DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 18ME52

DYNAMICS OF MACHINES

5th SEMESTER
Sub code:18ME52
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGG
BGSIT, BG NAGARA

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DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 18ME52

MODULE-01

STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

CONTENTS

Introduction:
Static equilibrium:
Equilibrium of two and three force members.
Members with two forces and torque.
Free body diagrams.
Static force analysis of four bar and single slider mechanism
Slider-crank mechanism with and without friction.

Objectives
➢ To analyze static force analysis of four bar chain mechanism
➢ To analyze static force analysis of slider crank mechanism

TOM is divided into two parts:-

Kinematics of Machinery: Study of motion of the components and basic geometry of

the mechanism and is not concerned with the forces which cause or affect motion. Study
includes the determination of velocity and acceleration of the machine members
Dynamics of Machinery: Analyses the forces and couples on the members of the
machine due to external forces (static force analysis) also analyses the forces andcouples due
to accelerations of machine members ( Dynamic force analysis)
Deflections of the machine members are neglected in general by treating machine
members as rigidbodies (also called rigid body dynamics). In other words the link must be
properly designed to withstand the forces without undue deformation to facilitate proper
functioning of the system.
In order to design the parts of a machine or mechanism for strength, it is necessary to
determine the forces and torques acting on individual links. Each component however small,
should be carefully analysed for its role in transmitting force.
The forces associated with the principal function of the machine are usually known or
assumed.
Ex:
a) Piston type of engine: gas force on the piston is known or assumed
b) QRM – Resistance of the cutting tool is assumed
a & b are called static forces.

Example of other static forces are:

i. Energy transmitted
ii. Forces due to assembly
iii. Forces due to applied loads
iv. Forces due to changes in temperature
v. Impact forces
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vi. Spring forces

vii. Belt and pulley
viii. Weights of different parts

Apart from static forces, mechanism also experiences inertia forces when subjected to
acceleration, called dynamic forces.
Static forces are predominant at lower speeds and dynamic forces are predominant at
higher speeds.

Force analysis:
The analysis is aimed at determining the forces transmitted from one point to another,
essentially from input point to out put point. This would be the starting point for strength
design of a component/ system, basically to decide the dimensions of the components
Force analysis is essential to avoid either overestimation or under estimation of forces on
machine member.
Under estimation: leads to design of insufficient strength and to early failure.
Overestimation: machine component would have more strength than required. Over design
leads to heavier machines, costlier and becomes not competitive
Graphical analysis of machine forces will be used here because of the simplification it
offers to a problem, especially in cases of complex machines. Moreover, the graphical
analysis of forces is a direct application of the equations of equilibrium.
General Principle of force analysis:
A machine / mechanism is a three dimensional object, with forces acting in three
dimensions. For a complete force analysis, all the forces are projected on to three mutually
perpendicular planes. Then, for each reference plane, it is necessary that, the vector sum of the
applied forces in zero and that, the moment of the forces about any axis perpendicular to the
reference plane or about any point in the plane is zero for equilibrium.
That is ∑F = 0 & ∑M = 0 or
∑F x=0 &∑Fy=0 and ∑M=0
A force is a vector quantity and three in properties define a force completely;
Magnitude
Direction
Point of application

Static equilibrium.

Equilibrium

For a rigid body to be in Equilibrium

i) Sum of all the forces must be zero
ii) Sum of all the moments of all the forces about any axis must be zero

i.e, (i) ∑ F = 0 (ii) ∑ M = 0

or ∑ Fx = 0 ∑TM = 0

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∑ Fy = 0 ∑ My = 0

∑ Fz = 0 ∑Tz =0

(For a planar system represented by 2D vectors)

Fx, Fy, Fz force Components along X, Y & Z axis

Equilibrium of two and three force members.

(i) Equilibrium of a body under the action of two forces only (no torque)

Line of action

FA FB
A B

For body to the in Equilibrium under the action of 2 forces (only), the two forces must the equal
opposite and collinear. The forces must be acting along the line joining A&B.

That is,
FA= - FB (for equilibrium)

h
If this body is to be under equilibrium „h‟ should tend to zero

(ii) Equilibrium of a body under the action of three forces only (no torque / couple)
FC
C
For equilibrium, the 3 forces must be concurrent
FA A
and the force polygon will be a triangle.

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Members with two forces and torque.

(iii) Equilibrium of a body acted upon by 2 forces and a torque.

For equilibrium, the two forces must form a

T
counter couple. Therefore the forces must be
F
equal, opposite and parallel and their senses
H
must be so as to oppose the couple acting on the
F
body

Example:
F2
T
h = Perpendicular distance between
h
F1 & F2

F1

Free body diagram

The mass is separated from the system and all the forces acting on the mass are represented.

slider-crank mechanism with and without friction.

P = (8 × 104 ) × (0.1)

= 8 × 103 N
Problem No.1: Slider crank mechanism

Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the resultant gas pressure 8 x 104 Nm-2 acts on
the piston of cross sectional area 0.1 m2. The system is kept in equilibrium as a result of the
couple applied to the crank 2, through the shaft at O2. Determine forces acting on all the links
(including the pins) and the couple on 2.

P = (8 × 104 ) × (0.1)

= 8 × 103 N

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Free body diagrams.

Free body diagram

Force triangle for the forces acting on is drawn to some suitable scale.
4
Magnitude and direction of P known and lines of action of F34 & F14 known.

Measure the lengths of vectors and multiply by the

scale factor to get the magnitudes of F14 & F34.
Directions are also fixed.

i.e, F23 = − F32

Since link 3 is acted upon by only two forces, F43 and F23 are collinear, equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction

i.e., F43 = − F23 = 8.8 × 103 N

Also, F23 = - F32 (equal in magnitude and opposite in direction).

Link 2 is acted upon by 2 forces and a torque

(stated in the problem), for equilibrium the two
forces must be equal, parallel and opposite and
their sense must oppose T2.

There fore,

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F32 = − F12 = 8.8 ×103 N

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F32 & F12 form a counter clock wise couple of magnitude,

F23 × h= F12 × h = 8.8 × 103 × 0.125 = 1100Nm.

To keep 2 in equilibrium, T2 should act clockwise and magnitude is 1100

Nm. Important to note;
i) h is measured perpendicular to F32 & F12;
ii) Always multiply back by scale factors.

Static force analysis of four bar and single slider mechanism

Problem No 2. Four link mechanism.

A four link mechanism is acted upon by forces as shown in the figure. Determine the torque T2
to be applied on link 2 to keep the mechanism in equilibrium.

AD=50mm, AB=40mm, BC=100mm, Dc=75mm, DE= 35mm,

Link 3 is acted upon by only two forces F23 & F43 and they must be collinear & along BC.
Link 4 is acted upon by three forces F14, F34 & F4 and they must be concurrent. LOA F34 is
known and FE completely given.

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Problem No 3.
Determine T2 to keep the mechanism in equilibrium
AC=70mm,
AB=150mm,
O2A= 40mm
F32 & F12 from a CCW couple which is equaledby
a clockwise couple T2

F32 and F12 form a CCW couple and hence T2 acts clock wise.

Problem No 4.
Determine the torque T2 required to keep the given mechanism in equilibrium.
O2A= 30mm, = AB =O4B, O2O4 =60mm, A O 2 O4 = 60º, BC = 19mm, AD=15mm.

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None of the links are acted upon by only 2 forces. Therefore links can‟t be analyzed individually.

Problem No 5.

Determine the torque T2 required to overcome the force FE along the link 6.
AD=30mm, AB=90mm, O4 B=60mm, DE=80mm, O2 A=50mm, O2 O4 =70mm

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Problem No 6

For the static equilibrium of the quick return mechanism shown in fig. 12.11 (a), determine the
input torque T2 to be applied on link AB for a force of 300N on the slider D. The dimensions of
the various links are OA=400mm, AB=200mm, OC=800mm, CD=300mm

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Than, torque on link 2,

T2 = F42x h = 403x120 = 48 360 N

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Problem No 7.

Determine T2 to keep the body in equilibrium. O2A =100MM, AB=250MM,AE=50MM, A

O 2 B = 300

The problem is solved as two

sub problems:
i) Considering only FB
ii) Considering only FE

Force Analysis considering friction.

If friction is considered in the analysis, the resultant force on a pin doesn‟t pass through the
centre of the pin. Coefficient of friction is assumed to the known and is independent of load
and speed.

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Friction in sliding member.

Friction at pin points (bearings) & friction circle.

When a shaft revolves in a bearing, some power is lost due to friction between surfaces.

While rotating, the point of contact shifts to B; Rn passes

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through B.The resultant „R‟ is in a direction opposite to ω.

The circle drawn at O, with OC as radius is called „FRICTION
CIRCLE‟For the shaft to be in equilibrium; W = R
Frictional moment M = R x OC

The friction circle is used to locate the line of action of the force between the shaft (pin) and the
bearing or a pin joint. The direction of the force is always be tangent to it (friction axis) Friction
axis: the new axis along which the thrust acts.

Problem No 8.

In a four bar mechanism ABCD, AB=350mm, BC=50mm, CD=400mm, AD=700mm,

DE=150mm, D A B = 600 , AD is fixed. Determine the force on link AB required at the mid
point, in the direction shown, for static equilibrium. µ=0.4 for each revolving pair. Assume
CCW impending motion of AB. Radius of each journal is 50mm.
Also find the torque on AB for its impending CW motion.

Analysis for CCW motion

Solve the problem neglectingfriction to know the magnitudes and directions offorces

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Analysis withFriction considered---AB

rotates CCW, DC rotates CCW ABC
decreasing, LBCD increasing

At C:
BCD increases & 3 rotates CW w.r.t 4
Therefore, F43 opposes the rotation of 4 by generating a CCW friction couple at C

At B:
BCD decreases & 3 rotates CW w.r.t 2
Therefore, F23 forms a CCW friction
couple at B

(not to scale)

For CW rotation of AB

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Radius of the friction circle = µ x journal radius = 0.4 x

50 = 20mm

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MODULE-02

FLYWHEEL

In practice, there are two following types of cases where reciprocating

engine mechanism is used :
(a) An internal combustion engine or a steam engine which is used as a prime
mover to drive generators, centrifugal pumps, etc.
(b) A punching machine which is driven by a prime mover like electric motor.
In both these cases either a variable torque is supplied where demand is a
constant torqueor demand is variable torque whereas constant torque is supplied.
In both these cases there is mismatch between the supply and demand. This
results in speed variation. In case of generators, speed variation results in change
in frequency and variation in voltage. On the other hand, punching machine
requires energy at small interval only when punching is done. To supply such
large energy at the time of punching, motor of high power shall be required. At
the same time, there will be large variation in speed. To smoothen these
variations in torque, flywheel is used which works as a energy storage.
This results in usage of low power motor in punching machine.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the method of drawing turning moment diagram for a prime mover,
• determine the fluctuation of energy in a cycle,
• determine the power of prime power, and
• determine mass moment of inertia of a flywheel and design it.

Turning Moment Diagram:

Figure 4.3 shows a layout of a horizontal engine.
Let p = effective gas pressure on the piston in N/m2,
A = area of the piston in m2,
mrec = mass of reciprocating parts, i.e. mass of the piston gudgeon pin and part
ofmass of connecting rod ‘m1’,
Q = thrust force on the connecting rod in N,
= angular velocity of the crank, and
M = Turning moment on the crank.
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Turning Moment Diagram of a Single Cylinder4-

stroke IC Engine
If the effect of correction couple is ignored, the approximate turning moment
M = (Gas force + Inertia force) O2 D
The diagram which is plotted for ‘M’ against crank angle ‘ ’ is called turning
moment diagram. This diagram can be plotted progressively as explained below :
(a) There are two forces, i.e. gas force and inertia force.
Gas force = p Piston
area where p is the gas
pressure.
Suction Compression Expansion Exhaust

Net Gas Force

Force

Inertia Force
 2 3

 4

Figure 4.4(a)

The variation in the gas force will be due to the change in pressure.
The gas force and inertia force have been plotted in Figure 4.4(a) for
all the four strokes.
(b) The net force is the resultant of gas force and inertia force. It can be plotted
in reference to as shown in Figure 4.4(b).
Net Force

 2 3 4

Figure 4.4(b)

(c) The value of O2D is given by

O2 D r (sin cos tan )
For various values of , O2D can be determined and then plotted.
The plot of this is shown in Figure 4.4(c).

 2 4
O2 D

3

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Theory of Machines (d) The approximate turning moment ‘M’ = Net force O2D. The plot of ‘M’

Vs is shown in Figure 4.4(d).

Turning-Moment
Diagram

M
4
 2 3

Figure 4.4(d)

The turning moment in the suction stroke and exhaust stroke is very small. In case of compression
stroke and expansion stroke turning moment is higher. In compression stroke, energy is to be supplied
and in expansion stroke, large amount of energy is available. By surveying the turning moment diagram,
it is observed that the energy is supplied in three strokes and energy is available only in one stroke.
Therefore, three strokes, i.e. suction stroke, compression, and exhaust stroke the engine is starving of
energy and in expansion stroke it is harvesting energy. At the same time it is observed that there is large
variation of turning moment during the cycle. The variation in the turning moment results in
corresponding variation in speed of the crank.

Turning Moment Diagram of a Multicylinder 4-stroke IC Engine

In case of multi cylinder engine there will be more expansion strokes. For example, in the case of
three cylinder engine, there will be three expansion strokes in each cycle. In case of 4 cylinder 4-strokes
engine there will be four expansion strokes. Therefore, in multi cylinder engine there will be lesser
variation in turning moment as compared to single cylinder engine and consequently there is expected to
be less variation in speed. The turning moment diagram for a multi cylinder engine is expected to be as
shown in Figure 4.5. Therefore the variation in the turning moment reduces with the increase in the
number of cylinders.
M

O 2

Figure 4.5 : Turning Moment Diagram

Turning Moment Diagram of a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine

The cylinder and piston arrangement of the steam engine is shown in Figure 4.6(a) and

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DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 18ME52

Flywheel
Steam Inlet during Steam Inlet during
Outstroke In stroke

M
Piston Rod O 2

Piston
Cylinder

(a)

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Figure 4.6 : Turning Moment Diagram of a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine

For outstroke, force = steam pressure area of the piston.

For instroke, force = steam pressure (area of piston – area of piston rod).
During out stroke the area over which steam pressure acts is more as compared to
in stroke where some of the area is occupied by the piston rod. Because of the
difference in the available areas there is difference in the maximum turning
moments in the two strokes. Steam pressure is nearly constant and variation in the
turning moment is due to the value of O2D and inertia force of the reciprocating
masses. As compared to the singlecylinder 4-stroke engine, the variation in
turning moment is less in case of double acting steam engine.

As shown in Figures 4.4 to 4.6, the turning moment ‘M’ varies considerably
whereas the resisting moment say ‘MR’ which is due to the machine to be driven
remains constant over a cycle for most of the cases. If we superimpose the
resisting moment over the turning moment diagram, a situation shown in Figure
4.7 will arise. If MR is equal to the average turning moment (Mav), energy
available shall be equal to the energy required over a cycle. It can be observed
that for some values of turning moment is more than MR and for some values
of turning moment is less than MR.

b d e
a
c
MR
M

Figure 4.7 : Fluctuation of Energy and Speed

The energy output can be expressed mathematically as follows :

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Theory of Machines The average turning moment for the cycle is

E
Mav
Angle for
cycle

The angle for the cycle is 2 for the two stroke engines and 4 for four strokes
engines and in case of steam engines it is 2 .
For a stable operation of the system
MR = Mav

In the stable system, the mean speed remains constant but variation of speed will
be there within the cycle. The speed remains same at the beginning and at the
end of the cycle.
If MR < Mav, the speed increases from cycle to cycle. The speed graph is
shown in Figure 4.8(a).
If MR > Mav, the speed decreases from the cycle to the cycle. The speed graph is
shown in Figure 4.8(b).

MR  Mav

MR  Mav
Speed
Speed


 

Time Time

(a) (b)
Figure 4.8 : Speed Graph

From Figure 4.7, we observe that MR = Mav at points a, b, c, d and e. Since M >
MR from a to b, speed of the crank shaft will increase during this period. From b
to c M < MR and speed will decrease. Similar situation will occur for c to d and d
to e. At e the cycle is complete and the speed at e is same as that of a. The energy
at all these points can be determined.
b d

Eb Ea

Ec Eb

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(M MR ) d
(M MR ) d
(M MR ) d
Ed Ec

Ee E

Flywheel design:
It has been discussed in the preceding section that fluctuation of energy
results in fluctuation of the crank shaft speed which then results in fluctuation of
the kinetic energy of the rotating parts. But the maximum permissible fluctuation
in speed of the crank shaft is determined by the purpose for which the engine is to
be used. Therefore, to keep the maximum fluctuation of speed within a specific
limit for a given maximum fluctuation of energy, a flywheel is mounted on the
crank shaft.

Mass Moment of Inertia of Flywheel for an IC Engine

The function of the flywheel is to store excess energy during period of
harvestation andit supplies energy during period of starvation. Thereby, it
reduces fluctuation in the speed within the cycle. Let 1 be the maximum
angular speed and 2 be the minimum angular speed.
Let I be the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel.
Neglecting mass moment of inertia of the other rotating parts which is negligible
in comparison to mass moment of inertia of the flywheel.
Maximum kinetic energy of flywheel
1 2
(K.E.) I

max 1
2

Minimum kinetic energy of flywheel

1 2
(K.E.) I

min 2
2
1 2 2
Change in K.E., i.e. K.E. I( )
1 2
2

K.E. = fluctuation in energy, i.e.

E
1 . . . (4.12)
E I( 2 2
)
1 2
2
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1
or, E I( )( )
1 2 1 2
2
1
I(
) 2

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Example 4.1
The turning moment diagram for a multi cylinder IC engine is drawn to the following
scales
1 cm =
15o crank
angle1 cm
= 3 k Nm
During one revolution of the crank the areas with reference to the mean torque lineare 3.52, ( )
3.77, 3.62, ( ) 4.35, 4.40 and (–) 3.42 cm2. Determine mass moment of inertia to keep the
fluctuation of mean speed within 2.5% with reference to mean speed. Engine speed is 200
rpm.
Solution:
The turning moment diagram is shown in Figure 4.9. The scales are
1 cm =
15o crank

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MODULE-03
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BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES

Introduction

The high speed of engines and other machines is a common phenomenon now-a-days. It is, therefore, very
essential that all the rotating and reciprocating parts should be completely balanced as far as possible. If
these parts are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are set up. These forces not only increase the
loads on bearings and stresses Balancing of Rotating Masses We have already discussed, that whenever a
certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, it exerts some centrifugal force, whose effect is to bend the
shaft and to produce vibrations in it. In order to prevent the effect of centrifugal force, another mass is
attached to the opposite side of the shaft, at such a position so as to balance the effect of the centrifugal
force of the first mass. This is done in such a way that the centrifugal force of both the masses is made to
be equal and opposite. The process of providing the second mass in order to counteract the effect of the
centrifugal force of the first mass is called balancing of rotating masses.
The following cases are important from the subject point of view:

1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.

2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.

3. Balancing of different masses rotating in the same plane.

4. Balancing of different masses rotating in different planes.

We shall now discuss these cases, in detail, in the following pages.

Types of balancing:

a) Static Balancing: i) Static balancing is a balance of forces due to action of gravity.

ii) A body is said to be instatic balance when its centre of gravity is in the axis of rotation.

b) Dynamic balancing: i) Dynamic balance is a balance due to the action of inertia forces. ii) A body is said to be in
dynamic balance when the resultant moments or couples, which involved in the acceleration of different moving parts
is equal to zero. iii) The conditions of dynamic balance are conditions of static balance.

Balancing of a Single Rotating Mass By a Single Mass Rotating in the Same Plane:

Consider a disturbing mass m1 attached to a shaft rotating at rad/s as shown in Fig. Let r1 be the radius of rotation
of the mass m1 (i.e. distance between the axis of rotation of the shaft and the centre of gravity of the mass m1).

This centrifugal force acts radially outwards and thus produces bending moment on the shaft. In order to counteract
the effect of this force, a balancing mass (m2) may be attached in the same plane of rotation as that of disturbing mass
(m1) such that the centrifugal forces due to the two masses are equal and opposite .

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Balancing of a Single Rotating Mass By Two Masses Rotating in Different Planes:

We have discussed in the previous article that by introducing a single balancing mass in the same plane of rotation as
that of disturbing mass, the centrifugal forces are balanced. In other words, the two forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction. But this type of arrange- ment for balancing gives rise to a couple which tends to rock the shaft
in its bearings. Therefore in order to put the system in complete balance, two balancing masses are placed in two
different planes, parallel to the plane of rotation of the disturbing mass, in such a way that they satisfy the following
two conditions of equilibrium.

1. The net dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero. This requires that the line of action of three centrifugal
forces must be the same. In other words, the centre of the masses of the system must lie on the axis of rotation. This is
the condition for static balancing.

2. The net couple due to the dynamic forces acting on the shaft is equal to zero. In other words, the

Algebraic sum of the moments about any point in the plane must be zero. The conditions (1) and (2) together give
dynamic balancing. The following two possibilities may arise while attaching the two balancing masses :

1. The plane of the disturbing mass may be in between the planes of the two balancing masses, and

2. The plane of the disturbing mass may lie on the left or right of the two planes containing the balancing masses.

We shall now discuss both the above cases one by one.

1. When the plane of the disturbing mass lies in between the planes of the two balancing masses

Consider a disturbing mass m lying in a plane A to be balanced by two rotating masses m1 and m2 lying in two
different planes L and M as shown in Fig. 21.2. Let r, r1 and r2 be the radii of rotation of the masses in planes A, L
and M respectively.

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Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in the Same Plane:

Consider any number of masses (say four) of magnitude m1, m2, m3 and m4 at distances of r1, r2, r3 and r4 from the
axis of the rotating shaft. Let 1, 2 , 3 and 4 be the angles of these masses with the horizontal line OX, as
shown in Fig. 21.4 (a). Let these masses rotate about an axis through O and perpendicular to the plane of paper, with
a constant angular velocity of rad/s

The magnitude and position of the balancing mass may be found out analytically or graphically asdiscussed below.

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1. Analytical method

The magnitude and direction of the balancing mass may be obtained, analytically, as discussed below

1. First of all, find out the centrifugal force* (or the product of the mass and its radius of rotation) exerted by each
mass on the rotating shaft.

2. Resolve the centrifugal forces horizontally and vertically and find their sums, i.e.∑ H and ∑V . We know that

2. Graphical method

The magnitude and position of the balancing mass may also be obtained graphically as discussed below :

1. First of all, draw the space diagram with the positions of the several masses, as shown in Fig. (a).

2. Find out the centrifugal force (or product of the mass and radius of rotation) exerted by each mass on the rotating
shaft.

3. Now draw the vector diagram with the obtained centrifugal forces (or the product of the masses and their radii of
rotation), such that ab represents the centrifugal force exerted by the mass m1 (or m1.r1) in magnitude and direction
to some suitable scale. Similarly, draw bc, cd and de to represent centrifugal forces of other masses m2, m3 and m4
(or m2.r2, m3.r3 and m4.r4).

4. Now, as per polygon law of forces, the closing side ae represents the resultant force in magnitude and direction, as
shown in Fig. (b).

5. The balancing force is, then, equal to the resultant force, but in opposite direction.

6. Now find out the magnitude of the balancing mass (m) at a given radius of rotation (r), such that

Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in Different Planes:

When several masses revolve in different planes, they may be transferred to a reference plane (briefly written as
R.P.), which may be defined as the plane passing through a point on the axis of rotation and perpendicular to it. The

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effect of transferring a revolving mass (in one plane) to a reference plane is to cause a force of magnitude equal to the
centrifugal force of the revolving mass to act in the reference plane, together with a couple of magnitude equal to the
product of the force and the distance between the plane of rotation and the reference plane. In order to have a
complete balance of the several revolving masses in different planes, the following two conditions must be satisfied:

1. The forces in the reference plane must balance, i.e. the resultant force must be zero.

2. The couples about the reference plane must balance, i.e. the resultant couple must be zero.

Let us now consider four masses m1, m2, m3 and m4 revolving in planes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively as shown in

Fig. (a). The relative angular positions of these masses are shown in the end view [Fig. (b)]. The magnitude of the
balancing masses mL and mM in planes L and M may be obtained as discussed below :

1. Take one of the planes; say L as the reference plane (R.P.). The distances of all the other planes to the left of the
reference plane may be regarded as negative, and those to the right as positive.

2. Tabulate the data as shown in Table 21.1. The planes are tabulated in the same order in which they occur, reading
from left to right.

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Transferring m1 to the reference plane through O is proportional to m1.r1.l1 and acts in a plane through Om1 and
perpendicular to the paper. The vector representing this couple is drawn in the plane of the paper and perpendicular to
Om1 as shown by OC1 in Fig. 21.7 (c). Similarly, the vectors OC2, OC3 and OC4 are drawn perpendicular to Om2,
Om3 and Om4 respectively and in the plane of the paper .

4. The couple vectors as discussed above, are turned counter clockwise through a right angle for convenience of
drawing as shown in Fig. 21.7 (d). We see that their relative positions remain unaffected. Now the vectors OC2, OC3
and OC4 are parallel and in the same direction as Om2, Om3 and Om4, while the vector OC1 is parallel to Om1 but
in *opposite direction. Hence the couple vectors are drawn radially outwards for the masses on one side of the
reference plane and radially inward for the masses on the other side of the reference plane.

5. Now draw the couple polygon as shown in Fig. 21.7 (e). The vector d2 o2 represents the balanced couple. Since the
balanced couple CM is proportional to mM, rM, lM, therefore

From this expression, the value of the balancing mass mL in the plane L may be obtained and the angle of inclination
of this mass with the horizontal may be measured from Fig.(b).

PROBLEMS:

1. A shaft carries four masses A, B, C and D of magnitude 200 kg, 300 kg, 400 kg and 200 kg
respectively and revolving at radii 80 mm, 70 mm, 60 mm and 80 mm in planes measured from A at
300 mm, 400 mm and 700 mm. The angles between the cranks measured anticlockwise are A to B
45°, B to C 70° and C to D 120°. The balancing masses are to be placed in planes X and Y. The
distance between the planes A and X is 100 mm, between X and Y is 400 mm and between Y and D is
200 mm. If the balancing masses revolve at a radius of 100 mm, find their magnitudes and angular
positions.

Given : mA = 200 kg ; mB = 300 kg ; mC = 400 kg ;mD = 200 kg ,rA = 80 mmv= 0.08m ; rB = 70 mm

= 0.07 m ; rC = 60 mm = 0.06 m ; rD = 80 mm = 0.08 m ; rX = rY = 100 mm = 0.1 m

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2. Four masses A, B, C and D as shown below are to be completely balanced. The planes containing
masses B and C are 300 mm apart. The angle between planes containing B and C is 90°. B and C
make angles of 210° and 120° respectively with D in the same sense. Find :
1. The magnitude and the angular position of mass A ; and
2. The position of planes A and D.
Given rA = 180 mm = 0.18 m ; mB = 30 kg ; rB = 240 mm = 0.24 m ; mC = 50 kg ; rC =
120 mm = 0.12 m ; mD = 40 kg ; rD = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; ∠BOC = 90° ;
∠BOD = 210° ; ∠COD = 120°

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3. A, B, C and D are four masses carried by a rotating shaft at radii 100, 125, 200 and 150 mm
respectively. The planes in which the masses revolve are spaced 600 mm apart and the mass of B, C
and D are 10 kg, 5 kg, and 4 kg respectively. Find the required mass A and the relative angular
settings of the four masses so that the shaft shall be in complete balance.

Given: rA = 100 mm = 0.1 m ; rB = 125 mm = 0.125 m ; rC = 200 mm = 0.2 m ;

rD = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; mB = 10 kg ; mC = 5 kg ; mD = 4 kg

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4. A shaft is supported in bearings 1.8 m apart and projects 0.45 m beyond bearings at each end. The
shaft carries three pulleys one at each end and one at the middle of its length. The mass of end pulleys
is 48 kg and 20 kg and their centre of gravity are 15 mm and 12.5 mm respectively from the shaft axis.
The centre pulley has a mass of 56 kg and its centre of gravity is 15 mm from the shaft axis. If the
pulleys are arranged so as to give static balance, determine: 1. relative angular positions of the pulleys,
and 2. dynamic forces produced on the bearings when the shaft rotates at 300 r.p.m.

Given : mA = 48 kg ; mC = 20 kg ; rA = 15 mm = 0.015 m ; rC = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m ; mB

= 56 kg ; rB = 15 mm = 0.015 m ; N = 300 r.p.m. or ω= 2 π × 300/60 = 31.42 rad/s

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MODULE-4
GOVERNERS
Introduction:

The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations in the load e.g. when
the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On
the other hand, when the load on the engine decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor
automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed
within certain limits. A little consideration will show, that when the load increases, the configuration of the governor changes
and a valve is moved to increase the supply of the working fluid ; conversely, when the load decreases, the engine speed in-
creases and the governor decreases the supply of working fluid.

Note: We have discussed in Chapter 16 (Art. 16.8) that the func- tion of a flywheel in an engine is entirely different from that
of a governor. It controls the speed variation caused by the fluctuations of the engine turning moment during each cycle of
operation. It does not control the speed variations caused by a varying load. The varying demand for power is met by the
governor regulating the supply of working fluid .

Types of Governors:

The governors may, broadly, be classified as

1. Centrifugal governors, and

2. Inertia governors.

Centrifugal governor:

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and
opposite radial force, known as the controlling force*.It consists of two balls of equal mass, which are attached to the arms as
shown in Fig. 18.1. These balls are known as governor balls or fly balls. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by
the engine through bevel gears. The upper ends of the arms are pivoted tothe spindle, so that the balls may rise up or fall down
as they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is keyed to the spindle. This
sleeve revolves with the spindle ;but can slide up and down. The balls and the sleeve rises when thespindle speed increases, and
falls when the speed decreases. In order tolimit the travel of thesleeve in upward and downward directions, twostops S, S are
provided on the spindle. The sleeve is connected by a bell crank lever to a throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid de-
creases when the sleeve rises and increases when it falls. When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the
governor speed decreases. This results in the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move inwards
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and the sleeve moves downwards. The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other end of the bell
crank lever to increase the supply of working fluid and thus the engine speed is increased. In this case, the extra power output is
provided to balance the increased load. When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the governor speed increases,
which results in the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls move outwards and the sleeve rises upwards. This
upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the working fluid and hence the speed is decreased. In this case, the
power output is reduced.

Terms Used in Governors:

The following terms used in governors are important from the subject point of view ;

1. Height of a governor. It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where the axes of the arms (or arms
produced) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually denoted by h.

2. Equilibrium speed. It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete equilibrium and the sleeve does not
tend to move upwards or downwards.

3. Mean equilibrium speed. It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.

4. Maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds. The speeds at the maximum and minimum radius of rotationof the balls,
without tending to move either way are known as maximum and mini- mum equilibrium speeds respectively.

Note : There can be many equilibrium speeds between the mean and the maximum and the mean and the mini- mum
equilibrium speeds

5. Sleeve lift. It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium speed.

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Gravity loaded controlled governors:

Porter governors:

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Spring loaded controlled governor’s:

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MODULE-05
VIBRATIONS & GYROSCOPE

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Introduction
‘Gyre’ is a Greek word, meaning ‘circular motion’ and Gyration means the whirling motion. A
gyroscope is a spatial mechanism which is generally employed for the study of precessional motion of
a rotary body. Gyroscope finds applications in gyrocompass, used in aircraft, naval ship, control
system of missiles and space shuttle. The gyroscopic effect is also felt on the automotive vehicles
while negotiating a turn.

A gyroscope consists of a rotor mounted in the inner gimbal. The inner gimbal is mounted in
the outer gimbal which itself is mounted on a fixed frame as shown in Fig.. When the rotor spins about
X-axis with angular velocity ω rad/s and the inner gimbal precesses (rotates) about Y-axis, the spatial
mechanism is forced to turn about Z-axis other than its own axis of rotation, and the gyroscopic effect
is thus setup. The resistance to this motion is called gyroscopic effect.

ANGULAR MOTION

A rigid body, (Fig.) spinning at a constant angular velocity ω rad/s about a spin axis through the
mass centre. The angular momentum ‘H’ of the spinning body is represented by a vector whose
magnitude is ‘Iω’. I represents the mass amount of inertia of the rotor about the axis of spin.

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The direction of the angular momentum can be found from the right hand screw rule or the
right hand thumb rule. Accordingly, if the fingers of the right hand are bent in the direction of rotation
of rotor, then the thumb indicates the direction of momentum.

GYROSCOPIC COUPLE

Consider a rotary body of mass m having radius of gyration k mounted on the shaft supported
at two bearings. Let the rotor spins (rotates) about X-axis with constant angular velocity rad/s. The
X-axis is, therefore, called spin axis, Y-axis, precession axis and Z-axis, the couple or torque axis
(Fig.).

The angular momentum of the rotating mass is given by,

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H = mk2 =I

Now, suppose the shaft axis (X-axis) precesses through a small angle about Y-axis in the
plane XOZ, then the angular momentum varies from H to H + H, where H is the change in the
angular momentum, represented by vector ab [Figure 15.2(b)]. For the small value of angle of
rotation 50, we can write

However, the rate of change of angular momentum is:

C=I p

Direction of Spin vector, Precession vector and Couple/Torque vector with forced precession
To determine the direction of spin, precession and torque/couple vector, right hand
screw rule or right hand rule is used. The fingers represent the rotation of the disc and the
thumb shows the direction of the spin, precession and torque vector (Fig.).

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The method of determining the direction of couple/torque vector is as follows

Case (i):

Consider a rotor rotating in anticlockwise direction when seen from the right (Fig.5 and Fig. 6),
and to precess the spin axis about precession axis in clockwise and anticlockwise direction when seen
from top. Then, to determine the active/reactive gyroscopic couple vector, the following procedure is
used.

• Turn the spin vector through 900 in the direction of precession on the XOZ plane
• The turned spin vector will then correspond to the direction of active gyroscopic
couple/torque vector
• The reactive gyroscopic couple/torque vector is taken opposite to active gyro vector
direction

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Case (ii):

Consider a rotor rotating in clockwise direction when seen from the right (Fig.7 and Fig. 8), and to
precess the spin axis about precession axis in clockwise and anticlockwise direction when seen from
top. Then, to determine the active/reactive gyroscopic couple vector,

• Turn the spin vector through 900 in the direction of precession on the XOZ plane
• The turned spin vector will then correspond to the direction of active gyroscopic couple/torque
vector
• The reactive gyroscopic couple/torque vector is taken opposite to active gyro vector direction

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The resisting couple/ reactive couple will act in the direction opposite to that of the gyroscopic couple.
This means that, whenever the axis of spin changes its direction, a gyroscopic couple is applied to it
through the bearing which supports the spinning axis.

GYROSCOPIC EFFECT ON SHIP

Gyroscope is used for stabilization and directional control of a ship sailing in the rough sea. A
ship, while navigating in the rough sea, may experience the following three different types of motion:

(i) Steering—The turning of ship in a curve while moving forward

(ii) Pitching—The movement of the ship up and down from horizontal position in a vertical
plane about transverse axis
(iii) Rolling—Sideway motion of the ship about longitudinal axis
For stabilization of a ship against any of the above motion, the major requirement is that the
gyroscope shall be made to precess in such a way that reaction couple exerted by the rotor opposes the
disturbing couple which may act on the frame.

Ship Terminology

(i) Bow – It is the fore end of ship

(ii) Stern – It is the rear end of ship
(iii) Starboard – It is the right hand side of the ship looking in the direction of motion
(iv) Port – It is the left hand side of the ship looking in the direction of motion

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Consider a gyro-rotor mounted on the ship along longitudinal axis (X-axis) as shown in Fig.10
and rotate in clockwise direction when viewed from rear end of the ship. The angular speed of the
rotor is rad/s. The direction of angular momentum vector oa, based on direction of rotation of rotor,
is decided using right hand thumb rule as discussed earlier. The gyroscopic effect during the three
types of motion of ship is discussed.

Gyroscopic effect on Steering of ship

(i) Left turn with clockwise rotor

When ship takes a left turn and the rotor rotates in clockwise direction viewed from stern,
the gyroscopic couple act on the ship is analyzed in the following way.

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Note that, always reactive gyroscopic couple is considered for analysis. From the above
analysis (Fig.), the couple acts over the ship between stern and bow. This reaction couple tends to
raise the front end (bow) and lower the rear end (stern) of the ship.

(ii) Right turn with clockwise rotor

When ship takes a right turn and the rotor rotates in clockwise direction viewed from stern,
the gyroscopic couple acts on the ship is analyzed (Fig 14). Again, the couple acts in vertical plane,
means between stern and bow. Now the reaction couple tends to lower the bow of the ship and raise
the stern.

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(iii) Left turn with anticlockwise rotor

When ship takes a left turn and the rotor rotates in anticlockwise direction viewed from stern,
the gyroscopic couple act on the ship is analyzed in the following way (Fig.).

The couple acts over the ship is between stern and bow. This reaction couple tends to press
or dip the front end (bow) and raise the rear end (stern) of the ship.

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(iv) Right turn with anticlockwise rotor

When ship takes a right turn and the rotor rotates in anticlockwise direction viewed from
stern, the gyroscopic couple act on the ship is according to Fig 20. Now, the reaction couple tends to
raise the bow of the ship and dip the stern

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Gyroscopic effect on Pitching of ship

The pitching motion of a ship generally occurs due to waves which can be approximated as
sine wave. During pitching, the ship moves up and down from the horizontal position in vertical plane
(Fig. )

Consider a rotor mounted along the longitudinal axis and rotates in clockwise direction when
seen from the rear end of the ship. The direction of momentum for this condition is shown by vector
ox (Fig.24). When the ship moves up the horizontal position in vertical plane by an

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angle from the axis of spin, the rotor axis (X-axis) processes about Z- axis in XY-plane and for
this case Z-axis becomes precession axis. The gyroscopic couple acts in anticlockwise direction about
Y-axis and the reaction couple acts in opposite direction, i.e. in clockwise direction, which tends to
move towards right side (Fig.25). However, when the ship pitches down the axis of spin, the
direction of reaction couple is reversed and the ship turns towards left side (Fig.)

Similarly, for the anticlockwise direction of the rotor viewed from the rear end (Stern) of the
ship, the analysis may be done.

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Gyroscopic effect on Rolling of ship.

The axis of the rotor of a ship is mounted along the longitudinal axis of ship and therefore,
there is no precession of this axis. Thus, no effect of gyroscopic couple on the ship frame is formed
when the ship rolls

Gyroscopic Effect on Aeroplane

Aeroplanes are subjected to gyroscopic effect when it taking off, landing and negotiating left
or right turn in the air.

Let

ω = Angular velocity of the engine rotating parts in rad/s, m

= Mass of the engine and propeller in kg,

rW = Radius of gyration in m,

I = Mass moment of inertia of engine and propeller in kg m2, V

= Linear velocity of the aeroplane in m/s,

R = Radius of curvature in m,

ωp =Angular velocity of precession =v/R rad/s

Gyroscopic couple acting on the aero plane = C = I p

Let us analyze the effect of gyroscopic couple acting on the body of the aero plane for various
conditions.

Case (i): PROPELLER rotates in CLOCKWISE direction when seen from rear end and Aeroplane
turns towards LEFT

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Oira ction of bias

SPlNAXlS

SP IH SECTOR

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According to the analysis, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to dip the tail and
raise the nose of aeroplane.

Case (ii): PROPELLER rotates in CLOCKWISE direction when seen from rear
end and Aeroplane turns towards RIGHT

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S Plfi VECTOR

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According to the analysis, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to raise the tail and dip
the nose of aeroplane.

Case (iii): PROPELLER rotates in ANTICLOCKWISE direction when seen from rear end
and Aeroplane turns towards LEFT

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The analysis indicates, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to raise the tail and dip the
nose of aeroplane.

Case (iv): PROPELLER rotates in ANTICLOCKWISE direction when seen

from rear end and Aeroplane turns towards RIGHT

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The analysis shows, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to raise the tail and dip the nose of
aeroplane.

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Case (v): PROPELLER rotates in CLOCKWISE direction when seen from

rear end and Aeroplane takes off or nose move upwards

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The analysis show, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to turn the nose of aeroplane
toward right

Case (vi): PROPELLER rotates in CLOCKWISE direction when seen from rear
end and Aeroplane is landing or nose move downwards

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The reactive gyroscopic couple tends to turn the nose of aeroplane toward left

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Case (vii): PROPELLER rotates in ANTICLOCKWISE direction when seen from

rear end and Aeroplane takes off or nose move upwards

The reactive gyroscopic couple tends to turn the nose of aeroplane toward left

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Case (viii): PROPELLER rotates in ANTICLOCKWISE direction when seen from

rear end and Aeroplane is landing or nose move downwards

The analysis show, the reactive gyroscopic couple tends to turn the nose of aeroplane toward
right

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Stability of Automotive Vehicle

A vehicle running on the road is said to be stable when no wheel is supposed to leave the road
surface. In other words, the resultant reactions by the road surface on wheels should act in upward
direction. For a moving vehicle, one of the reaction is due to gyroscopic couple produced by the
rotating wheels and rotating parts of the engine. Let us discuss stability of two and four wheeled
vehicles when negotiating a curve/turn.

Stability of Two Wheeler negotiating a turn

Fig shows a two wheeler vehicle taking left turn over a curved path. The vehicle is inclined to
the vertical for equilibrium by an angle known as angle of heel.

Let

m = Mass of the vehicle and its rider in kg,

W = Weight of the vehicle and its rider in newtons = m.g, h

= Height of the centre of gravity of the vehicle and rider, rW
= Radius of the wheels,

R = Radius of track or curvature,

IW = Mass moment of inertia of each wheel,

IE = Mass moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine,

ωW = Angular velocity of the wheels,

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ωE = Angular velocity of the engine rotating parts,

G = Gear ratio = ωE

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v = Linear velocity of the vehicle = ωW × rW,

θ = Angle of heel. It is inclination of the vehicle to the vertical for equilibrium

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Let us consider the effect of the gyroscopic couple and centrifugal couple on the wheels.

1. Effect of Gyroscopic Couple

We know that, V = ωW × rW

ωE = G .ωW or

Angular momentum due to wheels = 2 Iw ωW

Angular momentum due to engine and transmission = IE ωE

Total angular momentum (I xω) = 2 Iw ωW IE ωE

Velocity of precession = ωp
It is observed that, when the wheels move over the curved path, the vehicle is always inclined
at an angle θ with the vertical plane as shown in Fig… This angle is known as ‘angle of heel’. In other
words, the axis of spin is inclined to the horizontal at an angle θ , as shown in Fig.73 Thus, the angular
momentum vector I ω due to spin is represented by OA inclined to OX at an angle θ. But, the
precession axis is in vertical. Therefore, the spin vector is resolved along OX.

Gyroscopic Couple,

Note: When the engine is rotating in the same direction as that of wheels, then the positive sign is
used in the above equation. However, if the engine rotates in opposite direction to wheels, then
negative sign is used.

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The gyroscopic couple will act over the vehicle outwards i.e., in the anticlockwise direction
when seen from the front of the two wheeler. This couple tends to overturn/topple the vehicle in the
outward direction as shown in Fig…

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2. Effect of Centrifugal Couple

Centrifugal force,

Centrifugal Couple

The Centrifugal couple will act over the two wheeler outwards i.e., in the anticlockwise
direction when seen from the front of the two wheeler. This couple tends to overturn/topple the vehicle
in the outward direction as shown in Fig.

Therefore, the total Over turning couple: C = Cg + Cc

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For the vehicle to be in equilibrium, overturning couple should be equal to balancing couple
acting in clockwise direction due to the weight of the vehicle and rider.

C = mgh sin

For the stability, overturning couple must be equal to balancing couple,

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Therefore, from the above equation, the value of angle of heel (θ) may be determined, so that the
vehicle does not skid. Also, for the given value of θ, the maximum vehicle speed in the turn with out
skid may be determined.

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DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 18ME52

Stability of Four Wheeled Vehicle negotiating a turn.

Consider a four wheels automotive vehicle as shown in Figure 82. The engine is mounted at
the rear with its crank shaft parallel to the rear axle. The centre of gravity of the vehicle lies vertically
above the ground where total weight of the vehicle is assumed to be acted upon.

Let

m = Mass of the vehicle (kg)

W = Weight of the vehicle (N) = m.g,

h = Height of the centre of gravity of the vehicle (m)

rW = Radius of the wheels (m)

R = Radius of track or curvature (m)

IW = Mass moment of inertia of each wheel (kg-m2)

IE = Mass moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine (kg-m2)

ωW = Angular velocity of the wheels (rad/s)

ωE = Angular velocity of the engine (rad/s) G
= Gear ratio = ωE / ωW,

v = Linear velocity of the vehicle (m/s)= ωW × rW,

x = Wheel track (m) b

= Wheel base (m)

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(i) Reaction due to weight of Vehicle

Weight of the vehicle. Assuming that weight of the vehicle (mg) is equally distributed over four
wheels. Therefore, the force on each wheel acting downward is mg/4 and the reaction by the road
surface on the wheel acts in upward direction.

(ii) Effect of Gyroscopic couple due to Wheel

Gyroscopic couple due to four wheels is,

Cw = 4 Iw p

(iii) Effect of Gyroscopic Couple due to Engine

Gyroscopic couple due to rotating parts of the engine
CE = IE p = IE G p

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Therefore, Total gyroscopic couple:

Cg = Cw + CE= p (4IW ± IEG)

When the wheels and rotating parts of the engine rotate in the same direction, then
positive sign is used in the above equation. Otherwise negative sign should be considered.
Assuming that the vehicle takes a left turn, the reaction gyroscopic couple on the vehicle
acts between outer and inner wheels.

This gyroscopic couple tends to press the outer wheels and lift the inner wheels

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Due to the reactive gyroscopic couple, vertical reactions on the road surface will be produced.
The reaction will be vertically upwords on the outer wheels and vertically downwords on the inner
wheels. Let the magnitude of this reaction at the two outer and inner wheels be P Newtons, then,

P x X = Cg

Road reaction on each outer/Inner wheel,

(iii)Effect of Centrifugal Couple

When a vehicle moves on a curved path, a centrifugal force acts on the vehicle in outward
direction through the centre of gravity of the vehicle( Fig…)

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Centrifugal force,

This force forms a Centrifugal couple.

This centrifugal couple tends to press the outer and lift the inner

Due to the centrifugal couple, vertical reactions on the road surface will be produced. The
reaction will be vertically upwords on the outer wheels and vertically downwords on the inner wheels.
Let the magnitude of this reaction at the two outer and inner wheels be F Newtons, then,

Road reaction on each outer/Inner wheel,

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The reactions on the outer/inner wheels are as follows,

Total vertical reaction at each outer wheels

Total vertical reaction at each inner wheels

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING BGSIT, ACU