Number Sets (in decreasing size) and Closure Properties of Numbers Proving Field Some Random Subspace Theorem

Sets Symbol Meaning Examples Closure Properties Number Law Definition Let 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 be subspaces of 𝕍𝕍
Reals R All numbers less complex π, 0, 3/5, √2 +, -, ×, ÷ (F1) Closure Under Addition ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽
All numbers that can be expressed as a quotient +, -, ×, ÷ (F2) Commutative Addition ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎 Then:
Rationals Q 3/5, 5/1, 0/2 *Irrational numbers have 1. 𝕎𝕎1 ∩ 𝕎𝕎2 is a subspace
𝑝𝑝 (F3) Associative Addition ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎 + (𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐)
𝑞𝑞, p , q ∈ Z, q ≠ 0 2. 𝕎𝕎1 + 𝕎𝕎2 = 𝑤𝑤1 + 𝑤𝑤2 ∶ 𝑤𝑤1 ∈ 𝕎𝕎1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤2 ∈ 𝕎𝕎2 is a subspace
none (F4) UNIQUE Additive Identity ∀ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, ∃ 0 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎𝑎
Integers Z All Numbers without fractional component …,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2,… +, -, × (F5) UNIQUE Additive Inverse ∀ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, ∃ 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0, 𝑏𝑏 = −𝑎𝑎 Definition of linear span
Wholes W All positive integers 0, 1, 2, 3, … +, × (F6) Close under Multiplication ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 Let 𝐵𝐵 be a non-empty subset of 𝕍𝕍
Naturals N All positive integers less 0 1, 2, 3, … +, × (F7) Commutative Multiplication ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
The subspace 𝕎𝕎 = {all linear combinations of some vectors in 𝐵𝐵}
(F8) Associative Multiplication ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)
Basic Laws of Matrices and Numbers 1. 𝕎𝕎 is the subspace of 𝕍𝕍 spanned by 𝐵𝐵
Law Example Relation to F and V (F9) UNIQUE Multiplicative Identity ∀ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, ∃ 1 ≠ 0 1𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 2. 𝕎𝕎 is a linear span of 𝐵𝐵
Commutative Addition 𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨𝑨 (F2), (V2) (F10) UNIQUE Multiplicative Inverse ∀ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, ∃ 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎−1 3. 𝐵𝐵spans 𝕎𝕎
Associative Addition 𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨 + (𝑩𝑩 + 𝑪𝑪) (F3), (V3) (F11) Distributive Law ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Denote 𝕎𝕎 = span𝔽𝔽 (𝐵𝐵) (or span(𝐵𝐵) for short).
Associative Multiplication 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨(𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩) (F8), - Proving Vector Space Remark: Need to justify that 𝕎𝕎 is a subspace.
Distributive Law 𝑨𝑨 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 (F11), (V9) Number Law Definition
Additional Law Only for Numbers (V1) Closure Under Addition ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 Basis and Dimension
Commutative Multiplication 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (F7), - (V2) Commutative Addition ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒖𝒖 Let 𝕍𝕍 be a finite dimension vector space and 𝐵𝐵 be a subset of 𝕍𝕍
(V3) Associative Addition ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗, 𝒘𝒘 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒖𝒖 + (𝒗𝒗 + 𝒘𝒘)
Identities 𝐵𝐵 is a basis if it satisfies any two of the following statements:
(V4) UNIQUE Additive Identity ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, ∃ 𝟎𝟎 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 𝒖𝒖 + 𝟎𝟎 = 𝒖𝒖
Found in 1. 𝐵𝐵 is linearly independent
Type Definition and Examples (V5) UNIQUE Multiplicative Identity ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, ∃ 1 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 1𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒖
Field Vector Space 2. span(𝐵𝐵) = 𝕍𝕍
(V6) Closure under Multiplication ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝕍𝕍
Additive ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎𝑎, then 0 is the additive identity (F4) - 0 (V4) - 𝟎𝟎 3. 𝐵𝐵 = dim 𝕍𝕍
(V7) Associative Multiplication ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, 𝑏𝑏(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 𝑐𝑐(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)
Multiplicative ∀ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎, then 1 is the multiplicative identity (F9) - 1 (V4) - 1
(V8) UNIQUE additive inverse ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, ∃ 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒖𝒖 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝒖𝒖 = −𝒗𝒗 Dimension
Inverses
(V9) Distributive Addition ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑐𝑐 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 The dimension of a vector space 𝕍𝕍, dim𝔽𝔽 𝕍𝕍 , is defined to be the number of vectors in a basis
Additive ∀ 𝑏𝑏, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0, then 𝑥𝑥 is the additive inverse of 𝑏𝑏 (F5) - (−𝑏𝑏) (F5) - (−𝒃𝒃)
(V10) Distributive Scalar Multiplication ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 , 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for 𝕍𝕍, a.k.a, the cardinality of the basis
Multiplicative ∀ 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 × 𝑏𝑏 = 1, then 𝑥𝑥 is the multiplicative inverse of 𝑏𝑏 (F10) - (𝑏𝑏−1 ) Not defined
Proving Subset is a Subspace (and Vector Space)
Let 𝕍𝕍 be a vector space over 𝔽𝔽. A subset 𝕎𝕎 of 𝕍𝕍 is a subspace of 𝕍𝕍 iff: The dimension of a space is the minimum number of vectors required to span that space.
Terminology
Finite Field A field 𝔽𝔽 is called a finite field if it has only finitely many elements Contains the zero vector 0 is in 𝕎𝕎
Let 𝕎𝕎 be a subspace of a vector space 𝕍𝕍
Subtraction 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎 + (−𝑏𝑏) Closed under vector addition ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕎𝕎 , 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕎𝕎
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝕎𝕎 ≤ 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝕍𝕍 , and 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝕎𝕎 = 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝕍𝕍 iff 𝕎𝕎 = 𝕍𝕍
𝑎𝑎 Closed under scalar multiplication ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕎𝕎, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝕎𝕎
Division = 𝑎𝑎 × 𝑏𝑏 −1 Coordinate Vectors
𝑏𝑏
Range and Kernel of Matrix
Linear System over 𝔽𝔽 All coefficients of linear equations are in 𝔽𝔽 If 𝐵𝐵 = {𝒗𝒗1 , 𝒗𝒗2 , … , 𝒗𝒗𝑛𝑛 } is an ordered basis of 𝕍𝕍 and 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍, then
Let 𝑨𝑨 be a 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix
Matrix Over 𝔽𝔽 All entries of the matrix are in 𝔽𝔽 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝒗𝒗1 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝒗𝒗2 + … + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝒗𝒗𝑛𝑛 , for some (𝑐𝑐1 , 𝑐𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 ) ∈ 𝔽𝔽
The Range of a matrix is the set of possible linear The Kernel (nullspace) of a matrix is the set of
ℚ 𝒊𝒊 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝒊𝒊: 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℚ ⊂ ℂ
Gaussian Rational combinations of its column space. vectors 𝑣𝑣 such that
The addition and multiplication are defined as those of complex numbers And the coordinate vectors of 𝒖𝒖 relative to the basis 𝐵𝐵 is
𝒖𝒖 𝐵𝐵 = (𝑐𝑐1 , 𝑐𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 ) or 𝒖𝒖 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑐𝑐1 , 𝑐𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇

Types of Vector Spaces

R 𝑨𝑨 = {𝑐𝑐1 𝑨𝑨1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑨𝑨𝑛𝑛 : (𝑐𝑐1 , … , 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 ) ∈ 𝔽𝔽} ker 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑣𝑣 ∈ 𝔽𝔽𝑛𝑛 : 𝑨𝑨𝑣𝑣 = 𝟎𝟎
Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers where 𝑨𝑨𝑖𝑖 denotes the 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡 column of 𝑨𝑨 Direct Sums
Type Notation Zero The nullity of 𝑨𝑨, nullity 𝑨𝑨 = dim(ker 𝑨𝑨 ) Let 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 be subspaces of 𝕍𝕍
Multiplication 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝒊𝒊 ⋅ 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑𝒊𝒊 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝒊𝒊 The rank of 𝑨𝑨, rank 𝑨𝑨 = dim(R 𝑨𝑨 ) Also, the number of non-pivot columns of 𝑨𝑨
Vector 𝔽𝔽𝑛𝑛 , dim = 𝑛𝑛 𝟎𝟎
Ranks and Dimensions of Matrix The subspace 𝕎𝕎1 + 𝕎𝕎2 is a direct sum of 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 iff
Matrices ℳ𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 , dim = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝟎𝟎 ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕎𝕎1 + 𝕎𝕎2 , 𝒖𝒖 can be expressed UNIQUELY as
1 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 Dimension Theorem: rank 𝑨𝑨 + nullity 𝑨𝑨 = # columns of 𝑨𝑨
Division = 2 − 2 𝒊𝒊 𝒫𝒫𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 , dim = 𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝒊𝒊 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏2 Polynomials 𝑂𝑂(𝑥𝑥) The following are equivalent:
𝒖𝒖 = 𝑤𝑤1 + 𝑤𝑤2 for 𝑤𝑤1 ∈ 𝕎𝕎1 , 𝑤𝑤2 ∈ 𝕎𝕎2
dim 𝒫𝒫 𝔽𝔽 = 𝑛𝑛
1) rank 𝑨𝑨 = 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝑨𝑨T In this case, we denote by 𝕎𝕎1 ⊕ 𝕎𝕎2
Transpose of a Matrix Inverse of a Matrix Properties of ranks, for a 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix 𝑨𝑨:
2) dim(𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 of 𝑨𝑨) Proving Direct Sums (Equivalent Definition)
1) rank 𝑨𝑨 ≤ min 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 , the largest possible rank
The transpose of a 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix 𝑨𝑨, The inverse of a 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix 𝑨𝑨, is 𝑨𝑨-1 3) dim(𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 of 𝑨𝑨)
2) rank 𝑨𝑨 = min 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 iff 𝑨𝑨 is of full rank The subspace 𝕎𝕎1 + 𝕎𝕎2 is a direct sum of 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 if and only if
denoted by 𝑨𝑨T (or 𝑨𝑨t ), 4) # of non-zero rows of rref(𝑨𝑨)
4) rank 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 ≤ min rank 𝑨𝑨 , rank 𝑩𝑩 𝕎𝕎1 ∩ 𝕎𝕎2 = {0}
𝑨𝑨 is invertible if ∃ 𝑩𝑩 | 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑰𝑰𝑛𝑛 & 𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 = 𝑰𝑰𝑛𝑛 5) # of leading entries of rref(𝑨𝑨)
It is the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and 6) # of pivot columns of rref(𝑨𝑨)
𝑨𝑨 is singular if for all 𝑩𝑩, 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 ≠ 𝑰𝑰𝑛𝑛 and 𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 ≠ 𝑰𝑰𝑛𝑛 *𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝒃𝒃 is consistent iff 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝑨𝑨 = 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝑨𝑨 𝒃𝒃) IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT DIRECT SUM
columns of 𝑨𝑨. 7) # of columns of 𝑨𝑨 −nullity(𝑨𝑨)
Laws of Transposition Laws of Inversion 8) # of columns of 𝑨𝑨𝐓𝐓 − nullity(𝑨𝑨𝐓𝐓 ) If 𝕍𝕍 = 𝕎𝕎1 ⊕ 𝕎𝕎2 , 𝑣𝑣 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 need not necessarily belong to only either 𝕎𝕎1 or 𝕎𝕎2
𝑨𝑨𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝑩𝑩′ → 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑩𝑩′ Dimension of Direct Sums
Range and Kernel of Transformation
𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑨𝑨−1 −1 = 𝑨𝑨 Let 𝕎𝕎1 ⊕ 𝕎𝕎2 be a direct sum
Let 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 be a linear transformation
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑩𝑩𝑇𝑇𝑨𝑨𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑨𝑨 −1 = (1/𝑎𝑎)𝑨𝑨−1
The Range of 𝑇𝑇 is the set of images in 𝕎𝕎 of all The Kernel (or null space) of 𝑇𝑇 is the set of all
𝑨𝑨𝑇𝑇 −1 = (𝑨𝑨−1)𝑇𝑇 • If 𝐵𝐵1 and 𝐵𝐵2 are bases for 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 respectively, then
elements in 𝕍𝕍 elements in 𝕍𝕍 whose image in 𝕎𝕎 is 𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝑨−1 = 𝑩𝑩, 𝑩𝑩−1 = 𝑨𝑨, 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝑰𝑰 𝐵𝐵1 ∪ 𝐵𝐵2 is a basis for 𝕎𝕎1 ⊕ 𝕎𝕎2
R 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢 ∶ 𝑢𝑢 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 ker 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑢𝑢 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 ∶ 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢 = 𝟎𝟎
Properties of Determinants How does ERO Change Determinant? • If both 𝕎𝕎1 and 𝕎𝕎2 are finite dimensional, then
det 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = det 𝑨𝑨 det(𝑩𝑩) 𝑨𝑨 –ERO 𝑩𝑩 Change in Determinant Ranges are subspaces in 𝕎𝕎 Kernels are subspaces in 𝕍𝕍 dim 𝕎𝕎1 ⊕ 𝕎𝕎2 = dim 𝕎𝕎1 + dim 𝕎𝕎2
det 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = det(𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 det 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑐𝑐 � det(𝑨𝑨) The rank of 𝑇𝑇, rank 𝑇𝑇 = dim(R 𝑇𝑇 ) The nullity of 𝑇𝑇, nullity 𝑇𝑇 = dim(ker 𝑇𝑇 ) Sum and Intersection of Vector Spaces
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 det 𝑩𝑩 = −det(𝑨𝑨)
det 𝑎𝑎𝑨𝑨 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 det 𝑨𝑨 , 𝑛𝑛 is the order of 𝑨𝑨 dim 𝕎𝕎1 + 𝕎𝕎2 = dim 𝕎𝕎1 + dim 𝕎𝕎2 − dim 𝕎𝕎1 ∩ 𝕎𝕎2
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 det 𝑩𝑩 = det(𝑨𝑨) Dimension Theorem for Matrix of Transformation
det 𝑨𝑨T = det(𝑨𝑨) Let 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 be a linear transformation, and 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 to be the respective bases
1 Type of Matrices To find basis of sum of vector spaces, take union of the 2 bases, and find redundant vector
Let dim 𝕍𝕍 = 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛, and 𝑨𝑨𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 be the matrix of the transformation
det 𝑨𝑨−1 = using GJE on coordinate vectors
det(𝑨𝑨) Symmetric 𝑨𝑨T= 𝑨𝑨 rank 𝑇𝑇 + nullity 𝑇𝑇 = dim 𝕍𝕍
1 Anti-Symmetric 𝑨𝑨T = −𝑨𝑨 . To find basis of intersection of vector space, take an arbitrary vector in either of the vector
=

𝑨𝑨−1 = adj(𝑨𝑨)
det 𝑨𝑨 Orthogonal 𝑨𝑨T = 𝑨𝑨−1 rank 𝐴𝐴 + nullity 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑛𝑛 = #columns of A spaces, and apply the condition of the other vector space.
 A B A B A B A B A B Composition of Function Types Linear Operator and Linear Functional Linear Transformation over 𝔽𝔽
If 𝒈𝒈 ∘ 𝒇𝒇 is 𝒈𝒈 must be 𝒇𝒇 must be 1. Linear Operator Let 𝕍𝕍 and 𝕎𝕎 be vector spaces over 𝔽𝔽. ∀ 𝒖𝒖, 𝒗𝒗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍 and ∀ 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ 𝔽𝔽
Injective - Injective • A linear transformation on the same vector space
Surjective Surjective - A mapping 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 is a linear transformation iff it satisfies the following:
Bijective Surjective Injective 2. Linear Functional 1. 𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝒖𝒖 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒗𝒗
• A linear transformation from a vector space to its field 2. 𝑇𝑇 0 = 0
If 𝒇𝒇 and 𝒈𝒈 are Then 𝒈𝒈 ∘ 𝒇𝒇 will be
NOT a General Injective Surjective Bijective Injective Injective
Similar Matrices 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒗𝒗 → 𝑇𝑇 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑇𝑇(𝒗𝒗)
Function Function (not surjective) (not injective) (injective, surjective) Surjective Surjective
Let 𝑨𝑨, 𝑩𝑩, ∈ ℳ𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 , 𝑇𝑇 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑇𝑇 𝒗𝒗 → 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒗𝒗 iff 𝑇𝑇 is injective
A has many B B can have many A B can't have many A Every B has some A A to B, perfectly Bijective Bijective
Common Transformations
3 Types of Functions 𝑩𝑩 is similar to 𝑨𝑨 if ∃ 𝑷𝑷 ∈ ℳ𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 such that 𝑩𝑩 = 𝑷𝑷−𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
Let 𝑨𝑨 be an m-by-n matrix over 𝔽𝔽. 𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑨𝑨𝒖𝒖, ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝔽𝔽𝑛𝑛
Definition Proving/Disproving
Properties of Similar Matrices
Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌. Proving a function is injective: Identity Operator from 𝕍𝕍 to 𝕍𝕍: 𝐼𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒖, ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍
Suppose 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 , and derive 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 It is necessary that similar matrices have the same determinant and trace, but Zero Transformation from 𝕍𝕍 to 𝕎𝕎: 𝑂𝑂𝑉𝑉,𝑊𝑊 𝒖𝒖 = 0, ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍
𝒇𝒇 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 one − to − one 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 . matrices with the same determinant and trace are not necessarily similar
∀ 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋𝑋, 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥𝑥2 → 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 . Disproving a function is injective: Let 𝑓𝑓 ∈ 𝒞𝒞 ∞ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 be a real vector space of infinitely differentiable functions.
∀ 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋𝑋, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 → 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2. Show that that 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥𝑥2 but 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2
Transition Matrices Differential Operator:
Injective Function

𝒇𝒇 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢. Proving a function of a cartesian product is injective: For 𝑓𝑓 ∈ 𝒞𝒞 ∞ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 , define the differential operator
∃ 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 . Suppose f m, n = f p, q , and derive that m, n = (p, q) Let 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 be ordered bases for 𝕍𝕍, 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 } 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 i.e. 𝑓𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
Integral Operator:
Proving a function by case is injective: Then the transition matrix from 𝐵𝐵 to 𝐶𝐶 is given by,
All elements in codomain mapped For 𝑓𝑓 ∈ 𝒞𝒞 ∞ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 , define the integral operator
Split into cases where 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 are in all possible combinations and use the 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣1 𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣2 𝐶𝐶 … 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶 = ( 𝑣𝑣1 𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣2 𝐶𝐶 … 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶 ) 𝑥𝑥
from exactly one element in domain 𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
normal proving techniques
Not all elements in codomain must be Determinant Transformation det: 𝑨𝑨 ∈ ℳ𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 ↦ det 𝑨𝑨 ∈ 𝔽𝔽
Let 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕍𝕍 be a linear operator, and 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶 be two ordered bases for 𝕍𝕍
mapped to Proving a function in ℤ × ℤ is injective:
Suppose 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦1, 𝑦𝑦2 , and derive that Trace Transformation tr: 𝑨𝑨 ∈ ℳ𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 ↦ tr(𝑨𝑨) ∈ 𝔽𝔽
𝑇𝑇 𝐵𝐵.𝐵𝐵 ≔ 𝑇𝑇 𝐵𝐵 , and 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐶𝐶 ≔ 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 are the matrices for 𝑇𝑇 relative to 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶
* If 𝑿𝑿 > 𝒀𝒀 , 𝒇𝒇 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑦𝑦1, 𝑦𝑦2 using simultaneous equations
𝑷𝑷 ≔ 𝐼𝐼𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 is the transition matrix from 𝐵𝐵 to 𝐶𝐶 Matrices for Linear Transformations
Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌 be a function from set 𝑋𝑋 to set 𝑌𝑌. Given
𝑇𝑇 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃−1 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃 1. 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 is a linear transformation, and 𝕍𝕍, 𝕎𝕎 are finite dimensional
𝒇𝒇 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 onto 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 . Proving a function is surjective: *Use this when question is asking about similar matrices for transition matrices 2. 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 are ordered bases of 𝕍𝕍 and 𝕎𝕎, respectively
∀ 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑌𝑌, ∃ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑋𝑋 such that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Express x in terms of 𝑦𝑦 and show that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 3. 𝒖𝒖 𝐵𝐵 and 𝑇𝑇 𝒖𝒖 𝐶𝐶 are coordinate vectors of 𝒖𝒖 and 𝑇𝑇 𝒖𝒖 relative to 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶
range 𝑓𝑓 = codomain(𝑓𝑓).
Disproving a function is surjective: Inverse mapping
Surjective Function

𝑇𝑇 𝒖𝒖 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 𝒖𝒖 𝐵𝐵 , ∀ 𝒖𝒖 ∈ 𝕍𝕍
𝒇𝒇 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢. Find a 𝑦𝑦 and show that there does not exist an 𝑥𝑥 where 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦, Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝔸𝔸 → 𝔹𝔹 be a mapping.
∃ 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑌𝑌, such that ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑋𝑋, 𝑦𝑦 ≠ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). i.e., ∀ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓 is bijective if and only if there exist a mapping 𝑔𝑔: 𝔹𝔹 → 𝔸𝔸 such that
range 𝑓𝑓 ≠ codomain(𝑓𝑓). 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 and 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
Proving a function by case is surjective: 𝑇𝑇
Elements in codomain can be mapped
from more than one element in
Split codomain into cases and apply normal proving techniques Where 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 and 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 are the identity mappings. 𝕍𝕍 𝑢𝑢 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢 𝕎𝕎
domain 𝑨𝑨𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵
Proving a function in ℤ × ℤ is surjective: Here 𝑔𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓𝑓, and 𝑓𝑓 that of 𝑔𝑔. 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑓𝑓 −1 , 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔𝑔−1
All elements in codomain must be For a general 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 in the co-domain, construct a y1, y2 in the domain such
mapped to, and range = codomain dim 𝕍𝕍 = 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛 dim 𝕎𝕎 = 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚
that 𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦1, 𝑦𝑦2 will give you 𝑥𝑥1, 𝑥𝑥2 Injective and Surjective
𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 is a linear transformation Let 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 } be a basis for 𝕍𝕍, then
* If 𝑿𝑿 < 𝒀𝒀 , 𝒇𝒇 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌 be a function from set 𝑋𝑋 to set 𝑌𝑌. 𝑇𝑇 is injective iff Ker 𝑇𝑇 = {0} and nullity(𝑇𝑇) = {0} 𝑨𝑨𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 = ( 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣1 𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣2 𝐶𝐶 … 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶 )
𝑇𝑇 is surjective iff R 𝑇𝑇 = 𝕎𝕎 and rank 𝑇𝑇 = dim(𝕎𝕎) Where 𝑨𝑨 is the matrix for 𝑇𝑇 relative to the ordered bases 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶
𝒇𝒇 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 one − to − one correspondence 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 . Uniqueness of Transformations
It is both injective and surjective. ** ALL LINEAR OPERATORS ARE INJECTIVE IFF IT IS SURJECTIVE
Bijective function

Prove that it is both injective and surjective Bijective and Isomorphism For a fixed bases 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶

All elements in codomain mapped Let 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 be a linear transformation. 1. Every transformation has unique matrix of transformation. That is, there exists a
from exactly one element in domain To prove a set is infinite yet countable, show that all elements in the set can 𝑇𝑇 is called isomorphism from 𝕍𝕍 onto 𝕎𝕎 if 𝑇𝑇 is bijective
be mapped to the set of positive integers using a bijective function bijection from the transformations to the matrices.
All elements in the codomain are 2. Let
mapped to, and range = codomain
And if 𝑇𝑇 is isomorphism, then • 𝑇𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 , then 𝐴𝐴3 = 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2
𝑇𝑇 −1 is a linear transformation and also is isomorphism • 𝑇𝑇4 = 𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇1 , then 𝐴𝐴4 = 𝑐𝑐𝐴𝐴1
𝕍𝕍 and 𝕎𝕎 are isomorphic, 𝕍𝕍 ≅ 𝕎𝕎, iff dim(𝕍𝕍) = dim(𝕎𝕎) Composition of Transformation
* If 𝑿𝑿 ≠ 𝒀𝒀 , 𝒇𝒇 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛
There exists an isomorphism from 𝕍𝕍 to 𝕎𝕎
Let 𝑆𝑆: 𝕌𝕌 → 𝕍𝕍 and 𝑇𝑇: 𝕍𝕍 → 𝕎𝕎 be linear transformations. Then, ∀ 𝑢𝑢 ∈ 𝕌𝕌
The following statements are equivalent: Trace Properties Isomorphism vs 𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪,𝑩𝑩
𝑇𝑇 ∘ 𝑆𝑆 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆 𝒖𝒖
∀ 𝑨𝑨, 𝑩𝑩 ∈ ℳ𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 𝔽𝔽 , 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝔽𝔽 Let 𝕍𝕍 and 𝕎𝕎 be two vector spaces, and dim(𝕍𝕍) = dim(𝕎𝕎).
Let 𝑨𝑨 be a square matrix of order 𝑛𝑛
Transpose tr 𝑨𝑨 = tr(𝑨𝑨T ) Let 𝔸𝔸, 𝔹𝔹, ℂ be ordered bases for 𝕌𝕌, 𝕍𝕍, 𝕎𝕎 respectively. Then,
1. 𝑇𝑇 is an isomorphism iff 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 is an invertible matrix; 𝑇𝑇 ∘ 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶,𝐴𝐴 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 𝑆𝑆 𝐵𝐵,𝐴𝐴
1) 𝑨𝑨 is invertible Addition tr 𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 = tr 𝑨𝑨 + tr(𝑩𝑩) −1
2. If 𝑇𝑇 is an isomorphism, 𝑇𝑇 −1 𝐵𝐵,𝐶𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵
2) 𝑨𝑨 is of full rank Scalar 𝑇𝑇 ∘ 𝑆𝑆
2) The linear system 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝟎𝟎 has only the trivial solution tr 𝑐𝑐𝑨𝑨 = 𝑐𝑐 tr(𝑨𝑨)
Multiplication 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢
3) The RREF of 𝑨𝑨 is an identity matrix 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
Given 𝑨𝑨𝑝𝑝×𝑞𝑞 , 𝑩𝑩𝑞𝑞×𝑟𝑟 , 𝑪𝑪𝑟𝑟×𝑝𝑝 ,
4) 𝑨𝑨 can be expressed as a product of elementary matrices 𝕌𝕌 𝕍𝕍 𝕎𝕎
5) det(𝑨𝑨) ≠ 0 Circular Trace 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪) ≠ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨) 𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇
𝕎𝕎 𝑢𝑢 𝑆𝑆(𝑢𝑢) 𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆 𝑢𝑢
6) The rows of 𝑨𝑨 form a basis for 𝐑𝐑n
Linearly Independent Transformations
𝕍𝕍 𝑢𝑢 𝑇𝑇 𝑢𝑢 𝑆𝑆 𝐵𝐵,𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵
7) The columns of 𝑨𝑨 form a basis for 𝐑𝐑n 𝑨𝑨𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶,𝐵𝐵
8) rank 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑛𝑛 A set of linear transformations is linearly independent iff
9) 0 is not an eigenvalue of 𝑨𝑨 𝑐𝑐1 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑇𝑇2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 0𝑉𝑉 has only the trivial solution dim 𝕌𝕌 = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑘𝑘 dim 𝕍𝕍 = 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛 dim 𝕎𝕎 = 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚
dim 𝕍𝕍 = 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛 dim 𝕎𝕎 = 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑛𝑛