Unit IV

Unit IV - Sampling & Data Analysis

• Basic Concepts: Defining the Universe, Concepts of
Statistical Population, Sample, Characteristics of a good
sample. Sampling Frame (practical approach for
determining the sample frame expected), Probability
Sampling, Non-Probability Sample.
• Editing, Coding, Tabular representation of data,
frequency tables, Construction of frequency
distributions, Graphical Representation of Data:
Appropriate Usage of Bar charts, Pie charts, Histogram.
Hypothesis: Qualities of a good Hypothesis –Framing
Null Hypothesis & Alternative Hypothesis. Mechanism
of Report Writing- Report Preparation
 Defining the Universe,
• A population can be defined as including all
people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or
money to gather information from everyone
or everything in a universe(population), the
goal becomes finding a representative sample
(or subset) of that population.
 Sampling Frame
• In statistics, a sampling frame is the source
material or device from which a sample is
drawn. It is a list of all those within a
population who can be sampled, and may
include individuals, households or
institutions.
 Characteristics of Good Sample
• Goal-oriented
• Accurate representative of the universe
• Proportional
• Random selection
• Economical
• Practical
• Actual information provider
 Characteristics of Good Sample
(a) Sample design must result in a truly
representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a
small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic
bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence
 Sampling errors
• Systematic bias and Sampling error
• A systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size. At best the causes responsible for
these errors can be detected and corrected.
 Sampling errors
• Reasons for Systematic Error
– Inappropriate sampling frame
– Defective measuring device
– Non-respondents
– Indeterminacy principle
– Natural bias in the reporting of data
 Sampling errors
• Sampling errors are the random variations in
the sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
• Sampling error decreases with the increase in
the size of the sample, and it happens to be of
a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.
 Methods to reduce the errors,
• Measurement and control of errors
• Consistency checks
• Sample check
• Post-census and post-survey checks
• External record check
• Quality control techniques
• Study or recall error
• Interpenetrating sub-samples
 Methods to reduce the errors
• At planning stage, all potential non-sampling
errors are listed and steps taken to minimise
them are considered.
• If data are collected from other sources,
question procedures adopted for data
collection, and data verification at each step of
the data chain.
• Critically view the data collected and attempt to
resolve queries immediately they arise.
• Document sources of non-sampling errors so
that results presented can be interpreted
meaningfully.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
(i) Type of universe
(ii) Sampling unit
(iii) Source list
(iv) Size of sample
(v) Parameters of interest
(vi) Budgetary constraint
(vii) Sampling procedure
 Sampling Method

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster Snowball

Multistage
 Probability and Non Probability
Sampling
• All the items under consideration
in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population
• With probability samples each Sampling Method

element has a known probability Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

of being included in the sample Simple Random Convenience

but the non-probability samples Systematic Sampling Quota

do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Simple Random
• This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability sampling
where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of
the possible samples, in case of finite
universe, has the same probability of
being selected.
• For example,
– if we have to select a sample of 300 Sampling Method

items from a universe of 15,000 items, Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

then we can put the names or numbers
of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper Simple Random Convenience

and conduct a lottery. Using the random

Systematic Sampling Quota
number tables is another method of
random sampling. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Systematic Sampling
• In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to
select every 15th name on a list,
every 10th house on one side of
a street and so on. Sampling of
this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of
randomness is usually Sampling Method

introduced into this kind of Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with Simple Random Convenience

which to start. Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Stratified Sampling
• If the population from which a sample is to
be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is stratified into
a number of non overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum. If
the items selected from each stratum is Sampling Method

based on simple random sampling the Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

entire procedure, first stratification and
then simple random sampling, is known as Simple Random Convenience
stratified random sampling.
Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or
the clusters rather than individual elements
for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some
departmental store wishes to sample its
credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be
kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of
15,000 card holders could be formed into
100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the Sampling Method
sample randomly. The sample size must
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
often be larger than the simple random
sample to ensure the same level of accuracy Simple Random Convenience
because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of Systematic Sampling Quota
error is usually accentuated.
Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Multistage Sampling
• This is a further development of the
idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage
sampling the first stage may be to
select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts, then Sampling Method

towns and finally certain families Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

within towns. If the technique of Simple Random Convenience
random-sampling is applied at all
stages, the sampling procedure is Systematic Sampling Quota

described as multi-stage random Stratified Judgmental

sampling.
Cluster

Multistage
 Convenience Sampling
• Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive
or non-probability sampling. This sampling
method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the
universe. When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on
the ease of access, it can be called convenience
sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data
from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed
number of petrol stations and may conduct Sampling Method
interviews at these stations. This would be an
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
example of convenience sample of gasoline
buyers. At times such a procedure may give Simple Random Convenience
very biased results particularly when the
population is not homogeneous. Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Quota sampling
• In stratified sampling the cost of taking
random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the
interviewer’s judgment. This is called
quota sampling.
• The size of the quota for each stratum is
generally proportionate to the size of that Sampling Method

stratum in the population. Quota sampling Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples Simple Random Convenience

generally happen to be judgment samples Systematic Sampling Quota

rather than random samples.
Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Judgemental Sampling
• In judgmental sampling the
researcher’s judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers
as representative of the
population.
• For example,
– a judgement sample of college
students might be taken to secure
reactions to a new method of Sampling Method

teaching. Judgement sampling is Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

used quite frequently in qualitative
research where the desire happens Simple Random Convenience

to be to develop hypotheses rather Systematic Sampling Quota

than to generalize to larger
populations. Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Concept of Measurement
• Definition Metrology is the name given to the
science of pure measurement. Engineering
Metrology is restricted to measurements of
length & angle. Measurement is defined as the
process of numerical evaluation of a dimension
or the process of comparison with standard
measuring instruments
• Quantifying the dependent variable
•
 Importance or Need of measurement
• Research conclusions are only as good as the data on which they
are based
• Observations must be quantifiable in order to subject them to
statistical analysis
• The dependent variable(s) must be measured in any quantitative
study.
• The more precise, sensitive the method of measurement, the
better.
• Establish Standard Interchangeability.
• To check Customer Satisfaction
• To Validate the design
• Physical parameter into meaningful number.
• True dimension Evaluate the Performance.
 Direct measures
• Physiological measures
– heart rate, blood pressure, galvanic skin response,
eye movement, magnetic resonance imaging, etc.
• Behavioral measures
– in a naturalistic setting.
• example: videotaping leave-taking behavior
(how people say goodbye) at an airport.
– in a laboratory setting
• example: videotaping married couples’
interactions in a simulated environment
 Indirect measures
• Relying on observers’ estimates or perceptions
– indirect questioning
• example: asking executives at advertising firms if they think their
competitors use subliminal messages.
• example: asking subordinates, rather than managers, what
managerial style they perceive their supervisors employ.
• Unobtrusive measures.
– measures of accretion, erosion, etc.
• example: studying discarded trash for clues about lifestyles, eating
habits, consumer purchases, etc.
 Levels of data

• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval (Scale in SPSS)
• Ratio (Scale in SPSS) ratio

interval

ordinal
nominal
 Nominal data
• a more “crude” form of data: • nominal categories aren’t
limited possibilities for statistical hierarchical, one category isn’t
analysis “better” or “higher” than
• categories, classifications, or another
groupings • assignment of numbers to the
– “pigeon-holing” or labeling categories has no mathematical
• merely measures the presence meaning.
or absence of something • nominal categories should be
– gender: male or female mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.
– immigration status;
documented,
undocumented
– zip codes, 90210, 92634,
91784.
 Nominal data-continued

• nominal data is usually

represented “descriptively”
• graphic representations include
tables, bar graphs, pie charts.
• there are limited statistical tests
that can be performed on
nominal data
• if nominal data can be converted
to averages, advanced statistical
analysis is possible.
 Ordinal data
• more sensitive than nominal • examples:
data, but still lacking in precision – 1st, 2nd, 3rd places finishes in
• exists in a rank order, hierarchy, a horse race
or sequence
– top 10 movie box office
– highest to lowest, best to
worst, first to last successes of 2006
• allows for comparisons along – bestselling books (#1, #2, #3
some dimension bestseller, etc.)
– example: Mona is prettier
than Fifi, Rex is taller than
Niles

1st 2nd 3rd

 More about ordinal data
• no assumption of “equidistance” of numbers
– increments or gradations aren’t necessarily uniform.
• researchers do sometimes treat ordinal data as if it were
interval data
• there are limited statistical tests available with ordinal
data.
 Interval data (scale data)
• represents a more sensitive type of data or
sophisticated form of measurement.
• assumption of “equidistance” applies to data or
numbers gathered.
– gradations, increments, or units of measure are
uniform, constant.
• examples:
– Scale data: Likert scales,
– Stanford Binet I.Q. test
– most standardized scales or diagnostic instruments
yield numerical scores
 More about interval data
• scores can be compared to one another, but in relative, rather
than absolute terms.
– example: If Fred is rated a “6” on attractiveness, and Barney a “3,” it
doesn’t mean Fred is twice as attractive as Barny
• no true zero point (a complete absence of the phenomenon
being measured)
– example: A person can’t have zero intelligence or zero self esteem.
• scale data is usually aggregated or converted to averages.
• amenable to advanced statistical analysis.
 Ratio data
• the most sensitive, powerful type of data
– ratio measures contain the most precise
information about each observation that is
made
• examples:
– time as a unit of measure
– distance as a unit of measure (setting an
odometer to zero before beginning a trip)
– weight and height as units of measure
 More about ratio data
• more prevalent in the natural sciences,
less common in social science research
• includes a true zero point (complete
absence of the phenomenon being
measured)
• allows for absolute comparisons
– If Fred can lift 200 lbs and Barney can lift 100
lbs, Fred can lift twice as much as Barney, e.g.,
a 2:1 ratio
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
• Sound measurement must meet the tests of
validity, reliability and practicality. In fact, these
are the three major considerations one should
use in evaluating a measurement tool. “Validity
refers to the extent to which a test measures
what we actually wish to measure. Reliability
has to do with the accuracy and precision of a
measurement procedure ... Practicality is
concerned with a wide range of factors of
economy, convenience, and interpretability ...”
 Commonly used terms…

“She has a valid point”

“My car is unreliable”

…in science…
“The conclusion of the study was not valid”

“The findings of the study were not reliable”.

 Some definitions…
• Validity

“The soundness or appropriateness of a

test or instrument in measuring what it is
designed to measure”
(Vincent 1999)
 Some definitions…
• Validity

“Degree to which a test or instrument

measures what it purports to measure”

(Thomas & Nelson 1996)

 Some definitions…
• Reliability

“…the degree to which a test or measure

produces the same scores when applied in
the same circumstances…”

(Nelson 1997)
 Types of Experimental Validity
• Internal.

– Is the experimenter measuring the effect of the

independent variable on the dependent variable?

• External.

– Can the results be generalised to the wider

population?
 Reliability
• The test of reliability is another important test of
sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provides consistent results.
• Reliable measuring instrument does contribute
to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be
a valid instrument.
• For instance, a scale that consistently
overweighs objects by five kgs., is a reliable
scale, but it does not give a valid measure of
weight. But the other way is not true i.e., a valid
instrument is always reliable.
 Reliability
• Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence
deserve special mention.
• The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent
results with repeated measurements of the same person
and with the same instrument. We usually determine the
degree of stability by comparing the results of repeated
measurements.
• The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get
introduced by different investigators or different samples
of the items being studied. A good way to test for the
equivalence of measurements by two investigators is to
compare their observations of the same events.
 Attitude
• An attitude is viewed as an enduring
disposition to respond consistently in a given
manner to various aspect of the world,
including persons, events and objects.
– Attitude cannot be measured directly
– Attitude is derived from the perceptions
– Attitude are indirectly observed
 Attitude

Attitude

Intention
Cognitive Affective
or Action
 Attitude
• Cognitive component: Represents and
individual’s information and knowledge about an
object. Example of remembering about
Tupperware..
• Affective Component: Summarizes a person’s
overall feeling or emotions towards the object.
Example of tasty food cooked in pressure cooker
• Intention or Action component: It also reflects a
person’s expectation future behavior towards an
object. Example: Purchase intention to buy things
in future
 Scaling
• Scaling describes the procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees of opinion,
attitude and other concepts.
• It may be stated here that a scale is a
continuum, consisting of the highest point (in
terms of some characteristic e.g., preference,
favourableness, etc.) and the lowest point
along with several intermediate points
between these two extreme points.
 Classification of Scales

Single Item vs. Multiple Item Scale.

Comparative vs Non Comparative Scale.

 Classification of Scales
• Single Item Scale: In the single item scale, there
is only one item to measure a given construct
– How satisfied are you with your current job?
• Very Dissatisfied
• Dissatisfied
• Neutral
• Satisfied
• Very Satisfied
• Other aspects may be left out like, job, pay, work
environment, rules and regulations, security of
job and communication with the seniors.
 Classification of Scales
• Multiple Item Scale: In this there are many
items that play an important role forming the
underlying construct that the researcher is
trying to measure.
– How satisfied are you with the pay
– How satisfied are you with the rules
– How satisfied are you with the job
 Classification of Scales
Comparative vs Non Comparative Scale

Scaling Techniques

Comparative Non Comparative

Itemized Rating
Paired Comparison Graphic Rating Scale
Scale

Constant Sum Likert

Semantic
Rank Order
Differential

Q-Short and Other

Stapel
Procedure
 Comparative Scale
• In comparative scales it is assumed that
respondents make use of a standard frame of
reference before answering the question,
• Example: How do you rate barista in comparison
to cafe coffee Day on Quality of Beverages?
• Please rate Domino's in comparison to Pizza Hut
on basis of your satisfaction level on the 11-point
scale , based on the following parameters: 1-
Extremely poor, 6-Average, 11-Extremely Good.
 Comparative Scale – Paired
Comparison
• Here a respondent is presented with two objects
and is asked to select one according to whatever
criterion he or she wants to use.
• The Resulting data from this scale is ordinal in
nature.
• Example: Wants to offer chocolate, burger, ice
cream and pizza.
• In general, if there are n items, the number of
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
paired comparison would be
𝟐
 Comparative Scale – Paired
Comparison
• There are many ways of doing it….
• The analysis of paired comparison data would
result in ordinal scale and also interval scale
measurement.
• Example: there are five brands – A,B,C,D and E
and paired comparison with two brands at a time
is presented to the respondent with the option to
chose one of them.
• As there are five brands, it will result in 10 paired
comparison.
• Sample of 250 respondent.
 A B C D E
A - 0.60 0.30 0.60 0.35

B 0.40 - 0.28 0.70 0.40

C 0.70 0.72 - 0.65 0.10

D 0.40 0.30 0.35 - 0.42

E 0.65 0.60 0.90 0.58 -

A B C D E
A - 1 0 1 0

B 0 - 0 1 0

C 1 1 - 1 0

D 0 0 0 - 0

E 1 1 1 1 -

Total 2 3 1 4 0
Comparative Scale – Rank Order Scale
• In Rank order scaling, Soft Drink Rank
respondents are presented Coke
with several objects
Pepsi
simultaneously and asked
to order or rank them Limca
according to some Sprite
criterion. Consider, for Mirinda
example the following Seven up
question:
Fanta
 Comparative Scale – Constant Sum
Rating Scale
• In this the respondents School Points
are asked to allocate a DPS
total of 100 points Jagran Public
between various School
Mount Litera
objects and brands. The
DAV Public School
respondent distribute
Jaipuria
the points to the
Subeam
various objects in the International
order of his preference. Atulanand
Heritage
Total 100
 Comparative Scale – Q-Sort
• The Q-sort technique was developed to discriminate
among a large number of objects quickly. This
technique makes use of the rank order procedure in
which objects are sorted into different piles based on
their similarity with respect to certain criterion.
• Example: Group of data can be piled up in five group
– Strongly agree
– Some what agree
– Neutral
– Some what disagree
– Strongly disagree
 Non Comparative Scales
• In this the respondents do Non
Comparative
not make use of any Scales
frame of reference before
answering the questions. Graphic Rating Itemised Rating
The resulting data is Scales Scale

generally assumed to be
interval or ratio scale. Likert Rating
Scale
• The respondent may be
asked to evaluate the
Semantic
quality of food in a differential
restaurant on a five point Rating Scale
scale. (1=very poor,
2=poor, and 5=very good) Stapel Rating
Scale
 Graphic Rating Scale
• This continuous scale, also called graphic
rating Scale. In the graphic rating scale the
respondent is asked to tick mark on the
following question:

Least Most
Proffered Preffered
 Itemized Rating Scale
• The respondent are provided with a scale that
has a number or descriptions associated with
each of the response categories.
• Issues related to the Itemized Rating Scale
– Number of categories to be used.
– Odd or even number of categories.
– Balanced versus unbalanced scales.
– Nature and degree of verbal description.
– Forced Versus non-forced scales.
– Physical form.
 I. Analysis of Data
• “in the process of analysis,
– relationships or differences supporting or conflicting
– with original or new hypotheses
– should be subjected to statistical tests of significance
– to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusions”
• Analysis serves the purpose of
– Giving proper result.
– Data to be made available for interpretation.
– Establishes relationship between different Variables.
 II. Processing Operations

1. Editing

2. Coding

3. Classification

4. Tabulation
 II. Processing Operations
i) Editing
• Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts
gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as
possible and have been well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
a. Field Editing and Central Editing.
1. Editing

2. Coding

3. Classification

4. Tabulation
 II. Processing Operations
i) Editing
I. The Interviewer, Editor and
coder remain in constant touch.
II. Objective of Editing remain the
same throughout the editing
process.
III. Apart from numerical value we
may use colour for the same.
IV. They should notify with every 1. Editing
change made in answers.
V. Editor’s initials and the date of 2. Coding
editing should be placed on each 3. Classification
completed form or schedule
4. Tabulation
 II. Processing Operations
ii) Coding
• Coding refers to the process of
assigning numerals
• Coding is necessary for efficient
analysis and through it the
several replies may be reduced
to a small number of classes
which contain the critical
information required for 1. Editing
analysis. 2. Coding
• Computer based and manual
3. Classification

4. Tabulation
 II. Processing Operations
iii) Classification
• Classification according to attributes
– can either be descriptive (such as
literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical
(such as weight, height, income, etc.).
• Classification according to class-
intervals
– Data relating to income, production,
age, weight, etc
– class-intervals
• How many classes should be there? 1. Editing
• How to choose class limits ?
– Exclusive/Inclusive. 2. Coding
• How to determine the frequency of each
class ? 3. Classification

4. Tabulation
 II. Processing Operations
iv) Tabulation.
• Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw
data and displaying the same in compact
form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for
further analysis.
• Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data
in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following
reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory
and descriptive statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
1. Editing
3. It facilitates the summation of items and
the detection of errors and omissions. 2. Coding
4. It provides a basis for various statistical
computations. 3. Classification

4. Tabulation
 III. Various Kinds of Charts and Diagrams Used in
Data Analysis

Types of Graph
I. Bar Graph
II. Line Graph
III. Stacked Graph
IV. Pie Graph
V. Pictograph
 I. Bar Graph
• It is used to make comparisons about groups of data
Production
250

200
Axis Title

150

100

50

0
Factory A Factory B Factory C Factory D
Production 200 150 145 220
6

4
Series 1
3
Series 2
2 Series 3

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
 Wheat
300

250

200
Axis Title

150

100

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
Wheat 150 175 200 250
 I. Bar Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125
250

200

150 Wheat
Rice
100
Cereals
50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
 II. Line Graph
Wheat
2011 150
2012 175
2013 200
2014 225
Wheat
250

200

150

100 Wheat

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
 II. Line Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125
250

200

150 Wheat
Rice
100
Cereals
50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
 III. Stacked Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125

2014

2013
Cereals
Rice
2012
Wheat

2011

0 50 100 150 200 250

IV. Pie Chart
Sales

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
V. Pictograph
 IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
• A bar chart is particularly useful
Series 1 when one or two categories
5 'dominate‘ results.
4.5 – It can be very clear and easy to
4 read.
3.5 – Most people understand what is
presented without having to have
Axis Title

3
detailed statistical knowledge.
2.5
– It can represent data expressed as
2 actual numbers, percentages and
1.5 frequencies.
1 – A bar chart can represent either
0.5 discrete or continuous data.
0 – If the data is discrete there should
Cate Cate Cate Cate be a gap between the bars (as in
gory gory gory gory the diagram above).
1 2 3 4 – If the data is continuous there
should be no gap between the
Series 1 4.3 2.5 3.5 4.5 bars.
 IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
Sales • A pie chart shows data
in terms of proportions
3rd Qtr
10% 4th Qtr of a whole. The 'pie' is
9% divided into segments
that represent this
proportion. This is done
2nd Qtr 1st Qtr by dividing the angles at
23% 58%
the centre.
 IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
Sales • It is best used to present the
proportions of a sample.
• It is most useful where one or
3rd Qtr two results dominate the
10% 4th Qtr findings.
9%
• It can represent data
expressed as actual numbers
or percentages.
• Do not use where there are a
2nd Qtr 1st Qtr large number of categories, or
23% 58% where each has a small, fairly
equal share, as this can be
unclear.
 Calculation
No. of Siblings No. of Conversion No. of Degrees
Students
0 4 4/30X360 48
1 12
2 8
3 3
4 2
More 1
 Test of Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is generally considered the most
important instrument in research. Its main
function is to suggest new functions and
ideas. In social sciences where direct
knowledge of population parameters is rare
hypothesis testing is the often used for
deciding whether sample data supports our
purpose
 WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS
• Generally hypothesis is considered as an
assumption or a supposition which has to be
proved or disproved.
• But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he has to resolve
 WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS
• A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition
or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some
specific group of phenomena . A research
hypothesis is a predictive statement capable
of being tested by scientific methods that
relate an independent variable to some
dependent variable
 WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS
• Example • The mileage of automobile A is as
good as automobile b
• The customer loyalty of brand A is better than
brand B.
• These hypotheses are capable of objectively
verified and tested
 Characteristics of a hypothesis
• Hypothesis should be clear and precise
• Hypothesis should be capable of being tested
• Hypothesis should be able to relate to a variable.
• Hypothesis must be limited in scope and must be
specific
• Hypothesis must be stated in very simple terms.
• Hypothesis must be consistent with most known facts.
• Hypothesis must be testable within a reasonable time
• Hypothesis must explain the facts which most need
explaining
 Steps for Hypothesis Testing
Formulate H0 and H1
Select Appropriate Test
Choose Level of Significance
Calculate Test Statistic TSCAL

Determine Prob Assoc with Determine Critical Value of Test

Test Stat Stat
TSCR
Determine if TSCR
Compare with Level of falls into (Non) Rejection Region
Significance, 
Reject/Do not Reject H0
Draw Marketing Research Conclusion
 Null and Alternate Hypothesis
• A null hypothesis is a statement of the status
quo, one of no difference or no effect. If the null
hypothesis is not rejected, no changes will be
made.
• An alternative hypothesis is one in which some
difference or effect is expected.
• The null hypothesis refers to a specified value of
the population parameter(e.g., variance,std.dev,
), not a sample statistic (e.g., mean ).