a clear shortage of
tion of teachers is a pressing issue across desks in schools. Knowing that this equip-
the country, and even where teachers are ment and these facilities and ameni-
trained and qualified, they lack pedagog- ties support the learning process, their
ical skills. This compromises the quality of absence in schools raises important ques-
education that can be provided in these tions about the type of education that is
institutions. Emphasis needs to be placed available in schools.

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 Chapter 5
TVET and higher
education
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

This section presents the organization and delivery of technical and vocational educa-
tion and training (TVET) and higher education, looking at aspects of access to training
programmes, the management of these programmes, and the management of the insti-
tutions delivering further education. The section also discusses the transition of TVET
and university graduates to the labour market, and the efficiency thereof. The results
presented in this section are based on administrative data from the MoECHE, and find-
ings from the high-frequency survey conducted in 2017, as well as discussions with key
stakeholders/implementers in tertiary education.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

5.1 Organization and delivery of TVET

and university education

Skill development is one of the sectors education to provide structured skill devel-
that borne the brunt of the collapse of the opment that will address the skills deficit
Somali state in 1991, and it has struggled manifested in the large proportion of inac-
for revival amid the conversation about tive young people of working age. We do
the demographic dividend on the African not see the sector taking full advantage
continent. While its young population of the opportunities and instead, tertiary
makes Somalia a potential beneficiary education has been neglected. Persistent
of the demographic dividend, the under- neglect of TVET and higher education will
development of tertiary education and certainly continue to expose young people
persistent lack of attention to it leaves the to the extremism and other social ills that
country’s youth population at further risk have made good and effective governance
of the social ills that have engulfed the difficult to achieve in the country since
country for some time now. As the country the collapse of the Somali state. Against
rebuilds itself, there is great demand for this background, this section presents the
a variety of skills, as evidenced by the landscape of delivery of TVET and higher
various labour-market surveys conducted education, assessing the existing struc-
in each of the FMSs. This creates an excel- tures delivering tertiary education, as well
lent opportunity for TVET and higher as its financing, and its management.

5.1.1 Organization and delivery of TVET

Delivery of TVET in Somalia is based on a Administration with a publicly managed

short-term project approach, is supported technical professional college, meaning
by non-state organizations, and is focused that skill development in Somalia is mainly
on urban areas. Before the collapse of the delivered through local or international
Siad Barre regime in 1991, Somalia had one non-state actors in project-based short-
of the best TVET institutes in Africa, as term training programmes. The training
well as 86 technical professional schools programmes are offered in small training
in the country, 84 of which were under centres which came into operation after the
the management of the then Ministry of reestablishment of the FGS, in an emergen-
Education, with the remainder managed cy-response model. Almost all these centres
by the Ministry of Labour. These technical are managed by NGOs, with the excep-
professional schools were seen as a key tion of five privately managed institutions,
part of the industrial and commercial devel- which are all located in urban areas. This
opment of post-independence Somalia, disadvantages more than half the popula-
providing a lot of the human capital neces- tion, who hail from the rural areas, are IDPs,
sary for the construction of the Somali state. or come from other marginalized groups,
Much of this infrastructure was destroyed as they are effectively denied access to
after 1991, resulting in uneven provision by these programmes. Participation in the
professional institutions across the country programmes fluctuates both within and
and a lack of alignment with the needs of across the years, since the centres are only
the labour market (FGS, 2020). operational when there is funding from the
organization that sponsors them. Moreover,
Currently, Jubbaland is the only state the brevity of the training programmes,
among the four FMSs and Banadir Regional compounded by data-collection chal-

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

lenges, does not give a clear picture of the tegic and development plan, and a national
actual participation in TVET. The centres are vocational qualifications framework. This
responsible for their own curriculum, exam- MoU marked a watershed moment for the
inations, and certification, a factor which institutionalization of TVET in Somalia, and
undermines national accreditation. This is its future growth and success rely on the
exacerbated by the lack of a national qual- effective implementation of the content of
ifications framework, which could harmo- the MoU.
nize the different levels of training. The civil
strife in the country put this several strides There is limited financial input from
back, and although the project-based the government, even as the MoECHE
approach is a good way of keeping some considers the revival of publicly provided
young people engaged, it may not be a long- TVET. The discussion of education expendi-
term solution for the thousands who are ture in Section 3 indicates that the govern-
unskilled and unemployed. ment barely spends anything on TVET,
with a total of only $113,600 having been
The system of TVET provision is in a allocated in 2020 towards this critical
state of evolution, with a Memorandum sub-sector. Apart from the salaries paid to
of Understanding (MoU) between the the lean department of five staff, expen-
MoECHE and the Ministry of Labour and diture returns do not have clear traces of
Social Affairs having been signed in April funds spent on fulfilling the mandate of
2021 which for the first time outlines each the TVET department, including coordina-
ministry’s role in the provision of technical tion of TVET activities in the country, prepa-
education. A key distinction was made in ration of plans for the development of the
this MoU between training, programmes, TVET sub-sector, monitoring of schools
and projects lasting 12 months or less, providing Alternative Basic Education (ABE)
also known as ‘vocational trainings’, which (which are also managed by the Director
are now to fall under the mandate of the of Non-Formal Education and TVET), and
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, and harmonization of the TVET curriculum,
activities, programmes, and projects lasting among other functions. The 2017–2019
over 12 months, which are known as tech- National Development Plan, under educa-
nical education and are the responsibility tion-sector objectives, envisioned the
of the MoECHE. The Ministry of Labour strengthening of TVET centres and the
and Social Affairs is therefore mandated establishment of new technical secondary
to provide labour-market data collection schools to equip students with the practical
and analysis, short-term training centres skills, knowledge, and entrepreneurial tools
and the registration and accreditation of that match labour-market needs. The plan
all training providers, while the MoECHE is further envisioned the provision of high-
responsible for the National Qualifications quality training and accreditation while
Framework, assessment and certification also linking students to industry through
of both instructors and trainees, provision apprenticeships (FGS, 2017). Under labour
and operation of long-term training, and the and employment objectives, the govern-
development of curricula and programmes. ment envisioned ‘increasing employment
The two ministries also agreed to work opportunities and decent work particularly
collaboratively to produce and implement for the youth’, which was predicated on the
a national TVET policy, a TVET-sector stra- strengthening of schools and the expan-

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

sion of training opportunities in existing 5.1.1.1 Access to TVET

ones. The feasibility assessment for profes-
sional technical secondary schools in the There are 58 TVET centres in the
country also signalled positive prospects country, distributed across eight regions,
for the planned re-establishment of tech- with limited growth, and Middle Jubba
nical secondary schools targeting skills totally left out. The entirety of the coun-
in agriculture, marine work, and fisheries, try’s youth is served by 58 TVET centres
as well as veterinary medicine (MoECHE, (according to administrative data from
2020a). While the plan and the assessment MoECHE, 2020), with just over one-fifth
speak volumes for the vision for TVET, this of these located in Banadir, Galmudug
has not been reflected in its funding levels: and South West state respectively, and
the TVET sub-sector receives for the lowest one-third in Jubbaland (see Table 5.1). Out
amount of public expenditure in the educa- of the nine regions of the country, Middle
tion sector. Jubba has no TVET centre, owing to the
heavy presence of the al-Shabaab militant
The collapse of the central government in group, which makes the establishment of
the early 1990s had far-reaching conse- the centres somewhat difficult, a situa-
quences, as the management of key coor- tion which further worsens the vulnera-
dination functions remains weak to date. bility of the eligible young people living
A wave of insecurities was followed by in the region. According to the two years
the migration of key staff from adminis- of data collected by the EMIS depart-
trative offices, rendering most govern- ment, the number of centres increased by
ment offices dysfunctional. Critical func- 12 between 2019 and 2020, with notable
tions like quality assurance, monitoring improvements in Banadir and Lower
the implementation of key public inter- Jubba. In all other regions, the number of
ventions, and general administration, all centres either remained static or dropped,
suffered. This is reflected in the lack of which is characteristic of a system that
approved policies and structures to facili- is not growing fast enough to meet the
tate the delivery of education and training demand from young people.
by both public and private entities.

Table 5.1 Distribution of TVET institutions by state/region

Region 2019 2020
Banadir
Bay 6 7 South West
21%
Bakool 3 3 21%
Banadir 9 12

Galgaduud 7 7

Gedo 3 2

Lower Jubba 9 19 Galmudug

Lower Shabelle 2 2 22%
Jubbaland
Mudug 7 6 36%
Total 46 58

Source: EMIS, 2020.

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Enrolment in TVET remained similar in increased by nearly 400 in Bay between

2019 and 2020, perhaps reflecting the 2019 and 2020, by nearly 700 in Banadir,
limited demand for TVET, but this could and by more than 300 in Lower Jubba,
also reflect data-collection problems. while in Galgaduud and Mudug, participa-
The annual schools census of 2020 and tion dropped by 270 and 500 respectively,
returns from Jubbaland reveal that there with anecdotal evidence from TVET offi-
were 8,700 trainees distributed across cials revealing data-collection challenges
the 58 TVET centres, a marginal increase in in these centres. Officials recount that
on the previous year (Table 5.2). Out of these numbers often misrepresent the
the 8,700 trainees, 6 in 10 were enrolled picture of TVET in the country as they only
in centres in Banadir and Jubbaland, high- capture the number of students present in
lighting the fact that access to TVET the centres at the time of data collection.
training is not evenly distributed, even Often, the data does not include trainees
among urban areas. Beyond the inade- who have completed their training a few
quate supply of TVET opportunities, we months beforehand. The fact that these
observe a particular weakness in the fact centres also operate only when funding
the training is project-based, which is is available also contributes to the weak-
reflected in the fluctuations in enrolment. ness in their management, as they cannot
For instance, the number of participants have sustainable predictability.

Table 5.2 Enrolment in TVET centres by region

Regions 2018/19 2019/20 Share of 2019/20 enrolment (%)
Bay 1,186 1,577 18.1

Bakool 242 214 2.5

Banadir 2,874 3,538 40.7

Galgaduud 1,030 761 8.7

Gedo 736 284 3.3

Lower Jubba 1,166 1,495 17.2

Lower Shabelle 457 457 5.3

Mudug 882 375 4.3

Total 8,573 8,701 100.0

Source: EMIS, 2020, and Jubbaland TVET data, 2021.

In addition to the TVET centres, there are in the college are supported by education
also two national teacher-training insti- partners in order to increase the provi-
tutions in Somalia, with two additional sion of qualified teachers in the country,
centres currently in development. These which has been identified as a critical
two centres are in Jubbaland and Banadir; need of the sector (see discussions in
the former admitted its first batch of Section 4). However, with only two insti-
students in August 2017. Data from this tutions currently supporting this process,
college evidence no attrition in the four the limitation in the capacity to train the
years since it was opened, with all first- number of teachers necessary to match
year students transitioning to the second the growing needs of the school-age
year (see Table 5.3). All students enrolled population is apparent.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 5.3 Enrolment in Jubbaland Teacher required to fuel the intended economic
Training College revolution, a glimpse of the participa-
tion in the clusters on offer reveals even

2019/2020

2020/2021
2018/2019
2017/2018
participation between males and females
in most of the skill areas. Of the trainees
who were in TVET centres in 2020,
First-year students 150 150 100 150 53 per cent were female, indicating an
Second-year even quest for economic empowerment
students 150 150 100 by males and females (see Table 5.4).
Total 150 300 250 250 This overall balance notwithstanding,
Source: Jubbaland Teacher Training College enrolment the results demonstrate that males have
data, 2021. high participation rates in traditionally
male-dominated trades (they account for
Despite the strategies set out in the National 91 per cent of the enrolment in carpentry
Development Plan (2017–2019) to ‘develop and construction, 89 per cent in disaster
monitoring and evaluation framework and management, and 88 per cent in elec-
plan; establish and build the capacity of the tricity and mechanical trades).
M&E units at federal and state level and
introduce joint annual reviews and impact Table 5.4 Share of enrolment in TVET by
evaluation to closely monitor the progress gender and skills cluster (%)
prior to the implementation of the education Skill cluster Female % of cluster
sector plan’, data collection has not been Agric and livestock 53.8 2.2
very effective at tertiary education level.
Art & design 92.6 7.1
This remains an area of the management of
Business studies 45.9 1.6
TVET and higher education that will need
Carpentry 8.7 3.2
to be addressed in if the system is to effec-
tively track and monitor the programmes Construction 8.8 8.2

that are on offer, as well as the participation Disaster management 10.9 0.5
in them. Electricity 12.1 7.9

Hair and beauty 97.8 12.6

Overall, more than half the trainees in
Home management 85.9 6.5
TVET programmes are female, with
ICT basics 35.4 11.4
participation in some clusters showing
obvious gender dominance. The service Literacy skills 49.9 11.5

industry in Somalia is leading the recovery Mechanical 12.2 6.2

of economic fortunes in the country, with Nursing 58.5 3.7
small business thought to be the next Tailoring 67.3 17.3
driver of economic growth. The estab- Total 52.8 100.0
lishment and development of small busi-
Source: EMIS, 2020.
nesses were envisioned to be supported Note: This table excludes Jubbaland data, as it does
by a strengthened skill development not include data on gender or skills cluster and instead
programme, which is only now being uses EMIS data to reflect Jubbaland enrolment.
implemented through the project-based
approach. Although this approach to It is noteworthy though that increasingly,
training may not provide all the skills there are more females acquiring skills in

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

these male-dominated areas, with labour trated in Figure 5.1, 1 in 10 trainees pursued
force surveys recommending that female the shortest training programmes, 6 in
trainees be supported to train for these 10 pursued the six-month programmes,
trades, both to enhance their economic and the remaining third pursued
empowerment and to weaken traditional programmes lasting longer than six
gender norms, which have forced women months. These training programmes are
to focus solely on child care and house- meant to increase the employability of
hold chores (Axiom, 2018). In some areas, the young people, contribute to poverty
programmes are nearly filled by female reduction among them, and reduce their
trainees (art and design, hair and beauty, vulnerability to conflict. Nearly 90 per
home management). In all other skill clus- cent of the trainees in 2020 attended
ters, female participants were either the NGO-supported centres, 12 per cent
majority or were not outnumbered by males. attended privately operated centres, and
a very small percentage attended commu-
Half-year programmes are the most nity-supported centres (see Figure 5.2).
popular in the TVET centres, and nearly The NGO-supported centres rely mainly
9 in 10 trainees attend NGO-supported on donor funding, which makes them
centres. The TVET centres provide a vulnerable, and more so at this time,
range of training programmes, some of when donor assistance is expected to
which are as short as 3–6 months while take a dip following the disruptions of the
others are as long as two years. As illus- COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure 5.1 Duration of training programme Figure 5.2 Support type for TVET centres

Up to 2 years 3-6 Months Community

Private
10% 10% 12% 1%
1 Year
INGO
4%
28%

6-12
Months
19%

6 Months
LNGO
58%
59%
Source: EMIS, 2020.

5.1.1.2 Quality of TVET surveys conducted across the FMSs indi-

cate a persistent mismatch between skills
Although multiple sources reveal the acquired by trainees and the expecta-
mismatch between training and labour- tions of the market (Axiom, 2018). Even
market expectations, the country has though the skill clusters discussed above
yet to harmonize the TVET curriculum. are aligned to the job opportunities avail-
This is in part due to limited funding got able in the market, employers seem
the sub-sector. The 2018 labour-market inclined to employ university graduates

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

at the expense of TVET graduates, with approach to training, the lack of a harmo-
this signalling the non-responsiveness of nized curriculum, and the lack of capacity
the centre-based TVET curriculum. The to provide quality assurance to TVET
low literacy rates among TVET trainees, centres mean that they are not properly
who take literacy classes alongside their accountable. The 2020 schools census
other classes, could also be a contrib- shows that the 58 TVET centres were
uting factor to the market’s preference for served by 332 instructors, and informa-
university graduates, who certainly have tion on qualifications was only available
higher literacy and are deemed to be more for 219 of them (see Table 5.5). Of these,
functional on assignments. In addition, the 129 (or 59 per cent) were reported to a
lack of industry competence standards have Bachelor’s degree (although there
continues to alienate potential employers, was no information about what subject
making the absorption of TVET gradu- they had studied), 22 (or 10 per cent)
ates into the labour market thus remains had a diploma, and 68 (33 per cent) had
relatively low. According to Axiom (2018), no post-secondary education. The latter
only 15 per cent of TVET graduates from can be considered to be under-qualified
South West state had been absorbed to teach in a TVET centre. Notably, the
into the labour market in the preceding proportion of under-qualified instructors
three years, 10 per cent in Jubbaland, and exhibits large variations between regions,
20 per cent in Galmudug, demonstrating ranging from a low of 8 per cent in Mudug,
the weakness in the linkage between the to a high of 40 per cent in Bay and Lower
curriculum on offer and the needs of the Shabelle regions, which is reflective of the
labour market. autonomy of the centres. Although this
comes from a more developed context,
There are no formal standards governing Woo et al. (2018) observed that a TVET
teaching in TVET centres, with more than teaching certificate for trainers in Korea
4 in 10 instructors having no post-sec- translated into better outcomes for
ondary qualifications. The project-based students, including higher satisfaction, a

Table 5.5 Academic qualifications of TVET instructors

Academic qualification
Bachelor’s No post- % under-
Region degree Diploma secondary Total qualified
Bakool 9 - 3 12 25.0

Banadir 53 20 33 106 31.1

Bay 32 1 22 55 40.0

Galgaduud 15 1 3 19 15.8

Gedoa NA NA NA 16 NA

L. Jubbaa NA NA NA 97 NA

L.Shabelle 9 0 6 15 40.0

Mudug 11 0 1 12 8.3

Total 129 22 68 332

Source: EMIS, 2020 and Jubbaland state TVET data, 2020.

Notes: a Jubbaland data did not provide a breakdown of qualification levels and as such, only totals are presented here.

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

better employment rate, a higher comple- ranging from 16 trainees per instructor
tion rate and better academic achieve- in the mechanical skills cluster to 50 in
ment. This, and related studies, can be disaster management, as illustrated in
used to strengthen the management of Figure 5.3. As the government continues
TVET. Academic thresholds should be to set up policies and legal instruments
introduced for TVET instructors, espe- for governing the delivery of TVET in the
cially in the context of the ongoing policy country, it will be important to provide
reforms. clear guidance on the academic qualifica-
tions required for TVET instructors as well
The 2020 schools census also shows as the expected distribution of trainers
fairly modest trainee/instructor ratios, according to skill clusters.

Figure 5.3 Number of TVET trainees per instructor by skill cluster

50
50

40 37
33

30 25 25 26 27
24 24
21 21 21 22
20 16

10

0
Home
Electricity

Literacy skills

Carpentry

abeauty

Business
Studies

ICT Basics

Nursing

Agric and
livestock

Management
Constrution

Tailoring

Hair and

Art & Design

Disaster
Management
Mechanical

Source: EMIS, 2020.

There is scant information about TVET Notably, even in states with a fairly
graduates, especially about the number high number of graduates, comparisons
of trainees who have been on particular between the number of graduates and the
programmes. However, the limited infor- number of students enrolled in the subse-
mation available on the 2017/18 academic quent year suggest that some data are not
year shows that about 15,400 trainees being collected. For instance, in Banadir,
graduated from TVET programmes, there were more than 6,800 graduates in
slightly less than half being female and 2017/18, but in 2018/19, there were just
nearly 90 per cent coming from Banadir under 2,900 trainees, less than half the
and Jubbaland states (see Table 5.6). The number of the graduates in the previous
data further show that there were no TVET year. Similar results are observed in
graduates from Hirshabelle during that Jubbaland, where 2017/18 figures
academic year, despite the 2018/19 data show that nearly 6,900 graduates were
showing that there are TVET centres in produced but that enrolment dropped to
the state (with 457 trainees enrolled). 3,850 the following year. This phenom-

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

enon somehow affirms concerns TVET centres, as data are only collected
discussed earlier, namely that the data from the trainees who are in the centres
on enrolment may be underestimating at the time, with little attempt made to
the number of trainees going through the collect legacy information.

Table 5.6 TVET graduates, 2017/18

2018/19 Absorption of
FMS Male Female Total % Female enrolment graduates (%)
Banadir 4,499 2,339 6,838 34.2% 2,874

Galmudug 665 797 1,462 54.5% 1,912 20%

Hirshabelle - - - 457

Jubbaland 2,859 4,000 6,859 58.3% 3,850 10%

South West 98 133 231 57.6% 1,428 15%

Total 8,121 7,269 15,390 47.2% 10,521

Source: EMIS, 2018.

A finding that is more indicative of the The proposed revival of technical profes-
quality or appropriateness of training is sional schools targeting future artisans/
the rate of absorption of TVET gradu- craftspeople, technicians and experts
ates into the labour market. The labour- in technology could be a game-changer
market survey conducted by Axiom (2018) for TVET. The government has finalized a
shows that only 20 per cent of TVET grad- feasibility study looking at reviving tech-
uates in Galmudug had been absorbed nical secondary schools, one of whose
into the labour market in the three years aims would be to address the challenge of
preceding the survey, with 10 per cent uneducated young people in the country,
in Jubbaland (all of them in Kismayo and with their skill deficit and their suscep-
none in Afmadow), and 15 per cent in South tibility to unemployment. The country
West state. A tracer study conducted by a has a history of professional technical
consortium of organizations supporting schools, having had at least seven before
TVET in the country shows that beneficia- 1991. This experience would be an asset in
ries of the Strengthening Education and this context. The government is seeking
Training in Somalia (SETS) programme to modify the curriculum in secondary
showed a higher absorption rate, which schools to accommodate introductory
provides some hope in a rather gloomy and practical vocational skills while
situation. This hope is, however, dimmed keeping the core subjects like mathe-
by the low coverage of the tracer survey, matics, sciences, and Somali. The govern-
which did not cover all the centres, and ment is targeting agriculture, fisheries,
even for the centres covered, managed veterinary training, nursing, and automo-
to trace only 490 of the past graduates. tive engineering in the medium term, with
Considering the overall number of grad- the number of training places in these
uates included in Table 5.6, the coverage subjects being aligned to labour-market
may not be sufficiently representative of demands. The feasibility study shows
the state of absorption of TVET graduates that there is a very high demand among
into the labour market. employers for people trained in these

153
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

subjects, as well as significant interest the country. The FGS, through its MoECHE
among young people in doing the training, and Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs,
which would make it worth introducing is leading a policy response in TVET to do
them at secondary-school level (see the following: align the country’s TVET
Figures 5.4 and Figure 5.5). delivery to global trends and universal
principles of training; improve the cred-
Figure 5.4 Demand for technical skills and ibility of TVET programmes and qualifi-
interest from potential trainees cations; enhance the employability of the
57%
young people who undergo training; and
54% 53% clarify the responsibilities of the insti-
tutions engaged in the delivery of TVET.
The policy is coming as a response to
the varying legal and institutional frame-
26%
24%
21% works existing at the FGS as well as the
FMS level. The policy review observes
9%
6% 5% that apart from in the region of Puntland,
where TVET is seen as a priority, there
Current skills Interest from Interest from were no TVET policies in the FMSs. The
demand young men young women draft TVET policy is seeking to develop
Agriculture Livestock Fisheries and adopt best practices to ensure that
Source: Feasibility assessment for professional TVET is effective and to help alleviate
technical secondary schools in Somalia, 2020. poverty and other vulnerabilities among
young people. For instance, the policy is
Figure 5.5 Level of introduction of technical
seeking to ensure TVET is demand-driven
subjects in schools
and responsive to the labour-market
No response needs, which will help TVET graduates
11% Junior to find work in their specialist areas. The
Secondary
For weak
students 33% policy is also seeking to ensure equity in
11% the provision of TVET programmes, so
that they cover rural areas and are avail-
In all able to young people from marginalized
forms
contexts. The policy acknowledges the
11%
lack of national recognition of the current
qualifications and programmes. It seeks
to establish a national qualifications
Senior secondary
framework, which will cover all recog-
33% nized programmes, and which can help
Source: Feasibility assessment for professional employers understand important features
technical secondary schools in Somalia, 2020. of TVET, like the level of the qualifica-
tion, the duration and depth of training,
5.1.1.3 Management of TVET in Somalia and most importantly, the skills and
competences expected of the graduates.
The draft TVET Policy 2020 provides a This may resolve the present challenge,
glimmer of hope for the improvement of whereby employers prefer university
the management of skill development in graduates to TVET graduates because of

154
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

the lack of uniform standards for TVET of institutions with high-quality facilities,
training programmes. The policy also including general setting up of class-
seeks to bring harmony and coordination rooms and workshops, as well as a provi-
into the management of TVET, acknowl- sion for institutions to develop health
edging that too many parties are involved and safety policies. The policy, however,
in it. The policy contemplates a three-tier falls short of providing specific guidance
governance structure, with the FGS and on how these intentions will be opera-
associated ministries expected to be in tionalized at the state and institutional
change of policy and strategy develop- levels. Alongside the generally good
ment, this bringing together the MoECHE intentions in the TVET policy, the FGS
and Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs; and FMSs would need to bring in more
the FMSs expected to be responsible for rudimentary guidelines on the norms
the operation of public TVET institutions; that should be observed by providers to
and the institutions themselves expected ensure the quality of training is upheld in
to deliver accredited programmes under all operations. This may include but not
the guidance of a governing body. be limited to specific designs for class-
rooms and workshops, and the qualifi-
The TVET policy presents intentions cations of TVET instructors for different
regarding the creation and maintenance skill clusters.

5.1.2 Organization and delivery of university education

University education in Somalia is deliv- Banadir Regional Administration, while

ered by a fast-growing network of private the rest were spread among Hirshabelle,
institutions and one publicly run univer- Jubbaland, Puntland, Somaliland, and
sity. The General Education Law (MoECHE, South West state. The expansion of univer-
2017b) provides that university educa- sities in the country may have been good
tion is to be delivered through institutions in terms of opening up access, but weak
of learning and institutions of research, oversight structures have allowed insti-
implying that the mandate of universi- tutions to be established without the
ties is both teaching and research. Today requisite facilities. A study conducted in
in Somalia, higher education is offered in 2013 reveals a lack of equipment in some
more than 100 institutions, as registered institutions, poor equipment in others, and
in the integrated EMIS. As observed in a major lack of key learning and research
the previous sub-section (on TVET), it is facilities in most of the universities (HIPS,
apparent that tertiary education is more 2013), which means that the delivery of the
accessible to urban dwellers than to those highest form of education in the country
in rural areas, and this is manifested in the remains seriously deficient. Improvement
location of the higher education institu- of the facilities will not only require
tions, most of which are in Mogadishu and increased financing and capacity at the
major towns. Out of the 118 institutions Somali National University but also regula-
registered in the EMIS, the Commission tory intervention in the private institutions,
for Higher Education has confirmed oper- to ensure they install reasonable struc-
ation in 55 through physical visits, 40 of tures and facilities consistent with the
which were shown to be operating from mandate given to institutions at this level.

155
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Available funding for higher education is a responsibility that remains to be seen

focused on the Somali National University, in the operational expenditures, meaning
leaving other institutions struggling to that this important function may be going
implement their mandate (see Table 5.7). A unattended to. Besides, although the law
review of education expenditure on higher provides that private institutions estab-
education reveals that $5.7 million were lish their own quality assurance proce-
spent on post-secondary education in dures, there is no operation at the FGS
2020, with $4.8 million going to the Somali level to ensure adherence to this, and this
National University and the balance being is reflected in the lack of funding for this
spent by the Intergovernmental Academy important function, at both FGS and FMS
of Somali Language and the Somali levels.
Academy of Science and Arts. This distri-
bution shows that the Somali National Table 5.7 Expenditure on higher education
University consumed 85 per cent of the in Somalia, 2019 and 2020 (US$)
expenditure on post-secondary education 2019 2020
in 2020, rising from 78 per cent in 2019. Somali National
Expenditure on university education as a University 3,870,834 4,825,594
share of total public spending on educa- Salaries 3,641,894 4,547,435
tion was 33 per cent in 2020, although this Goods and services 228,940 278,159
comes from an overall sector spending
As percentage
which was already observed to be low
Salaries 94.1% 94.2%
(0.47 per cent of GDP – much lower than
Goods and services 5.9% 5.8%
the recommended 4–6 per cent for low-in-
come countries). According to details of Academy of Somali
Language 241,389 249,623
the expenditure on the Somali National
Somali Academy of
University in 2020, 94 per cent of it was
Sciences and Arts 848,157 589,309
dedicated to the salaries and wages of
Total 4,960,380 5,664,526
teaching and non-teaching staff, leaving
Source: Somali National University.
only 6 per cent for goods and services.
This means that quality assurance, which
is already a challenge for the Commission The Commission for Higher Education is
for Higher Education, owing to its limited making inroads into the management of
funding, cannot be practically imple- higher education, but a lot remains to be
mented. There is no indication in the done to assure the quality of education.
existing expenditure returns that quality The National Development Plan 2017–
assurance is implemented. In addition, 2019 contemplated the creation of a
the expenditure returns do not show any higher education commission to develop
budget allocated to research, which is a and implement improvement programmes
key aspect of higher education and is high- in the teaching and learning environment
lighted as one of the duties of higher educa- in higher education institutions, including
tion institutions in the General Education the development of a performance frame-
Law (MoECHE, 2017b). The law also states work to review the quality of teaching,
that MoECHE is responsible for overseeing scholarships and external engagement
the strengthening of quality and the main- of academic staff and engage with insti-
tenance of standards in higher education, tutions to enable them collectively meet

156
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

the national priorities, without wasteful institutions to engage with the regulator.
duplication. Quality assurance system Although there are more than 100 insti-
and programme would be developed and tutions with reasonably valid addresses
support provided to academic staff to in the EMIS database, the Commission
have a range of pedagogical methodolo- has only been able to verify the opera-
gies available to them to be qualified in tion of 55 (or 47 per cent) of them. The
their disciplines (FGS, 2017). work of the Commission remains cut out,
to ensure that it can bring all the insti-
Against this plan, the Higher Education tutions into the regulatory fold, and to
Commission was successfully estab- discuss how each institution can make
lished in September 2019, and in spite progress in the delivery of teaching and
of the limited funding for the sub-sector, the conduct of research in a conducive
the Commission has shown some good environment.
intentions in governing it. The first task it
undertook was the tracing of all the insti- 5.1.2.1 Access to university education
tutions of higher learning registered with
the EMIS. Out of the more than 100 insti- Although there were 118 universities in the
tutions, the Commission reports that country in 2020 (according to EMIS data),
65 responded to its mapping exercise only 41 were officially recognized by the
by providing contact names and physical National Commission of Higher Education
addresses. A follow-up self-assessment in 2021 (Commission for Higher Education,
sent to these institutions with a view to 2021). Out of the 118 institutions, 83 (or
appraising various features, including 70 per cent) are in Banadir, 6 per cent in
the levels of accreditation of the insti- Puntland and 11 per cent in Somaliland,
tutions, the administrative and teaching while the other four FMSs share the
composition, the financial soundness, remaining 14 per cent. Of the 41 recog-
and the infrastructural suitability for the nized by the Commission for Higher
delivery of high-quality education, had Education, 29 (71 per cent) are located in
considerable success. Out of the 65 insti- Banadir, with no recognized institutions
tutions mapped, 55 (or 84 per cent) present in Hirshabelle. Annual school
responded to the self-assessment, which census data were collected from 46 insti-
was followed by a visit by officials from tutions covered by EMIS, 35 from Banadir
the Commission. One of the challenges and the balance of 11 shared among the
that will continue to dog the operations remaining six states. The overall coverage
of the Higher Education Commission is of the data presented henceforth is 39 per
the reluctance of most of the registered cent using the total of 118 institutions.

157
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Table 5.8 Distribution of university institutions by state and region

NCHE- Institutions
Institutions recognized covered by Share of
listed in EMIS institutions EMIS EMIS coverage institutions
Banadir 83 29 35 42.2% 70.3%

Galmudug 4 1 1 25.0% 3.4%

Hirshabelle 4 - 1 25.0% 3.4%

Jubbaland 2 1 1 50.0% 1.7%

Puntland 6 3 4 66.7% 5.1%

Somaliland 13 6 4 30.8% 11.0%

South West 6 1 - NA 5.1%

Total 118 41 46 39.0% 100.0%

Source: EMIS, 2020; Higher Education Commission; National Commission of Higher Education, 2021

Even though the data collected from Figure 5.6 Evolution of enrolment in higher
operational institutions are limited in education
coverage, they already show a large
94,511
increase in the number of students in less
than a decade. The 2020 annual schools
census shows that there were more than
94,500 students enrolled in all the univer-
sities during the 2019/20 academic year,
25,147
i.e. 92,000 students in private institutions
and 2,021 students in the one public univer-
sity, the Somali National University (see
2012/2013 2019/2020
Figure 5.6). On the basis of a study of the
status of higher education (HIPS, 2013), Source: EMIS, 2020, HIPS 2013
we observe that enrolment increased at Note: Enrolment in universities in Puntland and
Somaliland was possibly not completely covered in
least by 43,000 in comparison with 2013, 2019/20.
an 80 per cent increase in seven years
(which could possibly be higher if all oper- University education in the country is
ational institutions had been included). mainly private, with only 2 per cent of total
Examining solely the four FMSs and enrolment seen in the one public institution
Banadir Regional Administration, the data in the country. Just over 2,000 students
show that enrolment increased by nearly were reported to be attending the Somali
53,600, tripling from the 25,150 recorded National University in 2020/21. While this
in 2013, and reflective of the huge contri- continues to represent a small propor-
bution of the private sector to the univer- tion of overall enrolment, the university
sity landscape. has witnessed significant growth in enrol-

158
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

ment, seeing it increase by over five times, been linear, with drops being witnessed
from 375 students in 2014/15. It has also in 2018/2019 and 2020/2021, potentially
established campuses in Galmudug and as a result of the 2018 flooding and the
Puntland. This growth has not always COVID-19 pandemic.

Table 5.9 Evolution of enrolment at Somali National University by gender

Year Male Female Total % Female
2014/2015 288 87 375 23.2%

2015/2016 332 119 451 26.4%

2016/2017 483 131 614 21.3%

2017/2018 730 330 1,060 31.1%

2018/2019 664 312 976 32.0%

2019/2020 1,906 660 2,566 25.7%

2020/2021 1,388 633 2,021 31.3%

Source: Somali National University enrolment data, 2021.

One of the interesting findings about 47 per cent) in humanity-based faculties,

enrolment in university education in while the remainder of 50,190 (or 53 per
Somalia is the balance between human- cent) were in science-based faculties, as
ities and sciences. Without any informa- illustrated in Figure 5.8. This is particu-
tion on the programmes offered in the larly good news for the evolution of the
universities, and using only the names country’s development agenda, which is
of the faculties to guide our calcula- heavily dependent on growth in the scien-
tions, we ended up with over 44,320 (or tific sector.

Figure 5.7 Proportions of enrolment in the Figure 5.8 Proportions of enrolment in the
public and private sectors in higher education humanities and sciences in higher education
Public
2%

Humanities
47%
Sciences
53%

Private
98%
Source: EMIS, 2020.

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Figure 5.9 Enrolment in universities by ISCED domains, 2019/20

Health and Welfare 30,929

Social sciences, journalism 26,330

and information
Information and 13,501
communication technologies
Buisness administration 7,936
and law
Education 6,348

Arts and humanities 3,550

Engineering, manufacturing 3,064

and construction
Agriculture, forestry, 2,309
fisheries and veterinary
Natural science, mathematics 387
and statistics
Services 157

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000

Source: EMIS, 2020.

Health and welfare, social sciences, tion of female students in each phase of
and ICT are the most popular faculties learning.
in Somalia’s university education. The
International Standard Classification of Together with TVET, the country’s higher
Education (ISCED) allows for the docu- education sector caters for only a small
mentation of the levels and available fraction of the eligible population (young
programmes in a country, thus facili- people aged 18–24) (although in some
tating ease of reference and compar- cases vocational programmes are offered
ison between and among countries. We in secondary schools). In 2020, popu-
refer to the ISCED Fields of Education and lation estimates show that there were
Training (UNESCO, 2014), which defines more than 2 million young people aged
ten fields (or ‘domains’) of training, which 18–24 (see Table 5.10). Against this poten-
fit into the various faculties. We observe tial demand, available data show that
that out of the 94,500 students enrolled only 103,200 trainees and students were
in the universities in 2019/20, close to enrolled in these TVET centres and univer-
1 in 3 were pursuing programmes within sities, which represents only 5 per cent of
the health and welfare domain. We also the eligible population. This demonstrates
observe that 75 per cent of the students the large number of eligible young people
occupied health, social sciences and ICT who are not reached by post-secondary
domains collectively, meaning the other programmes. Certainly, a lot needs to be
seven domains shared the balance of done in the future to ensure that eligible
25 per cent. Another limitation of the data young people are targeted with appro-
collected from universities is the lack of priate programmes. This will ensure that
gender disaggregation, which means we they are not only protected against the
are not able to demonstrate the participa- ever-present lure of social ills, like involve-

160
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

ment in terrorism, but also equipped with in Somalia. The data show that on average,
skills that will see them successfully tran- the participation rate in tertiary education
sition to the labour market and subse- is 9.4 per cent across selected countries
quently improve their quality of life. on the African continent, ranging from
7 per cent in Burkina Faso to nearly 1 in
Table 5.10 Participation rates in tertiary 4 eligible young people in South Africa.
education We observed that although access rates in
Enrolment in TVET 8,701 Kenya, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, Ghana, and
Enrolment in universities 94,511
South Africa, are above the continental
average, all these countries exhibit low
Total enrolment (2019/20) 103,212
access rates to tertiary education, espe-
UNFPA 2014 (ESA 2016) 145,309
cially in the context of SDG 4, which envis-
Population (18–24) 2,152,189 ages that countries will create opportuni-
Tertiary GER 4.8% ties for all eligible young people by 2030.
Source: EMIS, 2020; Jubbaland data, 2020. These comparative figures, especially
those from Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire,
Regional comparison on access to tertiary whose civil context is perhaps similar to
education suggests that Somalia can the social challenges that Somalia has
catch up with some of its peer countries, faced in the past three decades, suggest
especially the ones that have had dark that Somalia can pursue the expansion of
pasts in recent years, as has been the case existing supply streams.

Figure 5.10 Tertiary gross enrolment ratio for selected countries

40% 36.9%

30%
23.8%

20% 16.5% 17.2%

13.1% 14.0%
11.5%
9.3% 9.4%
10% 7.1%

0%
Burkina Cote SSA Kenya Senegal Togo Nigeria Ghana South MICs
Faso d’Ivoire (2018) (2017) (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) Africa (2019)
(2019) (2017) (2018)

Source: World Bank Development Indicators, 2019

161
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

5.2 Labour-market relevance of TVET

and universities

Tertiary education is generally expected tions into the labour market. We discuss
to educate its graduates and usher them the characteristics of the labour market,
into the labour market in a way that detailing participation in the different
makes them economically useful. Various parts of it, and the quality of opportuni-
programmes in Somalia emphasize the ties available, as seen by those who have
importance of investing in human capital obtained jobs. The results presented in
development at the tertiary level of educa- this section are derived from the High-
tion, with a view to alleviating poverty Frequency Survey carried out in 2017,
among young people. In this section, labour-market surveys carried out in 2018,
therefore, we discuss the link between and the tracer study carried out for SETS
tertiary education and efficient transi- project in 2019.

5.2.1 Labour force participation rate

Less than half the working-age popula- conducted in 2017 reveals that less than
tion is active in the labour market, with half (47 per cent) of the population aged
young people clearly at a disadvantage. 15–64 is active in the labour market, with
The large numbers of children and young a clear advantage for men, who are 58 per
people out of school and other forms of cent more likely to be active than women.
education in the country are one of the The results also show a clear genera-
key contributors to the skill deficit, and tional bias: only one-third of the young
labour force participation remains low, people aged 15–24 are likely to be active
especially among young people (see in the market compared to nearly half of
Figure 5.11). The High-Frequency Survey the working-age population. Also notable

Figure 5.11 Labour force participation rate among people aged 15–64

58%
54%
47% 48%
40%
37%
34% 34%
31% 29% 31% 30% 31% 29%
28% 26%
21%
Male

Female

Complete Sec
Adults

University
Overall

Male youth

Female youth

Mogadishu
No education

Other Urban

Rural
Incomplete

Nomadic
primary

Settlements
All youth
(15-24)

Incomp Sec

IDP

population
Comp prim/

Gender Education Location

Overall Youth

Source: High-Frequency Survey, 2017.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

is the fact that access to education does the labour market, with the biggest differ-
not seem to give young people much of ential between young men and women
an advantage in the labour market; even being involvement in domestic care. While
young people with a university education 1 in 3 young men are inactive in the labour
are not participating at a high rate, as less market because of household duties,
than half (48 per cent) were found to be this is the case for more than half of the
active. females in this age bracket. This high-
lights the social norms that continue to
Figure 5.12 highlights some of the reasons prevent half the population from partici-
behind the inactivity of young people in pating in economic activity.

Figure 5.12 Reasons for labour-market inactivity among young people (aged 15–24)

Male Female

Unwell or Unwell or
disabled disabled
9% Household 7%
care
34% Waiting
for work
season
Waiting 20%
for work
season Household
care
27%
54%
Too young
or too old
Enrolled in 15%
school
Too young Enrolled in
or too old 7% school

22% 3%
Source: High-Frequency Survey, 2017.

5.2.2 Employment and unemployment

This sub-section presents some labour- While the lack of employment opportuni-
market outcomes among young people, ties in countries like Somalia should mean
focusing on employment rates and the unemployment is the opposite of employ-
‘not in employment, education, or training’ ment, in this analysis we use the classic
(NEET) phenomenon. In both cases, we definition from the ILO. In the High-
discuss the likelihood of young people Frequency Survey, employees, self-em-
entering the labour market. We start off ployed persons or domestic workers were
by defining the employment and unem- all considered to have been employed.
ployment. The definitions of International
Labour Organization (ILO) are presented
in Box 5.1.

163
Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

BOX 5.1

Definitions of employment and unemployment

from the International Labour Organization

Employment
An employed person is a person aged between 15 and 64 years who has worked
(for pay or profit) for at least one hour during a given week or who has a job from
which they are absent for a temporary period for a valid reason (holidays, sick
leave, maternity leave, etc.). Persons who declare having a job from which they are
absent are classified as employed if they are absent due to annual leave, maternity/
paternity leave, working time arrangements, job-related training, short-time
working, a strike, bad weather, regardless of the duration, sick leave if the duration
is one year or less, parental leave or other unpaid leave if the duration is three
months or less.

Unemployment
An unemployed person is a person aged between 15 and 64: (i) without a job during
a given week; (ii) available to start a job within the next two weeks; (iii) actively
having sought employment at some time during the last four weeks or having
already found a job that starts within the next three months.
Source: National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies, 2021.

5.2.2.1 Employment rates, using the ILO’s is only marginal variation in employment
definitions rates, with 26 per cent of young females
being employed compared to 33 per cent
Looking at employment rates (Figure 5.13), of young males. The gap, however, rises
we see that people with low levels of with age, with the overall working-age
education (up to the end of primary school) population exhibiting a near 20-percent-
have higher rates of employment than age-point difference between male and
those with some secondary education, female workers. In terms of educational
although university graduates have a clear attainment, we observe that employment
advantage over people with lower levels tends to drop with rising education levels
of education. The 2017 High-Frequency although only marginally, i.e., 32 per cent of
Survey reveals that the employment to young people without education are likely
population ratio was 45 per cent for the to be employed compared to 20 per cent of
entire working age group (15–64 years), those with some secondary education. This
with a clear advantage for those aged may be because some of them will have
25 or over compared to young people. dropped out. Although fewer than half the
While more than half the people aged young people with university education
25–64 were employed, this was true for are employed, there is a clear difference
only 29 per cent of young people aged between this outcome and that of those
15–24. With regard to gender, the results with only basic education, which is mani-
show that in the 15–24 age group there fested in the tracer surveys conducted

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

and discussed earlier, whereby employers other. Controlling for gender and educa-
showed an obvious preference for univer- tion, nomadic young people are more
sity graduates over TVET trainees. What likely to be employed than young people
is also notable in these findings perhaps from Mogadishu, IDPs and young people
is the variation between the employment from other rural and urban areas, possibly
rates for the young people from all loca- because of their inherent movement in
tions on the one hand, and nomads on the search of better livelihoods.

Figure 5.13 Employment to population ratio

55%
51%
45% 45%
39%
35% 33% 32%
29% 28% 27%
26% 26% 25% 24% 26%
20%
Male

Female

Complete Sec
Adults

University

Mogadishu
Overall

Male youth

Female youth

No education

Other Urban

Rural
Incomplete

Nomadic
primary

Settlements
All youth
(15-24)

Incomp Sec

IDP

population
Comp prim/

Gender Education Location

Overall Youth

Source: High Frequency Survey, 2017.

5.2.2.2 Employment for TVET graduates yet to complete their transition. The results
show varying employment rates of the
The Strengthening Education and Training traced graduates, the highest transition
in Somalia (SETS) project carried out a being observed among graduates from
tracer study in 2019, to assess the effi- South West state, where 8 in 10 graduates
ciency of the programmes offered by the had been absorbed. Jubbaland had the
institutions, especially on the rate of entry lowest employment rate among the FMSs,
into the labour market and the job satis- at 30 per cent. The graduates who had yet
faction of those that had successfully to secure placement cited lack of oppor-
entered it. A total of 490 young people who tunities (31 per cent), mismatch between
had graduated from the supported institu- their expectations and the opportuni-
tions at least six months before the project ties available (30 per cent), domestic and
began were traced and, as presented in related issues (20 per cent), and difficulty
Figure 5.14, about 6 in 10 TVET graduates in finding a job or loss of a previous job
from the SETS project had transitioned (19 per cent) as the main reasons behind
into employment, while the remainder were their employment status (see Figure 5.14).

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Figure 5.14 Employment status of TVET graduates

75%
70%

56% 57% 56%

44% 43% 44%

30%
25%

Banaadir Galmudug Jubbaland South West Overall

Employed Unemployed

Source: SETS tracer study, 2019.

Figure 5.15 Young people not in employment, education, or training, by gender, educational
attainment and location

68%

57%
50%
46% 47%
44%
37% 33% 33%
29%
20% 22% 20%
Male

Female

Complete Sec

University
Overall

Mogadishu
No education

Other Urban

Rural
Incomplete

Nomadic
primary

Settlements
Incomp Sec

IDP

population
Comp prim/

Gender Education Location

Source: High-Frequency Survey, 2017.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

5.2.2.3 Young people not in employment, educational attainment, the phenomenon

education, or training is at its starkest among young people who
have had no education, which makes them
Four in 10 young people are not in employ- susceptible to getting involved with the
ment, education, or training, which may violent extremism that their environment
be catastrophic, given the context of may be readily displaying. Even univer-
the country. The 2017 High-Frequency sity graduates are not spared, with 1 in 5 of
Survey revealed that 44 per cent of young the young people with university qualifica-
people aged 15–24 were not working, tions affected by this phenomenon. Young
not in school or university, and not under- people living in rural areas or IDP camps and
going any training. The phenomenon is those from nomadic populations are more
more pronounced among women than men, affected than young people in Mogadishu,
with half of young females being affected, possibly due to limited access to schools
compared to 37 per cent of men. In terms of and TVET centres (see Figure 5.15).

5.2.3 Quality of employment in Somalia

5.2.3.1 Types of jobs available for those family business, farming on one’s own farm,
who work or engaging in an unpaid apprenticeship.
For the purposes of this report, we define
The chances of having a stable, high- a high-quality job as a salaried job and
quality job are significantly increased by a observe that the proportion of workers who
university education. The High-Frequency were in salaried jobs averaged 32 per cent
Survey gave five possible situations that for those without education or with some
the employed might be in. These included schooling. This jumps dramatically to 57 per
salaried/waged employment, self-em- cent for those with university education,
ployment at a business (working ‘on one’s demonstrating the premium that university
own account’), offering help in a non-farm education has in the country.

Figure 5.16 Types of jobs held, by educational attainment

3.1% 7.6% 8.9% 10.8% 9%

6.4%
28.2% 17.2%
26.3% 25.2% 13.7%

13.8%
20.1% 27.6%
24.2% 17.7%

15.7% 11.7% 13.7%

14.9%
57.1%

32.9% 34.6% 32.7%

27%

No education Incomplete Complete primary/ Complete University

primary Incomplete secondary secondary

Salaried Own-account Help in non-farm Farming at Unpaid

job work family business own account apprenticeship

Source: High-Frequency Survey, 2017.

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

Figure 5.17 Underemployment in Somalia

35%

28%
25% 25% 26% 26% 26% 26%
24% 24% 23% 23%
20%
18%
13%
8%
Male

Female

Complete sec.

University
Overall

15-24

25-34

36-64

No education

Mogadishu
Incomplete

Other Urban

Rural

Nomadic
primary

Incomp sec.

Settlements
IDP

population
Comp prim/

Age Gender Education Location

Source: High-Frequency Survey, 2017.

Figure 5.18 Job satisfaction among TVET graduates

78%

61%
59%
56%
50% 50%
44%
39%
36%

18%

4% 3% 2%
0% 0%

Banaadir Galmudug Jubbaland South West Overall

High Moderate Low

Source: SETS tracer study, 2019.

5.2.3.2 Underemployment in Somalia of jobs available. We observe that under-

employment reduces with rising levels of
There is widespread underemployment in education – it is highest among those who
the country, with 1 in 4 of the employed did not finish primary school and lowest
people declaring availability for additional among workers with a university educa-
work, which is a huge pointer to the quality tion, suggesting that educated people

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

have more regular work. The university results of the 2019 tracer study show
graduates possibly operate in value addi- that on average nearly 60 per cent of the
tion activities with no interaction with employed TVET graduates were satis-
seasonality, a factor which is known to fied with their jobs, while 4 in 10 were
expose workers to underemployment. only moderately satisfied (Figure 5.18).
Interestingly, only 4 per cent of the grad-
5.2.3.3 Job satisfaction for the employed uates had low job satisfaction, which is
possibly reflective of a labour market
Job satisfaction was measured across where choices are limited. Satisfaction
eight themes, namely job security, income levels varied across the regions. The
and benefits, career prospects, tasks and highest rate was in Jubbaland, where
responsibilities, social recognition, chance 78 per cent were highly satisfied, while in
of doing something useful in society, fit to Banadir, only 50 per cent of the graduates
use acquired knowledge and skills, and were highly satisfied, and the other half
good social climate or work setting. The were moderately satisfied.

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Chapter 5. TVET and higher education

5.3 Chapter summary

As with public schools, the reach of govern- of economic fortune. This is reflected in
ment-supported post-secondary institu- the preference for university graduates
tions is low. Furthermore, it is limited to by employers, who may have no under-
urban locations, which means most of rural standing of the package of training
and nomadic populations are locked out offered by TVET centres. If the country is
of the programmes offered in these insti- to tap into the enormous potential of its
tutions. Regional comparisons show that young people through skill development,
the country lags behind other East African a deliberate effort has to be put into stan-
countries, a situation that may be linked dardizing and communicating the training
to the decades of civil war in the country. offered through TVET, especially the
The organization of programmes, espe- equivalence of the qualifications.
cially at the university level, is aligned with
the international standard classification Like in primary and secondary education,
of education, with fully fledged faculties there is a huge infrastructural concern.
that allow for cooperation with other insti- The infrastructure in TVET centres and
tutions. In TVET, enrolment shows parity, universities is either limited or of poor
although for some programmes there quality. Available data suggest that state
remains dominance from either gender. of the facilities in some of the univer-
sities is inadequate, including lack of
The overall funding of the education sector facilities in some of the institutions. This
is low, which obviously limits the size and undermines not only the teaching but
scope of programmes that it can imple- also the conduct of research in institu-
ment. An in-depth review of the sub-sec- tions of higher learning. In terms of the
tors reveals that the lack of funding is quality of higher education. The recent
felt more in some areas. For instance, the MoU signed between the MoECHE and
funding available for the implementation of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs
TVET and higher education programmes, recognizes the importance of Commission
including monitoring, oversight, and quality for Higher Education in assuring the
assurance, is extremely low. Should things quality of training, which may affect
stay this way in the medium to long term, young people’s transition to the labour
the vision of expanding TVET, including market. Yet evidence shows that there is
the establishment of professional tech- limited political will for operationalizing
nical schools, may remain unattained. the Commission for Higher Education. The
TVET in the country is almost fully reliant sector needs to prioritize the functioning
on external support, which also makes this of this body if sanity has to be brought to
sub-sector vulnerable. While it is reason- the higher education sub-sector.
able to depend on external resources in
the short term, it will be necessary to begin There is weak transition to the labour
having government resources to imple- market, with persistent mismatch
ment the major reforms expected. between the training on offer and the
skills demanded by the labour market,
The TVET sub-sector suffers from the whose root cause is the lack of a harmo-
lack of a national qualifications frame- nized curriculum, especially for TVET,
work, which undermines the chances the something that was declared a priority in
country has of making TVET a real driver the new MoU.

170
 Chapter 6
Governance and
institutional analysis of
the education sector
Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

This section presents the organization of the delivery of education in the country,
focusing on the MoECHE. The section reviews the key responsibilities of the FGS and
the FMSs towards the management and delivery of education, highlighting key issues,
challenges, and constraints the sector faces as regards the implementation of educa-
tion policies and programmes.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.1 Methodology of the analysis

This sub-section is based on primary data (3) questionnaires distributed in hard copy
collected by the Somali ESA national to other stakeholders for completion.
technical team. A mixed-method data-col- Focus group discussions were also held
lection protocol involving the gathering with junior staff in the ministries of educa-
of quantitative and qualitative data was tion (including clerks, secretaries, drivers,
conducted between 1 February and 17 and messengers), teachers, headteachers,
April 2021. Field visits were undertaken to students, parents, and non-state actors
collect data at the FGS, FMS, and regional (staff from national NGOs, international
levels of the education system. Secondary NGOs, private schools, and umbrella asso-
data were also used, consisting mainly of ciations – networks of non-state schools,
findings from literature reviews as well as originally founded by former teachers in
documentary analyses of resource mate- associate school), to solicit their views on
rials on the Somali education system. the issues raised in the questionnaires.
The questionnaire was also administered
The primary data were collected through to key development partners in the educa-
the following: (1) face-to-face interviews tion sector.
with directors and heads of units in the
MoECHE, ministries of education in the A total of 1,121 persons participated in
FMSs, and Banadir Regional Education the data-gathering exercise, including
Directorate, (2) an online questionnaire on 223 females, who constituted 20 per cent
Google forms to gather information from of the sampled population, while 80 per
senior and middle-level officials of the cent of the respondents were male (see
ministries of education in the FMSs, and Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Distribution of respondents in the data-gathering exercise (n. and %)

Females Males
Total
FGS/FMS Number Percentage Number Percentage respondents
MoECHE 73 23.9 233 76.1 306

Banadir 79 31.3 173 68.7 252

Galmudug 27 14.8 155 85.2 182

Hirshabelle 14 11.1 112 88.9 126

Jubbaland 21 14.3 126 85.7 147

South West 9 8.3 99 91.7 108

Total 223 19.9% 898 80.1% 1,121

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

6.2 Policy framework for the delivery

of education in Somalia

6.2.1 The guiding framework for the education system

Overall, MoECHE is mandated to develop ening MoECHE, and the education

regulatory frameworks, policies, and coor- ministries in the FMSs, as well as
dination, while the ministries of educa- school boards. The plan further advo-
tion in the FMSs are mandated to imple- cates setting up and enforcing stan-
ment these. The activities of MoECHE, dards for private-sector providers,
which is responsible for the management ensuring that professional standards
of the education sector in the country, are met.
are grounded in the Constitution of the
Federal Government of Somalia, the 3. National Curriculum Framework (2017):
country’s education development plans This framework, which was developed
and education policies, and international in 2017, underpins formal basic educa-
protocols and conventions on education, tion in the country. It outlines the vision,
as well as best practices regarding the key aims, values, learning compe-
development of education. Each of the tences, subjects, hours of instruction,
following documents on the education and approaches to learning in basic
sector contributes to an enabling environ- education.
ment for the management practices of the
Somali education delivery system. 4. Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP)
(2018–2020): The plan sets out the FGS
1. National Education Plan (2011): The education-sector management goals,
plan was set to address major concerns objectives, and priorities. It identifies
in the education sector, among which strategies for overcoming challenges
were: (1) lack of visible impact from related to inequity, limited access to
the huge funds given to the educa- good-quality social services, weak
tion sector by development partners, governance, poor service delivery,
(2) non-uniformity of the different and limited sector capacity. On gover-
curricula in the country, and (3) lack nance, the plan sets out strategies for
of a unified examination and certifica- enhancing the organizational capacity
tion system. The plan listed what the of the MoECHE to manage/regulate
government had to approve to intro- the education sector, set up a system-
duce free and compulsory education, wide monitoring and supervision
official ages of compulsory education, system, establish system-wide use of
a National Education Policy, the estab- EMIS, and support the decentralization
lishment of education commissions (at of education service delivery.
national, regional, and district levels),
and monitoring of the education sector. 5. National Education Policy (2020): This
is a key policy framework document
2. Somalia National Development Plan guiding the delivery of services in the
(2020–2024): The plan identifies the education sector.
challenges confronting the education
sector. It advocates the strengthening 6. Private School Policy (2020): In 2020,
of the sector by setting legal and over- MoECHE validated its policy on private
sight frameworks aimed at strength- schools in order to intervene more

174
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

actively in the running of such schools. 7. General Education Act (2021): The
The main objectives of the policy Education Law regulates the educa-
are to (1) improve the private educa- tion system in Somalia, guaranteeing
tion system, in order to ensure that the right of every Somali citizen to
all Somali citizens can receive high- have access to high-quality education
quality education in a conducive envi- at each level. The law also details the
ronment; (2) improve the quality and national, regional, and district educa-
relevance of private education, thereby tion targets, as well as the system that
contributing to the socio-economic delivers education services, and the
development of the country; (3) estab- expected outcomes. It discusses (1)
lish basic minimum standards so as to the levels of formal education, (2) the
maintain the quality and credibility of curriculum framework, (3) the selec-
the private education system, and (4) tion criteria for primary and secondary
improve the functions of private educa- school teachers, (4) teacher recruit-
tion, with effective management and ment, (5) non-formal education, (6)
administrative systems. The Private private schools, and (7) special needs
School Policy (MoECHE, 2020c) classi- education.
fies schools in Somalia as follows:
8. National Alternative Basic Education
a) Public schools: These are publicly (ABE) Policy and Curriculum
owned and operated. The public is Framework (2021): The ABE curriculum
often represented by the Ministry framework is aligned with the national
of Education or an elected board of curriculum framework and similarly
education. outlines the vision, key aims, values,
b) Private schools: These are founded and learning competences, subjects,
operated by private entities. A private hours of instruction, and approaches
school is owned by a legally registered to learning and assessment. It is a
and licensed authority, which could condensed version of the formal curric-
be a charitable organization or a busi- ulum, removing non-core subjects and
ness. There are two sub-categories: repetition while focusing on learning
(1) not-for-profit private schools oper- competences.
ated by a not-for-profit entity such
as a charity or a community, and (2) 9. Policies for Teachers (2021): The policy
for-profit private schools founded with underpins the preparation and profes-
the intent to make a profit. They could sional development of teachers across
be local or international and managed the sector. It guides training, selection,
by a company or organization with remuneration, and responsibilities.
shareholders.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

6.2.2 Coordination and cooperation between the government and education

partners

The education sector at FGS and FMS MoECHE also chairs the quarterly
level is run according to mutually agreed Education Sector Committee (ESC)
objectives coordinated by statutory meeting, which serves as a key coordi-
mechanisms, which allow for the partic- nation forum between governmental and
ipation of players at all levels of gover- non-governmental stakeholders. The
nance. The FGS entered into an MoU with meeting has supported sector imple-
the four FMSs (in 2016 with Jubbaland, menting partners and MoECHE to commu-
Galmudug and South West states; in nicate more effectively about the imple-
2017 with Hirshabelle) whose objec- mentation of education programmes. The
tives of the MoU included the following: ESC plays an important role in increasing
(1) to provide for ‘functional assignment’ transparency and mutual accountability
on education between the FGS and the among all education partners, as well
education ministries of the FMSs, (2) to as enabling MoECHE to carry out its key
enhance effective and efficient relation- oversight role in the implementation and
ships between the FGS and the FMSs in monitoring of the donor-funded educa-
education, and (3) to provide a platform tion programmes. In 2019, the MoECHE
for collaboration, coordination, and coop- supported each FMS education ministry
eration in education. A further MoU was to create an ESC in its state. The FMS
entered into between MoECHE and the ESC meetings are held on a monthly basis
Banadir Regional Administration in 2020, and offer the governmental and non-gov-
whose objective on the other hand, were ernmental stakeholders the opportunity
to (1) devolve education to the regional to discuss key issues in the sector at the
level on the basis of the federalization of state level. The monthly state ESC meet-
the country, and (2) to transfer responsi- ings feed into the national-level quarterly
bility for Level 1 and Level 2 education to ESC meetings. In addition, the Education
the Banadir Regional Administration. Cluster was activated in 2008 and is
co-led by UNICEF and Save the Children
In 2019, the MoECHE instituted quar- in Somalia. The Somalia Education
terly ‘inter-ministerial’ meetings. The Cluster ensures a coordinated and effi-
Minister of Education Culture and Higher cient response to the education needs of
Education, and the Director General of people affected by emergencies and acts
MoECHE began to meet with the ministers as a platform for collaboration and coor-
and directors general of the education dination in the response to emergencies.
ministries in the FMSs every four months
to discuss policy and strategic issues, as Another critical platform for coordination
well as the implementation of education and cooperation across the sector is the
programmes and activities. The inter-min- Joint Review of the Education Sector (JRES),
isterial meetings serve as a critical coor- which has been held on an annual basis
dination forum between the MoECHE and since 2014. The Joint Review is a govern-
the FMS education ministries. ment-led, participatory monitoring process,

176
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

which brings together different stake- engage in dialogue, review sector status,
holders, including government, donors, and monitor progress towards and perfor-
education development partners, civil mance in the implementation of the Joint
society, and private education providers, to Review of the Education Sector plan.

6.2.3 Education stakeholders and their mapping

In the Somali education landscape, the issues of teacher accountability and

MoECHE is responsible for the develop- student absenteeism, and umbrella asso-
ment of education on FGS level while FMS ciations, who set minimum standards
education ministries operate at the state for their membership and facilitate the
level. The regional education officers training of teachers (World Bank, 2018:10).
and quality assurance officers provide Other non-state actors include civil
support to strengthen the education society organizations, NGOs, and local
system at the regional level, while at the and international education partners.
district level, the district education offi-
cers are expected to oversee the primary Non-state actors were interviewed during
school system (MOECHE, 2018a: 22–25). the data-collection exercise for this ESA
Other stakeholders at the sub-national and asked to share their views on (1) existing
level include teachers and headteachers gaps in governance issues which are of
of primary and secondary schools. In concern to them, and (2) how stakeholders
addition to the government represen- could contribute to resolving or closing the
tation, there are non-state actors who gaps in some of the governance issues.
support the implementation of education Table 6.2 is a summary of their perspectives
programmes. These include Community (grouped on basis of national and interna-
Education Committees (CECs), which tional NGOs) on governance issues in the
operate at the school level, addressing education delivery systems.

177
Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Table 6.2 Perspectives of non-state actors on governance issues in the education system

Stakeholder Gaps in governance issues which are of How the stakeholder can contribute
concern to the stakeholder to resolving/closing the gaps on the
governance issues

National • Out-of-school children: Getting out-of- • Engaging the ministry closely and
NGOs school children back into school after improving cooperation and coordination
shocks (conflict, natural disasters) between government and implementing
• Prioritizing inclusive education for NGOs
disadvantaged • Education-sector committee meetings
• children (children with disabilities, are an important platform that
marginalized children, street children, stakeholders can use to contribute to
IDPs, children in rural areas) governance issues in education delivery

• Eliminating early marriage for girls • Contributing to education in

emergencies, public schools, non-formal
• Placing more emphasis on children’s education /TVET, and teacher
learning outcomes (children achieving development
competences in numeracy and literacy)
• Empowering all within the chain of
• CECs and local education authorities command on governance issues around
stepping up the management of the education continuum, from teachers
education outcomes to CECs
• Sharing experience related to
governance issues through participation
in capacity development

International • Measuring performance to reflect • Supporting system-strengthening,

organizations whether: capacity-building, advocacy, evidence-
(INGOs)/ • education systems are meeting their generation and knowledge-management
Donors objectives • Providing support to technical
• public resources are being used capacities, policy development, and
appropriately financial contribution

• standards are available and being • Active participation in forums that

followed are aimed at strengthening education
governance systems and structures,
• relevant and reliable data are available and fund-raising for the actualization of
for planning, ensuring accountability by national education development plans
governments and strategies as developed by the
• Supporting equitable, efficient, government
and effective service delivery in
the education sector in a safe and
protective learning environment
• Supporting governance practices to
enable
• improved capacity for service delivery
at FGS and FMS levels and as part of
overall state-building,
• a human rights-based approach to
education (especially women, girls, and
minorities)
• Somali ownership and commitment
• Promoting inclusivity and accountability
in the education delivery system
Source: Data collected by National Team during 2021 ESA mission.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.3 Mandate, functions, and

organizational arrangements

6.3.1 Mandate 6.3.3 Mission

The mandate of MoECHE is to provide MoECHE’s mission is to facilitate, guide,

high-quality education and training to deliver, and coordinate universal high-
create a competent workforce for the quality education to promote national
local and international job market, and integration, social justice, and develop-
promote economic growth, innovation, ment in Somalia.
national cohesion, and peace

6.3.4 Core values

6.3.2 Vision
The core values which the leadership of
Its vision is envisaging a high-quality the MoECHE has agreed to adopt are (1)
modern education system for Somali promoting inclusivity in MoECHE’s opera-
citizens that offers equal opportunities, tions, (2) promoting equity, with no form of
promotes respect for human rights, and discrimination allowed in its employment
observes Islamic principles. policy, (3) embracing relevance and quality
in all areas of operation of MoECHE, and (4)
establishing and promoting partnerships
to deliver education to the Somali citizenry.

BOX 6.1

Box 6.1 Functions of MoECHE according

to the General Education Law (2021)

1. Establishment and development of education services, and implementation of

the Education Policy
2. Development, implementation, and improvement of the education curriculum
3. Promotion and development of adult education
4. Establishment and execution of certification tests and examinations, and the
issuance of certificates
5. Establishment of special needs education for students who need additional
support to learn
6. Establishment of regulations for public and private schools and institutions
7. Strengthening of coordination and accountability of educational institutions
8. Strengthening of the relationship between public and private education
institutions
9. Development and improvement of education in rural areas
10. Improvement of national literacy and numeracy levels
11. Improvement of the quality and quantity of education that is equally accessible
for girls and boys
12. Promotion and development of the good Somali cultural heritage, arts, and
literature

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

6.4 Departmental functions

Most departments of the MoECHE do standing of departmental functions, roles,

not have documents detailing their func- and responsibilities. Table 6.3 presents a
tions and which should guide their oper- summary of the responses given by the
ations, while some heads of department departments when they were asked to
have a poor understanding of the roles of identify the functions that had not been
their departments. During the interviews satisfactorily performed by MoECHE,
with the departments, it became apparent and the reasons for such lapses. The
that most departments did not have docu- main reasons given across the depart-
ments detailing their functions. However, ments include the following: (1) human
the directors and heads of departments/ capital deficit (capacity gaps or lack of
units were able to list the functions that skill among the leadership of the depart-
they believed should be assigned to ments), making it difficult to understand
their respective departments. A few of and undertake the successful imple-
the directors and heads of department mentation of the functions, (2) inade-
raised concerns about frequent lead- quate resources, and (3) absence of docu-
ership changes and switching of posi- mented terms of reference or mandate/
tions, which may explain their poor under- functions for the departments.

Table 6.3 Functions inadequately performed by MoECHE departments, with reasons, as identified
by staff and managers

Summary of the mandate Functions not satisfactorily Reasons for department’s

of the department performed inability to perform
the assigned functions
satisfactorily
Department: TVET and Non-Formal Education (NFE)
To lay down a practicable TVET Facilitating adult education Inadequate funding of the
& NFE management system at department by government.
Creating vocational schools.
federal and state levels.
Inadequate human capital.
To lay down policies and all
Major leadership changes
legal frameworks.
leading to non-prioritization of
To produce a uniform/ departmental functions.
harmonized curriculum for
all TVET centres & NFE
with support of Curriculum
Development Department.

To coordinate the ongoing

and up-coming TVET & NFE
activities and projects in the
country to avoid duplication.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Summary of the mandate Functions not satisfactorily Reasons for department’s

of the department performed inability to perform
the assigned functions
satisfactorily
Department: Curriculum Development & Quality Assurance
To set up the curricula for the Establishing yearly work plan. Delay in funding.
state.
Lack of permanent human
Setting the policies for early
To assess the international childhood education. resources: there are very
curricula and adapt them for few permanent staff. The
Setting the Alternative Basic
local use. whole department consists of
Education (ABE) policy.
10 people, and it hires part-
To set policies and frameworks
Conducting quality assurance. time staff for every stage/
and write out the curriculum.
aspect of its function: policy-
Setting policies and standards. making and framework, writing
To evaluate and assess before
and after implementation of Implementing the MoU signed the syllabus, evaluation, and
the established policies and with the FMSs. quality assurance.
frameworks.
Conducting capacity-building The non-permanent staff hired
To assure the quality of the for FMSs and Banadir region. require capacity-building
curriculum. to be able to cope with the
departmental functions.

Department: Higher Education and Culture Department

Develop a higher education, Research and innovation Insufficient funding from
research and accreditation development. government and from the
framework for Somalia. partners.
Building a database for
Establish a database of all universities. Limited human capital and
universities in Somalia: the lack of skill.
Undertaking quality
department is in the process of
assurance training for the
collecting the key information.
higher education institutions,
Improve the department’s and capacity-building for
capacity in terms of university staff.
infrastructure and equipment.

Department: Policy & Planning

To establish educational policy Setting the policies for Limited domestic finances.
plans for the MoECHE. emergency education.
COVID-19 pandemic
Conducting joint review restrictions.
of education sector (must
be conducted every year
according to the ESSP).

Setting the policies of the

accelerated education system.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Summary of the mandate Functions not satisfactorily Reasons for department’s

of the department performed inability to perform
the assigned functions
satisfactorily
Department: Finance & Administration
Develop MoECHE budget plans Developing MoECHE budget Delays in receiving the
and appropriation of resources plans and appropriation of approved budget for MoECHE,
according to the work plans resources according to the and/or the approved budget
provided by the departments. work plans provided by the not being received in full.
departments.
Manage MoECHE finances and Capacity gaps and lack of skill
monitor expenditure. Payment of teacher salaries. and among the staff in the
department.
Liaise with the Ministry of Providing running costs to
Finance to ensure that the MoECHE.
budgets are approved and
availed on time and for the
designated purposes.

Develop management,
maintenance and rehabilitation
plans for key infrastructure
and implement them.

Develop and implement human

resource policies, strategies,
and procedures to ensure
MoECHE has the right staff to
achieve its goals.

Coordinate and manage

general operations and
support services.

Establish and maintain an

integrated human resource
information system, financial
management systems, records,
and information management
systems.

Manage assets and equipment.

Coordinate planning,
budgeting, and preparation
of procurement plans and
reports.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Summary of the mandate Functions not satisfactorily Reasons for department’s

of the department performed inability to perform
the assigned functions
satisfactorily
Department: Examinations & Certifications
Controlling school year time. Examination issues Delays in exams,

Review of examination system. Conflict with the FMSs.

Monitoring of examination Lack of uniform curriculum.

centres.
Lack of resources.
Monitoring of examination
COVID-19.
systems.

Monitoring examinations
for primary, secondary, and
university candidates.

Printing and certification.

Department: Teacher Development Department

To provide teacher training Setting up committee that The teacher policy is still in the
(pre-service and in-service). collects information on validation phase with FMSs.
teachers between FMSs and
To create pathway to teacher The department is not
FGS level.
licences. equipped with the human
Creating institution for teacher resources required to perform
To develop a teacher policy.
training. some of the tasks.
To undertake recruitment of
Establishing teacher training Not enough budget to manage
teachers.
curriculum. all the assigned tasks.
To carry out promotions of
Education partners do not
teachers.
deliver tasks on time.

Lack of supervision, as there is

no supervisory unit.

COVID-19 restrictions prevent

teachers from meeting.

Lack of resources to perform

daily tasks.

No documented terms of
reference for the department

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Summary of the mandate Functions not satisfactorily Reasons for department’s

of the department performed inability to perform
the assigned functions
satisfactorily
Department: Human Resource Department
Aligning MoECHE’s human Undertaking performance Lack of sufficient budget for
resource assets with the evaluation. the department.
regulations and policies.
Management of the staff. Lack of proper terms of
reference for the staff of
Proper staff motivation.
MoECHE.

Since recruitment is under the

Ministry of Labour, the process
of recruitment and hiring is
inefficient.

Source: Summarized functions of MoECHE by the national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.5 Organization of the education

system: Challenges arising

6.5.1 Function gaps in MoECHE’s departments

In addition to the primary data collected departments. These are summarized in

by the national team, this ESA mission Table 6.4. The report suggests a reduction
also uses the World Bank capacity assess- in the number of departments, from the
ment conducted in 2018, in order to gain a existing ten to seven. It also proposes func-
better understanding of the function gaps tions for the departments and suggests
in MoECHE’s departments. The report job descriptions and specifications for the
(Federal Government of Somalia and World various positions/offices. It also recom-
Bank, 2018) discusses the ‘re-organization mends the key competences required for
and modernization’ of MoECHE and iden- the different office-holders in the proposed
tifies gaps in the functions in its various 28 sections of the ministry’s departments.

Table 6.4 Function gaps in MoECHE departments

Department Summary of function gaps

Planning • Lack of adequate skills to manage the ministry activities, plans,
and Budget and budgets.
Department
• Lack of technical capacity to develop strategies and policies as well
as collect, analyse, and manage sector data.

• No data bank to store critical institution information.

• Limited resources to implement plans.

• The current EMIS does not have adequate capacity to accommodate

the sector data.

• Lack of sector data, especially from the FMSs.

• No internal policies to govern staff accountability.

• Mandate overlaps with that of the Finance and Admin Department.

The budgeting function has not been released by that department
Curriculum • It is one of the poorly resourced sub-sectors with no equipment and lacks
Development and adequate human capital.
Quality Assurance
• Lacks capacity to develop and implement a curriculum capable of
Department
delivering high-quality education in Somalia.

• The National Curriculum Framework developed in 2017 with the support

of UNICEF has not been implemented, owing to lack of resources and
expertise.

• Does not have the required resources, infrastructure, and expertise to

develop and promote competence-based curriculum for equitable access
to high-quality education.

• Department lacks infrastructure and monitoring systems, hence not able

to deliver education or monitor education delivery in the country.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Department Summary of function gaps

Department • Limited capacity to enforce policies across the FMSs.
of Federal
• Lack of regulatory and policy framework to coordinate the education
Member States
sector in FGS.
and Partner
Coordination • Inter-ministerial mandate overlap.

• Poor skills for enhancing education-sector coordination at FMS level.

• Lack of infrastructure to support coordination of education activities

at FMS level with partner states.

• Lack of uniformity of education plans across the country, hence lack

of accountability among the sector partners.

• There is no partner coordination strategy and no unified curriculum

in the sector.

• Donors’ activities are rarely monitored, leading to the ministry’s inability

to account for the contributions of non-governmental partners.
Teacher • Lack of qualified staff to manage the activities of the department.
Development and
• Lack of teacher-training curriculum and manuals.
Management
Department • Lack of training resources, including essential tools.

• Lack of teacher-training policies

• Lack of teacher information management system, including monitoring

the recruitment and retention of teaching staff across the country.

• Lack of teacher-training centres

TVET and • Limited resources to support sector development.
Non-Formal
• Lack of policies and guidelines to govern TVET, for example,
Education
no standardized curriculum, examination, and certification.
Department
• Poor infrastructure.

• Lack of qualified TVET instructors.

• Lack of TVET coordination between FGS and FMSs.

Higher Education • Department does not have the capacity and resources to develop and
and Culture manage the higher education sub-sector at FGS and FMS levels.
Department
• Department does not include TVET centres.

• Department has not classified diploma and certificate institutions as part

of its mandate, though they should.

• Lack of higher education policy at FGS and FMS levels limits the oversight
of higher education institutions.

• The private institutions do not have checks from the ministry or its affiliate
institutions, owing to limited capacity of MoECHE, and weak policies.
Source: Summarized from FGS and World Bank (2018).

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.5.2 Overlapping functions in MoECHE departments

Table 6.5 summarizes incidences of overlaps and duplication of functions in various

departments of MoECHE.

Table 6.5 Overlapping functions in MoECHE departments

Departments
Key functions
in various TVET, Curriculum Higher
departments of Planning/ Non-Formal and Quality Teacher Education Human
the MoECHE Policy Education Assurance Dev. & Culture Resources
Curriculum
development and ✔ ✔
implementation
Quality
✔ ✔
assurance
Policy
formulation and ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Policy alignment
Creation of
database, data
✔ ✔ ✔
collection and
analysis
Establishing
✔ ✔
teacher database
Planning,
co-ordination,
and evaluation ✔ ✔
of project and
budget plan
Source: Summarized from data collected by the national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

6.5.3 Governance issues and challenges in MoECHE

We consider governance in education to the education management information

be the interaction of processes and bodies system.
through the various laws, policies, stat-
utes, and norms established by the rele- 6.5.3.1 The planning process in MoECHE,
vant authorities to facilitate the running and its challenges
of the education system. We therefore
explore the challenges experienced in the Weak staff development, weak linkages
main functions allotted to the MoECHE, between planning and implementation,
including planning, development of and inefficient fiscal execution are some of
education policies and programmes, the issues affecting planning in the sector.
policy implementation, and looking after Senior and middle-level staff of MoECHE

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

were asked to comment on the planning Figure 6.1. Other major concerns include
process and its challenges. According to weak linkages between plans and budgets,
the respondents, key challenges facing considering that budgeting in the country
the planning process in MoECHE include is still line-item-based yet programmes
poorly trained personnel (identified by are mostly medium-to-long term. The large
91 per cent), weak linkages between plan- contribution from development partnerss
ning and implementation (82 per cent), seems to be influencing plans, which may
delay in releasing budget funds (82 per be counterproductive as this has been
cent), and top-down approach to the plan- identified by those at the helm as one of
ning process (82 per cent), as shown in the challenges of planning.

Figure 6.1 Perceived challenges in MoECHE planning processes

Programme design divorced from monitoring,

46% 46% 9%
evaluation, and reporting activities
Programme planning carried out
64% 18% 18%
based on donor requirements
Limited scope for reviewing plans and
64% 27% 9%
learning from the experiences of plan
Poor connection between annual work plans
73% 9% 18%
and budgets and long-term plans
Weak linkage between
82% 9% 9%
planning and implementation
Teachers and representatives of civil society
82% 9% 9%
participate in planning and budget allocation

Stakeholders involved as passive beneficiaries 36% 36% 27%

Limited involvement of relevant staff and

27% 18% 55%
stakeholders in planning and programming
Inadequate co-ordination in planning efforts
46% 27% 27%
of different institutions/sections

Delay in releasing budgeted funds 82% 9% 9%

Gaps between estimated resource needs to carry

64% 18% 18%
out planned activities and actual allocations

A lack of accurate and reliable data/information 27% 73%

Poorly trained personnel 91% 9%

Lack of long-term strategic vision 18% 82%

Lack of integration between

27% 9% 64%
different sub-sectoral plans

Top-down approach to planning 82% 18%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Agree I don’t know Disagree

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission (n=11).

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.5.3.2 Effectiveness of education education delivery, and the decentral-

policies and programmes ization of education planning have been
effective in driving education delivery
The establishment of the EMIS is seen as – with a considerable number believing
one of the most effective recent develop- them to have been highly effective. On
ments in the sector. Figure 6.2 presents the other hand, nearly half the staff
some of the recently developed and imple- believe that the system for the training of
mented policies in the sector, showing teachers, the establishment of committee
the extent to which, their users thought systems at various levels of management,
they were effective or otherwise. Staff in and the process of consultation in poli-
MoECHE’s planning department believe cy-making using technical committees,
that the establishment of the EMIS, the all of which are meant to be strong pillars
engagement of the non-state actors in of education delivery, were poor.

Figure 6.2 Effectiveness of recent education policies and programmes, according to staff in
MoECHE’s planning department

Engagement of the private sector and other

providers in the delivery of educational services 15% 54% 31%

Establishment of Educational Management

Information (EMIS) system 15% 69% 15%

Operational system for training teachers

and educational personnel 8% 46% 23% 23%

Development of a cadre of
educational professionals 15% 31% 46% 8%

Decentralized planning and management 15% 46% 31% 8%

Establishment of committee structures

at different levels of management 8% 39% 54%

Process of consultation in policy making using

technical committees, commissions, and task forces 15% 39% 46%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Highly effective Effective Poor Very Poor

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission; (n=13).

6.5.3.3 Challenges in policy of policies in the sector. Poor staff motiva-

implementation tion stands out as the main problem, with
6 in 10 staff indicating this to be a major
Poor staff remuneration, political uncer- concern. Lack of authority and power on
tainty, and lack of authority in some agen- the part of the implementing authorities,
cies are some of the biggest hindrances uncertain political conditions, and poor/
to the implementation of policies in the inadequate dissemination of norms, guide-
sector. Figure 6.3 presents the views of lines, and procedures were all believed to
middle-level staff of the MoECHE on the be factors that are responsible for the poor
challenges hindering the implementation implementation of education policies.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Figure 6.3 Challenges in the implementation of education policies

Lack of local ownership 7,7 46,2% 46,2%

Poorly conceived policies 23,1% 46,2% 30,8%

Too much political interference 15,4% 46,2% 38,5%

Lack of clear job descriptions 15,4% 53,8% 30,8%

Poor/inadequate dissemination of norms,

7,7 76,9% 15,4%
guidelines, and procedure

Untimely release of budget 23,1% 53,8% 23,1%

Inadequate professional/technical
23,1% 46,2% 30,8%
capacity of staff

Inadequate staff/personnel 23,1% 46,2% 30,8%

Poor staff motivation 61,5% 15,4% 23,1%

Frequent change of staff 7,7 46,2% 46,2%

Uncertain political conditions 7,7 69,2% 23,1%

Poor understanding of the policy/programme

15,4% 46,2% 38,5%
by the field level staff
Poor communication between the center
15,4% 53,8% 30,8%
and implementing agencies
Lack of authority and power with
15,4% 76,9% 7,7
implementing authorities

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

To a great extent To some extent Not at all

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission; (n=13).

6.5.3.4 Effectiveness of the EMIS three layers, i.e. school, FMS, and FGS
levels, as outlined in Figure 6.4. The new
Although a new EMIS has been put into software was launched in 2019 and has
operation, effort is needed to stabi- been rolled out to nearly 1,000 schools in
lize the system for the delivery of high- the five FMSs. Head teachers are respon-
quality and comprehensive data on the sible for inputting data from their respec-
education system. The new EMIS has tive schools, followed by verification by
undergone changes in the recent past, the district education officer and then
with the system being decentralized to the education ministry in their FMS, after
the state, district, and school levels. In which the data are received at the FGS
2018, MoECHE replaced the Pineapple MoECHE level. District education officers
EMIS software with an EMIS system and FMS education ministries are respon-
customized for the country. The system sible for quality control and monitoring of
was developed in-house and operates on the data provided by head teachers. While

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Figure 6.5 Outline of the Somali EMIS

DATA COLLECTION/PROCESSING STRUCTURE

DATA MANAGEMENT
LEVEL 3 Online
EMIS MoECHE DATA ANALYSES/
MoECHE EMIS level have
system STATISTICS
full ownership to all states
and school level data

REPORTING

DATA MANAGEMENT
Online
LEVEL 2 EMIS STATES ONLINE
States can manage only system REPORTS
their level data
Web based
online reports

DATA MANAGEMENT
Online
LEVEL 1 EMIS REGIONS OFFLINE
Regions can only have system
access to their regions REPORTS

Annual statistics
EMIS CENSUS DATA NON-CENSUS DATA yearbook

INSTITUTIONS State level

FORMAL TECHNICAL HIGHER MoECHE MoECHE OTHER
Every school/university will feedback reports
SCHOOLS SCHOOLS EDUCATION HR FINANCE UNITS
have user accounts
School and regions
School data School data feedback reports
Highter Inst.
AREAS OF DATA Pupils data Pupils data MoECHE
Students and States Examination report
COLLECTION Financial Available
Teacher Teacher level
HT will fill this via Table/Online Lecturers
profile profile records data AU special reports
browsing with suppor of Infrastructure Staff
EMIS dsignated staff Infrastructure Infrastructure records
Programmes
Facilities Facilities

Source: MoECHE.

progress has been made with the system, school-level support and supervision. In the
data quality issues remain and under- interviews, respondents indicate that:
standing of the system by the personnel
involved (e.g. head teachers, district a) the capacities of personnel managing
education officers) is inadequate. In addi- EMIS at all levels are very weak
tion, EMIS activities are entirely depen- b) the training of ministry personnel
dent on external donor support and have at the FGS and FMS levels on data
been implemented on a minimal budget in management and quality assurance
recent years. are very weak
c) guidelines and tools that link EMIS to
Figure 6.5 presents the thoughts MoECHE school-level quality improvement are
staff on the effectiveness of the EMIS, high- non-existent
lighting (1) quality assurance mechanisms d) data flow/gathering mechanisms for
in place in MoECHE, (2) data management management use in the sector, and the
systems, (3) tools used for implementing effectiveness of the tools for imple-
system-wide school supervision, (4) the menting system-wide school supervi-
development of the EMIS policy framework, sion, and school level supervision and
(5) training of ministry personnel, and (6) quality assurance activities are weak.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Figure 6.5 Effectiveness of the EMIS, according to MoECHE staff

Support is provided to head teachers or teachers

in schools to improve the quality of learning and 6,7 6,7 86,7%
teaching via government QA systems

School level supervision and quality assurance

26,7% 6,7 66,7%
activities are implemented

Established learning assessment data bank with 13,4% 73,3% 13,4%

appropriate technology and software

Training of ministry personnel at Federal and subnational

levels on management and quality assurance processes 6,7 6,7 86,7%
for implementing learning assessments
Improved capacities of MOECHE EMIS personnel
at federal, state, and regional levels to manage 13,4% 6,7 80,0%
EMIS functions

Established EMIS regulatory guidelines and tools 13,4% 73,3% 13,4%

that link EMIS to school level quality improvement

Developed protocols and tools for implementing

6,7 13,3% 80,0%
system-wide school supervision

Existence of data management systems for

planning and priority setting at all levels of 80% 20,0%
education service delivery

Data flow /gathering for management

100,0%
usa in the sector

MOECHE has in place several important and 20,0% 20,0% 60,0%

quality assurance mechanisms

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Effective Non-existent Weak

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission (n=15).

6.5.4 Human resource management and development

6.5.4.1 Staffing and staff development 10 members of staff from the two levels
in MoECHE of government are male, with large vari-
ations observed across the states. For
The education sector has a total staff instance, the share of males ranges from
of 600, the majority of whom are male. nearly all staff (94 per cent) in Hirshabelle
Table 6.6 shows the overall staffing of the to two in three staff members in Banadir.
MoECHE and the the FMS ministries of
education. The number of staff varies from The majority of the staff at MoECHE fall
202 in MoECHE to 55 in South West state, into the technical category, with signs of
89 in Jubbaland, 34 in Hirshabelle, 68 in understaffing at some critical levels. Out
Galmudug and 154 in Banadir. Overall, 8 in of the 202 members of staff at MoECHE,

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Table 6.6 Distribution of staff by gender in MoECHE and the FMSs (N. and %)
Female Male
FGS/FMS Number % Number % Total number
MoECHE 42 21 160 79 202

Banadir 51 33 103 67 154

Galmudug 10 15 58 85 68

Hirshabelle 2 6 32 94 34

Jubbaland 11 12 78 88 89

South West 8 15 47 85 55

Total 124 21 478 79 602

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

Table 6.7 Distribution of MoECHE staff by category and gender

Share of
Staff category Female Male Total % Female category (%)
Higher education Committee 3 6 9 33.3 4.5

Cultural attachés 3 17 20 15.0 9.9

Temporary staff 12 23 35 34.3 17.3

Technical advisors 3 11 14 21.4 6.9

Civil servants or permanent

staff 21 103 124 16.9 61.4

Total 42 160 202 20.8% 100.0%

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

138 are considered to be technical or staff, 124 are civil servants, 14 are tech-
permanent staff, accounting for nearly nical advisors, consultants or project offi-
68 per cent of the total staff complement cers, and 35 are temporary staff.
(see Table 6.7). Considering the recon-
struction work in the country, having a Nine in ten members of staff are admin-
huge team dedicated to the conceptu- istrators or policy-makers, with consid-
alization and testing of ideas that can erably high academic qualifica-
change the sector is a particularly good tions. Table 6.8 shows staff distribu-
thing. Notably, while the structure needs tion according to staffing levels and
heads of sections/units as well as clerical bands,7 as well as the gender composition
staff, there are none in post at the moment, within each level. The staffing at MoECHE
pointing to a gap in staffing. The staff can is classified into three levels, each having
be civil servants on long-term employment various bands. The majority of the staff
arrangements, or short-term consultants (88 per cent) are at Level 1, which contains
or technical advisors supported by devel- administrators or policy-makers. The
opment partners. Out of the 202 MoECHE qualification for this level is a university

7 Categorization into the three levels is based on tasks and responsibilities, while the bands are based
on roles and functions carried out, skills, and level of qualifications and training required.

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

Table 6.8 Staffing structure in MoECHE showing banding system

Share by
Level and Category of Level of category
band Employee education Female Male Total % Female (%)
Intellectual and
Level I, Administrator /
Band A Policy-makers Degree 30 137 167 18.0% 82.7%

Level II, Supervisors /Line

Band B managers Diploma 0 0 0 NA 0.0%

Level II,
Band C Clerical officer High school 0 0 0 NA 0.0%

Level III,
Band D Support staff 0 0 0 NA 0.0%

Level III, Apprentice /

Band X Non-Formal 0 0 0 NA 0.0%

Level III,
Band F Formal technician 0 0 0 NA 0.0%

Temporary staff 12 23 35 34.3% 17.3%

Total 42 160 202 20.8% 100.0%

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

Table 6.9 Staff distribution in MoECHE departments

Directors/ Heads of Technical Technical Clerks & Drivers &
Department HODs section advisors staff Secretaries messengers Total
TVET & Non-Formal 0 0 1 5 0 0 6

Curriculum Development
and quality assurance 1 1 4 4 0 2 12

Finance and Admin. 1 4 1 4 0 22 32

Higher Education and

Culture 1 1 0 9 0 0 11

Policy and Planning 0 0 6 17 0 0 23

Teacher Development. 1 0 0 7 0 0 8

Human Resource 0 0 0 8 0 0 8

Exams and Certification 1 3 2 9 3 1 19

Total 5 9 14 63 3 25 119

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission.

degree, which makes the general staffing however, temporary staff (12 per cent)
of the MoECHE considerably well quali- who are yet to be absorbed into the civil
fied to undertake the functions assigned service structure.
to it. Notably though, there are no super-
visors in the staffing structure. Although Table 6.9 presents the distribution of the
the structure contemplates apprentices MoECHE staff on basis of their depart-
and technicians as well as clerical staff, ments. The MoECHE staff work in eight
they are not in post currently. There are, departments. The Finance/Administration,

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 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Policy/Planning, and Examination/ and what is done. Figure 6.6 presents

Certification have the highest number of the results of a questionnaire adminis-
staff, at 32 (14 per cent), 23 (10 per cent), tered to mix of senior and middle-level
and 18 (8 per cent) respectively. On the officials in MoECHE about their compre-
other hand, 12 officers are deployed to hension of their job descriptions . The
the Curriculum Development & Quality results show that 7 in 10 members of staff
Assurance Department, eight to the interviewed had a job description for the
Teacher Development Department, six tasks they performed in the MoECHE,
to TVET and Non-Formal Education, and while the remainder said that there was
five to the Higher Education and Culture no job description which identified the
Department. The reason deduced for the purpose of their role and the key tasks to
discrepancy between the overall number be performed. In addition, 4 in 10 respon-
of MOECHE staff (202) and the break- dents could not clearly identify their
down by departments (119) is that some reporting lines, which may be detrimental
staff are yet to assigned to their various to staff accountability in the ministry.
departments. More than half (63 per cent) of the respon-
dents felt that the job description was just
6.5.4.2 Job descriptions and their a formality, and half (50 per cent) thought
relationships to mandates that roles and responsibilities were not
specific enough to guide the day-to-day
Although the majority of staff have a job tasks to be performed. Half of the staff
description, there is a general feeling also found a mismatch between the func-
that the job descriptions are a mere tions they performed and what their job
formality and that in some cases there descriptions specified.
is a mismatch between what is expected

Figure 6.6 Comprehension of job description and mandate among staff

The roles and responsibilities are not specific enough 50% 6 44%
to guide the day-to-day tasks to be performed
Job descriptions do not state explicitly 25% 13% 63%
to whom the holders were to report

My Job description is just a formality or a ritual 6 56% 13% 25%

My job description does not reflect 6 38% 6 50%

what I do on a day-to-day basis

I have a job description for the functions I perform 69% 6 25%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Strongly agree Agree I do not know Strongly disagree

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission; (n=16).

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Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

6.5.4.3 Governance issues influencing that the frequent changes in leadership

staff performance at the ministry affect the overall perfor-
mance of staff. Although the majority of
Poor staff motivation, frequent changes the staff have a university degree as their
in leadership, and lack of attention to highest academic qualification, more than
staff development are some of the chal- half of the respondents feel that there is
lenges that affect staff performance in lack of skills in the ministry, which may
MoECHE. Staff of MoECHE were asked point to a lack of focus on staff develop-
to identify specific governance issues ment, especially in translating the theo-
which pose challenges to the overall retical learning from school and univer-
performance of MoECHE, as well as to sity into a more practical approach in the
the performance of individual members ministry. Poor working conditions (57 per
of staff at the ministry. As presented in cent), lack of clear-cut responsibility
Figure 6.7, poor staff motivation topped (51 per cent), and nepotism and favou-
the list of challenges, with 6 in 10 members ritism (50 per cent), were also identified
of staff highlighting this factor. More than as posing some level of challenge to staff
half of the employees (53 per cent) feel performance as well.

Figure 6.7 Challenges in MoECHE influencing staff performance

Overstaffing 45% 41% 15%

Lack of skills of employees 7% 42% 51%

Poor working conditions 16% 57% 27%

Weak leadership at the top 30% 47% 23%

Lack of clear cut responsibilities 16% 51% 32%

Poor staff motivation 10% 31% 60%

Fequent leadership changes 18% 30% 53%

Bias in promotion practices 23% 45% 32%

Political interference 18% 47% 35%

Nepotism and favouritism 18% 50% 32%

Corruption at high level 31% 41% 28%

Poor pay and benefits 27% 27% 46%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

No challenges Some challenges Major challenges

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission (n=74).

196
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

An improved work environment for staff was regarded by more than half (56 per
alongside the publicization of service cent) of the interviewees as a key factor
standards could have a major effect on which could improve their performance.
performance in the ministry. In a set of Furthermore, establishing strong rules
focus group discussions conducted with and regulations (68 per cent), delegating
the middle-level staff from the ministry, authority (60 per cent), and computeriza-
the ESA team sought to understand the tion (56 per cent), as well as better moni-
extent to which a set of governance issues toring of the activities of the ministry
could contribute to improvements in their (52 per cent) were regarded as measures
performances. As presented in Figure 6.8, which could lead to improvement in staff
addressing the poor working conditions performance.

Figure 6.8 Factors that could improve the performance of mid-level staff in MoECHE

Poor working conditions 12% 32% 56%

Establishing stronger
32% 40% 28%
accountability standards
Establishing minimum
40% 40% 20%
performance standards

Publicizing Service Standards 28% 36% 36%

Computerization 24% 56% 20%

Eliminating overlaps of functions 24% 48% 28%

Delegating authority 24% 60% 16%

Reward for performance 56% 20% 24%

Better monitoring 32% 52% 16%

Strong rules and regulations 28% 68% 4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

No improvement Some improvement Major improvement

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission; (n=25).

6.5.4.4 Staff perspectives on MoECHE’s tent. On the other hand, the following are
human resource management in place, but their implementation is weak:
(1) instrumentation to regulate the various
A survey conducted with 128 staff at types of schools and prevent fragmentation
MoECHE on the human resource manage- of the education sector, (2) clarity of roles
ment system (Figure 6.9) shows that capac- and authority between different levels of
ity-development strategies for strength- government, (3) policy for teacher manage-
ening government systems are non-exis- ment (recruitment, deployment, career

197
Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

progression), (4) human resource manage- system are said to be effective: (1) procure-
ment regulations /guidelines for turn- ment guidelines of goods and construction,
over or rotation of staff within or between (2) financial reporting and accountability
ministries, and (5) recruitment policies of mechanisms at all levels of government,
non-teaching staff at levels. Meanwhile, and (3) communication channels between
the following instruments of the operations the FGS and FMSs.

Figure 6.9 Staff perspectives on human resource management at MoECHE

A legal framework in place that outlines delegations

and functions of authorities, accountabilities and 37,5% 62,5%
decision-making at state and district levels
Instruments in place to regulate the various types of schools
12,5% 87,5%
and prevent fragmentation of the education sector

School supervision systems to ensure quality standards 12,5% 12,5% 75,0%

Clarity of roles and authorities between 12,5% 87,5%

different levels of government

Capacity development strategies for 75,0% 25,0%

strengthening government systems

Communication channels between Districts and communities 25,0% 37,5% 37,5%

Communication channels between States and Districts 25,0% 12,5% 62,5%

Communication channels between Federal and States 62,5% 37,5%

Financial reporting and accountability mechanisms

75,0% 25,0%
at all levels of government

Procurement guidelines of goods and construction 62,5% 12,5% 25,0%

Policy for teacher management 12,5% 87,5%

(Recruitment, deployment, career progression)

Recruitment policies of non-teaching staff at levels 25,0% 12,5% 62,5%

Human resource management regulations /guidelines for

12,5% 87,5%
turnover or rotation of staff within or between ministries

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Effective Non-existent Weak

Source: Data collected by national team during the 2021 ESA mission; (n=128).

198
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

6.6 Chapter summary

One of the clearest findings from the lines, and procedures. Middle- and junior-
analysis is that the intended functions level staff find themselves locked out of
of MoECHE departments have not been the top-down approach to planning and
adequately documented, and that not all policy formulation and as such find it diffi-
staff are aware of the functions that they cult to implement such policies effectively.
are expected to perform to begin with. A participatory approach to planning and
Some directors/heads of sections were, policy formulation would build internal
however, able to identify, to a considerable ownership and instil a culture of corporate
extent, what should constitute depart- responsibility. It will also ensure knowl-
mental functions. In addition, although edge-sharing, and effective policy imple-
the MoECHE released a new organogram mentation. Acknowledging the role played
showing the functions and structure of the by information systems in the planning and
ministry, the new structure does not detail implementation cycles, the government
departmental functions, job descriptions, has been pursuing the improvement of the
and competences for the different posi- FGS EMIS, and on this front the govern-
tions, which will further perpetuate the ment has been putting a new system into
present situation, where some members operation since 2019. However, there are
of staff do not comprehend the func- some function gaps observed in the new
tions of their departments. A review of system, including limited capacity of
of functions indicates that some func- personnel to manage the new EMIS, weak
tions have not been performed satisfac- data-gathering procedures at school level,
torily, with poor staff motivation, frequent and weak quality assurance and super-
leadership changes, and lack of invest- vision at district and state levels, which
ment in staff development blamed as certainly lead to poor-quality of data.
main contributors to under-performance. Going forward, the MoECHE will need to
Moreover, there are overlaps and duplica- prioritize the following:
tion in functions across MoECHE depart-
ments, which also account for some of 1. Expansion of EMIS to create system-
the lapse in performance. Going forward, wide monitoring and evaluation
addressing staff motivation and engaging mechanisms
in robust capacity development for staff
will help resolve some of the issues. Staff 2. System-wide usage of EMIS for deci-
capacity development may be anchored sion-making at FGS and FMS levels
in a mix of long-term training courses and
on-the-job-training. 3. Improvement of tools and EMIS quality
assurance mechanisms
As with other countries, the planning and
implementation process is not seamless, 4. Facilitation and fast-tracking of the
with challenges identified as contributing decentralization of EMIS system.
to this including the choice of a top-down This should include improving gover-
approach to planning, poor training oppor- nance structures and clarifying the
tunities for MoECHE personnel, weak roles, functions, and accountabilities
linkage between planning and implemen- between different levels of govern-
tation, uncertain political conditions, and ment towards a more effective and
inadequate dissemination of norms, guide- efficient EMIS

199
Chapter 6. Governance and institutional analysis of the education sector

5. Strengthening of skills and capacities tasks. With the introduction of the new
of EMIS personnel at FGS, FMS, and organizational structure for the ministry,
regional levels to manage EMIS func- it will be important to streamline depart-
tions effectively and efficiently mental functions, establish appropriate
job descriptions, and conduct capaci-
6. Improving supervision and monitoring ty-development programmes required for
standards, and tools for conducting a more efficient and effective education
routine monitoring at school level. sector. Outside the ministry, coordination,
consultations, and cooperation between
Staffing in MoECHE and the FMS educa- MoECHE and FMSs are anchored in MoUs
tion ministries is male-dominated and signed between MoECHE and FMS educa-
within MoECHE, most members of staff tion ministries. The sector also bene-
are associated with administrative fits from several coordination forums,
departments, with signs of understaffing including the Inter-Ministerial Committee,
in some critical areas. For instance, there Education Sector Committee, Education
are still vacancies for technical super- Cluster, and Joint Review of the Education
visors and secretarial staff, raising an Sector. Although the effectiveness of the
important question about the effec- decentralization process, as envisaged in
tiveness of operations in the ministry. the MoUs signed by MoECHE and FMS
Moreover, while most of existing staff education ministries, needs to be evalu-
have access to their job descriptions, more ated, this ESA holds that the continued
than half feel that job descriptions are consultations and collaboration between
just a mere formality. About half believe state and non-state actors will be key to
that roles and responsibilities are not enhancing the effectiveness of the educa-
specific enough to guide their day-to-day tion delivery system.

200
Annexes
Annexes

Annex I: Structure of programmes

in Somalia, as per 2021 National
Education Policy

Theoretical age of entry

Compulsory education?
Programme orientation

certificates awarded at
Name of the education

Formal or non-formal

Theoretical duration

Are data available?

Minimum entrance

end of programme
qualifications or
Main diplomas,
require-ments
programme

Description

education?

(years)
Integrated Formal General 3 years + None 3 to 3 No No
Quranic ability to 6 years
schools speak and
respond to
requests

Kinder- Formal General 3 years + None 3 to 3 No No

garten ability to 6 years
(early speak and
childhood respond to
education) requests

Level 1: Formal General Age 6 None 6 4 Yes Yes

Lower
primary
Education
(Grades
1 to 4)

Level 1: Formal General Success Level 1 10 4 Yes Yes

Upper in Grade 5 certificate
primary entrance
Education exam for
(Grades students
5 to 8) who didn’t
complete
Lower
primary

Non-Formal Aims to teach adults Non- General 18 years + Certificate 18 3 No No

Education numeracy and literacy up formal and can take months
to Grade 4 level. entrance to
exam for 1 year
Grade 5 after
12-month
programme

Adult Basic Aimed at people who Non- General 18 years + Will do Grade 8 18 3 No No
Education dropped out of school formal exams and
get Level 1
certificate

Vocational Formal Voca- Lower Certificate 18 1–2 No No

Training tional primary
Institute completed.
Literacy and
numeracy

Level 1: Level 1: Alternative Formal General 9 years + Can take 9 4 No Yes

Alternative Basic Education (ABE). Grade 5 entry
Basic Description: “Comple- test after
Education mentary initiative to two years, or
(ABE) formal primary education take exam to
services for marginalized gain Level 1
out-of-school children and certificate
those with diverse needs” after four
Taken from Somalia years
Education Sector Strategic
Plan 2018-2020, page 123.

202
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Theoretical age of entry

Compulsory education?
Programme orientation

certificates awarded at
Name of the education

Formal or non-formal

Theoretical duration

Are data available?

Minimum entrance

end of programme
qualifications or
Main diplomas,
require-ments
programme

Description

education?

(years)
Level 1: For out-of-school children Non- General 9 years + Can join the 9 4 No Yes
Accelerated formal Vocational
Basic Training
Education Institute

Level 2: Formal General Level 1 Secondary 14 4 No Yes

Secondary certificate Certificate
school (children or
adults)

Level 1: Provides upper primary Non- General Can be Primary 13 2 No No

Islamic education formal joined by Islamic
institutes someone Certificate
who learned
from
Halaqat
(in the
mosque).
Halaqat is
a religious
gathering or
meeting for
the study
of Islam
and Quran.
Must pass
entrance
test

Level 2: Provides secondary Formal General Must hold Secondary 14 3–4 No No

Islamic education Level 1 Islamic
institutes certificate Certificate
or Primary
Islamic
Certificate

Profes- Preparation for Formal Tech- Level 1 Technical 14 2–3 No No

sional professions, e.g. Nursing nical certificate Secondary
education (students or Certificate
adults)

Technical Preparation for skilled Formal Tech- Level 1 Technical 15 3–4 No Yes
secondary work, e.g. engineering/ nical certificate Secondary
education fishing/agriculture (students or Certificate
adults)

Pre-service Full-time course based on Formal General Secondary Diploma in 18 2 No No

teacher the National Curriculum. Certificate Education
training Includes pedagogical (70%
(Primary) training and practical pass); aged
teaching between
18 and
50 years;
pass
entrance
test

203
Annexes

Theoretical age of entry

Compulsory education?
Programme orientation

certificates awarded at
Name of the education

Formal or non-formal

Theoretical duration

Are data available?

Minimum entrance

end of programme
qualifications or
Main diplomas,
require-ments
programme

Description

education?

(years)
Pre-service Full-time course based on Formal General Secondary B.Ed. 18 4 No No
teacher the National Curriculum. Certificate
training Includes pedagogical (70%
(Primary) training and practical pass); aged
teaching between
18 and
50 years);
pass
entrance
test

Pre-service Four-year Bachelor’s Formal General Secondary B.Ed. 18 4 No No

teacher degree course, including Certificate
training school placement, (70%
(Secondary) studying two subjects pass); aged
– major and subsidiary – between
with the expectation that 18 and
after graduation one will 50 years);
teach these two subjects. pass
entrancy
test

Level 3: Formal General Secondary Bachelor’s 18 4 No No

Bachelor’s Certificate degree
degree

Level 3: Available at Primary Formal General/ Secondary Diploma 18 2 No No

Diploma teacher-training Tech- Certificate
institutes, TVET centres, nical
technical colleges, etc

Level 3: Aimed at holders of Formal General Good pass Postgraduate 22 1 No No

Post- Bachelor’s degrees in degree diploma
graduate holders who have no had and must
diploma initial teacher training but be able to
want to join the teaching teach two
profession. subjects at
secondary
level

Source: Authors’ construction, based on 2021 Somalia National Education Policy.

204
 Education Sector Analysis • Federal Government of Somalia

Annex II: Data quality and availability

There are large amounts of education data — 2018 school census data was not used
available, but a lack of coherence limits as it was estimated using 2017 data.
the story they tell about education in the — There exists no recording of repetition
four FMSs and Banadir. Incomplete school in the school census database, except
census data, not recording the same vari- for 2019.
ables or response options across the years, — There is no reporting of students
and changes in the codification of certain aged 6 years old or younger in the
school attributes make analysis difficult. 2020 stand-alone database, which
These challenges include the following: makes the calculation of net enrolment
indicators impossible.
— Changes in the structure of the educa-
tion system. For instance, the inclu- To assess the completeness of the data
sion of a Form 9 in the 2016/ 2017 data- available in the national EMIS for the
bases makes comparisons difficult. period under review, the total number
— There is a misclassification of dimen- of schools presented was calculated by
sions identifying schools. For instance, appending all years and obtaining unique
the 2016 and 2017 database contains school names. The proportion of these
information on the type of school coded schools presented by year was obtained
as ‘Government’, ‘NGO’, ‘Private’, and for each educational level, as presented
‘Umbrellas’. This changes in 2019 to in Table 2.3. The year after a particularly
include only ‘Community’, ‘Public’, severe drought in Somalia, 2018, saw a
and ‘Private’, and to only ‘Public’ and sharp fall in school reporting, which is a
‘Private’ in 2020. factor to bear in mind when interpreting
— There are no systematic databases on the education indicators presented. There
early childhood education. The first is an over-reporting of schools in 2016 and
data collection in pre-primary educa- 2017, which is probably due to different
tion is scheduled for 2021. spellings of translated names for the
— The data formatting for the 2019 stand- same school when the name is translated.
alone database makes manipulation As mentioned above, no information is
and data extraction prone to error. available for pre-primary education.

Table 0.1 Coverage of the data available in the national EMIS, 2016–2020 (N. and %)
2016 2017 2019 2020
Primary schools 1,386 1,446 1,734 2,225

Coverage in school census 80.7% 80.4% 52.2% 66.0%

Secondary schools 442 454 891 961

Coverage in school census 155.9% 148.0% 46.6% 80.7%

Total 1,828 1,900 2,625 3186

Coverage in school census 79.6% 79.3% 36.1% 60.3%

Note: The number of schools by level in 2016 was estimated by applying an exponential growth approach to the
2017–2020 totals and rounding to the closest whole number.

205
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208
This 2022 Education Sector Analysis (ESA) is the second ESA report
that the Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education of the
Federal Government of Somalia has produced since 2012.
The report presents key education indicators across the various sub-
sectors and provides an evidence base for the identification of policy
priority areas and the development of the Education Sector Strategic
Plan (2022–2026).

https://dakar.iiep.unesco.org