UNIT 5: Elementary analytic geometry

Introduction
In this unit you will look at polynomial functions. The functions are used to solve
many real-life applications, graphs of higher polynomials and also four basic types of
conic sections: parabola, circle, ellipse and hyperbola.

Learning Outcome
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Sketch the graph of a quadratic function.

• Use a quadratic model to solve an application problem.

• Determine the end behavior of graphs of polynomial functions.

• Find the zeros of a polynomial function.

• Sketch the graph of a polynomial function.

• Use the point-slope form to find the equation of a line.

• Find equation of a line parallel or perpendicular to a given line.

• Use the distance or midpoint formula.

• Describe parts of a conic section

115
 • Identify a conic section from its equation

• Identify properties of a graph of conic sections

• Solve equations of linear and conic sections

Key Words
Quadratic function, parabola, axis of symmetry, maximum and minimum values, poly-
nomial function, leading coefficient, leading term, end behavior, zeros, Slope, point-
slope form, slope-intercept form, distance formula, midpoint formula,asymptote, cen-
tre of a circle, centre of a hyperbola, centre of an ellipse, circle, conic section, con-
jugate axis, directrix, distance formula, ellipse, foci of a hyperbola, foci of an ellipse,
focus of a parabola, hyperbola, latus rectum, major axis, midpoint formula, minor
axis, parabola, tangent, transverse axis, vertex of a hyperbola.

5.1 Lesson 1
5.1.1 Quadratic Functions

In this section you will learn how to sketch a graph of a quadratic function and how
to find the maximum and minimum values of a quadratic function.
Definition 5.1. A quadratic function is a function f of the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0.

In particular, if you take b = c = 0, you get the simple quadratic function f (x) = ax2
whose graph you call a parabola. When a > 0, the parabola opens up and has a
lowest point; when a < 0, the parabola opens down and has a highest point. The
lowest or highest point of a parabola is called a vertex. The vertical line passing

116
through the vertex in a parabola is called the axis of symmetry. You can sketch the
graph of f (x) = ax2 using f (x) = x2 by transformations.

y y
6 6

f (x) = ax2

-x -x

f (x) = ax2

a > 0 : Parabola opens up a < 0 : Parabola opens down

Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

The quadratic function given by

f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, a 6= 0

is said to be in standard form. The graph of f is a parabola whose axis the vertical
line x = h and whose vertex is the point (h, k). If a > 0, the parabola opens upward,
and if a < 0, the parabola opens downward.

117
Example 5.2. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7. Find the vertex and axis of
symmetry.
solution
Begin by completing the square on the right side.

f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7

f (x) = 2(x2 + 4x) + 7 Factor 2 from x-terms

f (x) = 2(x2 + 4x + 4 − 4) + 7 Add and subtract 4 within the brackets

to complete the square

f (x) = 2(x2 + 4x + 4) − 8 + 7

f (x) = 2(x + 2)2 − 1

You can see that the graph of f is a parabola that opens upward with vertex (−2, −1).This
obtained by taking the parabola, f (x) = x2 , shifting it to the right 2 units, stretching it
by a factor of 2 and moving it downwards by 1. The axis of symmetry is x = −2.

y
6
f (x) = 2x2

f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7
f (x) = x2
1
-
−1 0 1 x
−1

If a quadratic has the vertex (h, k), then the function has a maximum value at the ver-
tex if it opens downward and has a minimum value at the vertex if it opens upwards.
Maximum and Minimum Values of a Quadratic Function
Let f be a quadratic function with standard form f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k.

118
If a < 0, then the maximum value of f occurs at x = h and this value is f (h) = k.
If a > 0, then the minimum value of f occurs at x = h and this value is f (h) = k.

119
Example 5.3. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7 and find the minimum value
of f .
solution
From Example 5.2 you see that the vertex is (−2, −1). Since the coefficient of x2 is
positive, f has a minimum value. The minimum value is f (−2) = −1.
Example 5.4. Sketch the graph of f (x) = −x2 + x + 2 and find the maximum value
of f .
solution
Begin by completing the square on the right side.

f (x) = −x2 + x + 2

f (x) = −(x2 − x) + 2
1 1 1
f (x) = −(x2 − x + − ) + 2
2 4 4
1 1 1
f (x) = −(x2 − x + ) + 2 +
2 4 4
1 2 9
f (x) = −(x − ) +
2 4

You can see that the graph of f is a parabola that opens downward with vertex ( 12 , 94 ).
The y-intercept is f (0) = 2. To find x-intercept, you set f (x) = 0 and get

−x2 + x + 2 = 0

−(x2 − x − 2) = 0

−(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0

120
The x-intercepts are 2 and -1.

y
6

( 21 , 94 )
t
t
f (x) = −x2 + x + 2
1
t t -
−1 0 1 x
−1

Since the coefficient of x2 is negative, f has a maximum value. The maximum value
is f ( 12 ) = 49 .
Now let us complete the square of the general quadratic equation.

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
b
f (x) = a(x2 + x) + c
a
b b2 b2
f (x) = a(x2 + x + 2 − 2 ) + c
a 4a 4a
2
b b b2
f (x) = a(x2 + x + 2 ) + c −
a 4a 4a
2
b b
f (x) = a(x + )2 + c −
2a 4a
b b2
This equation is in standard form with h = − 2a and k = c − 4a
. The maximum and
minimum value of quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c occurs at

b
x=− .
2a
b
If a > 0, the minimum value is f (− 2a ).
b
If a < 0, the maximum value is f (− 2a ).

121
Example 5.5. Find the maximum or minimum value of the quadratic function −2x2 +
4x − 5.
solution
You can see that a = −2 and b = 4. The maximum or minimum value occurs at
b 4
x=− =− = 1.
2a 2(−2)
Since a < 0, the function has the maximum value

f (1) = −2(1)2 + 4(1) − 5 = −3.

Many real-life problems involve finding a maximum or minimum value for a function
that models a given situation. You will look at an example that asks for the maximum
value of a quadratic function that models revenue.
Revenue R, in Kwacha, is defined as as the amount of money received from the sale
of an item and is equal to the unit selling price p, in kwacha, of the item times the
number x of units actually sold. That is

R = xp.

The equation that relates p and x is called the demand equation. When the demand
equation is linear,the revenue model is a quadratic function.
Example 5.6. The price p, in dollars, and the quantity x sold of a certain product
obey the demand equation
1
p = − x + 100.
3
(a) Find a model that expresses the revenue R as a function of x.

(b) What is the revenue if 100 units are sold?

(c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue?

solution

(a) The revenue R is R = xp where p = − 13 x + 300.

1 1
R = xp = x(− x + 300) = − x2 + 300x.
3 3

122
(b) R(100) = − 31 (100)2 + 300(100) = 26, 6666.

(c) The function R is a quadratic function with a = − 13 , b = 300 and c = 0. Since

a < 0, the vertex is the maximum value. The revenue R is maximum when the
number of x units is
b 300
x=− =− = 450
2a 2(− 13 )
The maximum revenue R is

1
R(450) = − (450)2 + 300(450) = M K67, 500.
3

Activity a

(1) Sketch the graphs of the following functions and find the vertex and axis of
symmetry:

(a) 3x2 + 6x + 2.

(b) −4x2 − 6x + 2.

(2) Find the maximum or minimum value of the following functions:

(a) 10t2 + 40t + 113.

(b) 100 − 49t − 7t2 .

(3) The price p( in Kwacha)and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the
demand equation
1
p = − + 100.
6
(a) Find a model that expresses the revenue R as a function of x.

(b) What is the revenue if 200 units are sold?

(c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue?

(d) What price should the company charge to maximize revenue?

123
 (4) David has 400 metres of fencing and wishes to enclose a rectangular area.

(a) Express the area of the rectangular as a function of the width w of the
rectangular.

(b) For what value of w is the area largest?

(c) What is the maximum area?

5.2 Lesson 2
5.2.1 Polynomial Functions and their Graphs

In this section you will study the graphs of the polynomial functions.
Definition 5.7. A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and an , an−1 , · · · , a1 , a0 are real numbers with an 6=

0.
The numbers an , an−1 , · · · , a1 , a0 are called the coefficients of the polynomial. The
number a0 is the constant term, the number an , the coefficient of the highest power,
is the leading coefficient, and the term an xn is the leading term.
The polynomial functions that have the simplest graphs are monomial functions of
the form f (x) = xn where n is an integer greater than zero. When n is even, the
graph is similar to the graph of f (x) = x2 , and when n is odd, the graph is similar to
the graph of f (x) = x3.

124
 y y
f (x) = xn , n ≥ 4, n even
6 6

f (x) = x2
f (x) = x3

2 1
‘ - -
−1 0 1 x −1 0 1 x
−2

f (x) = xn , n ≥ 5, n odd

The leading term of a polynomial can tell you what the graph looks like. The graph
of any polynomial will go up on both ends, go down on both ends, or go up on one
end and down on the other end. This is called the end behavior of the graph. This
is determined by the polynomial’s degree (even or odd) and by its leading coefficient
(positive or negative). The end behavior of a polynomial f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
· · · + a1 x + a0 is determined by the degree n and the sign of the leading coefficient an
in the following manner.
n is odd y
y 6
6 f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞
f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞

-x
-x

f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞
f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞
?
?
Leading coefficient positive(an > 0) Leading coefficient positive(an < 0)

125
 n is even
y y
6 6

f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞

-x -
x

f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞
? ?

Leading coefficient positive(an > 0) Leading coefficient positive(an < 0)

5.2.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions

In this section you will find zeros of a polynomial function.

If f is a polynomial function, then a is a zero of f if f (a) = 0.
If f is a polynomial function and a is real number, then the following statements are
equivalent.

(1) x = a is a zero of f .

(2) x = a is a solution to the equation f (x) = 0.

(3) x − a is a factor of f .

(4) x = a is an x-intercept of the graph of f .

So the the real zeros of a polynomial function are the x-intercepts of its graph,and
they are found by solving the equation f (x) = 0.

126
Example 5.8. Find the zeros of f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x.
solution
To find the zeros, you factor.

f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x

f (x) = x(x2 − x − 2)

f (x) = x(x − 2)(x + 1)

So, the zeros are x = 0, x = 2 and x = −1 and the x-intercepts are x = 0, x = 2 and
x = −1.
Definition 5.9. If (x − a)m is a factor of a polynomial function f and (x − a)m+1 is not
a factor of f , then a is called a zero of multiplicity m of f .
Example 5.10. For the polynomial

1
f (x) = 5(x − 2)(x + 3)2 (x − )4
2

2 is a zero of multiplicity 1 because the exponent on the factor (x − 2) is 1.

−3 is zero of multiplicity 2 because the exponent on the factor (x + 3) is 2.
1
2
is zero of multiplicity 4 because the exponent on the factor (x + 3) is 4.

5.2.3 Sketching Graphs of Polynomial Functions

In this section you use zeros to sketch the graphs of polynomial functions.
Example 5.11. Let f (x) = 2x4 − x3 + 3x2 .

(a) Find the zeros of f .

(b) Sketch the graph of f .

127
 solution

(a) By factoring, you get

f (x) = −2x4 − x3 + 3x2

f (x) = −x2 (2x2 + x − 3)

f (x) = −x2 (x − 1)(2x + 3).

Thus the zeros of f are x = 0, x = 1 and x = − 32 .

(b) The x-intercepts are x = 1 and x = − 23 . The y-intercept f (0) = 0. Construct a

table of values of f (x) including additional points. Since the leading coefficient
is negative and the degree is even, f has the following end behavior.

f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞

y
6

x f (x)
-2 -12 t 2
-1.5 0 t t
t t t
-1 2 -
x
-0.5 0.75 −1 0 1
0 0 −2
1 1
2 2
1 0
1.5 -6.75 t

t −12

‘ f (x) = 2x4 − x3 + 3x2

In Example 5.11 you see that at x = 0, a zero of multiplicity 2, the graph of f touches
the x-axis. This is so because it does not change sign as you test points on either

128
side of 0. However the graph of f crosses the x-axis at 1 and − 32 , zeros of multiplicity
1. It changes sign as you test points on either side of 1 and − 23 .

Activity b

(1) Find the zeros and sketch the graphs of the following polynomial functions.

(a) f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 12x

(b) f (x) = x4 − 3x2 − 4

129
5.3 Lesson 3
The slope of a line

The slope of a line is a measure of the steepness of the line. The slope represents
the number of units the line rises or falls for each unit of horizontal change from right
to left.
Definition 5.12. The slope m of a line passing through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
is
y2 − y1 change in y
m= =
x2 − x1 change in x
where x2 6= x1 .
We call the change in y the rise and the change in x the run.
Example 5.13. Find the slope of the line that pass through the points (−2, 0) and
(4, 1).
solution
Let (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 0) and (x2 , y2 ) = (4, 1). Then

y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
1−0
=
4 − (−2)
1
= .
6

You can find the equation of a line if you know the slope of the line and the coordi-
nates of one point on the line. If (x1 , y1 ) is a given point on the line whose slope is m
and (x, y) is any other point on the line, then

y − y1
= m.
x − x1

130
 y
6
(x, y)
u

(x1 , y1 ) y − y1
u
x − x1

-
x

An equation of the line that passes through the point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

Example 5.14. Find an equation of a line that passes through (−8, −3) and has slope
3
2
.
solution
3
Using the point-slope form with m = 2
and (x1 , y1 ) = (−8, −3), we get

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
y − (−8) = (x − (−3))
2
3 9
y+8= x+
2 2
3 7
y = x−
2 2

The graph of this line is shown below.

131
 y
6

- x

y = 32 x − 7
2

3
(−3, −8)
u
2

Sketching graphs of lines

If you know both the slope m of a line and a point (0, b) on the line, then you can use
the point-slope form to get the equation

y − b = m(x − 0).

This simplifies to y = mx + b, which is called the slope-intercept form of the equation

of the line.
An equation of the line that has slope m and y-intercept b is

y = mx + b.

Example 5.15. Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 2x + 4y = 8. Sketch the
graph of the line.
solution
You first write the equation in the form y = mx + b :

2x + 4y = 8

4y = −2x + 8 subtract 2x
1
y =− x+2 divide by 4
2

132
 1
We see that the slope is m = 2
and the y-intercept is b = 2. Start sketching the graph
of the line at point (0, 2), go to the right 2 units and then 1 unit down to the point (2, 1).
See figure below.
y
6

(0, 2) u 2
1
u(2, 1)
- x

You see from the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line that the horizontal line
(m = 0) has an equation of the form

y = (0)x + b

y = b.

Similarly, a vertical line through (a, 0) has an equation of the form

x = a.

You cannot write this equation in slope-intercept form because the slope of a vertical
line is undefined.

133
 y
6

b y=b

x=a
-x
0 a

The general form of the equation of a line is

Ax + By + C = 0

where A and B are not both zero. If A = 0 (and B 6= 0), the general equation can be
reduced to the form y = b, which represents a horizontal line. If B = 0 (and A 6= 0),
the general equation can be reduced to the form x = a, which represents a vertical
line.
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

You can determine whether two lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither using the
slope of a line.
Two distinct nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
Example 5.16. Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 2) and
is parallel to the line 4x + 6y = −5.

134
 solution
First you write the equation in slope-intercept form.

4x + 6y = −5

6y = −4x − 5 Subtract 4x
2 5
y =− x− Divide by 6
3 6

So the line has slope m = − 32 . Since the required line is parallel to the given line, it
also has slope m = − 32 . The required line has the following equation.

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
2
y − 2 = − (x − 5)
3
3y − 6 = −2x + 10 Multiply by 3

2x + 3y = 16 Rearrange

Two lines with slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular if and only if their slopes are
negative reciprocals of each other. That is,

1
m1 = − .
m2

Example 5.17. Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (2, −1) and
is perpendicular to the line 2x − 3y = 5.
solution
First you write the equation in slope-intercept form.

2x − 3y = 5

−3y = −2x + 5 Subtract 2x

2 5
y = x− Divide by −3
3 3

So the line has slope m = 23 . Since the required line is perpendicular to the given

135
line, it must have a slope of − 32 . The required line has the following equation.

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
y − (−1) = − (x − 2)
2
2y + 2 = −3x + 6 Multiply by 2

3x + 2y = 4 Rearrange

136
 Activity c

(1) Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (6, 9) and (−4, −1).

(2) Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, −5) and has
slope 43 .

(3) Find an equation of the line that passes through the points (−6, −1) and (6, 4).

(4) Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 2x + 3y = 9. Sketch the graph of the
line.

(5) Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (1, −6) and is parallel
to the line x + 2y = −6.

(6) Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (−1, −2) and is per-
pendicular to the line 2x + 5y = −8.

(7) Show that A(−3, −1), B(3, 3) and C(−9, 8) are vertices of a right triangle.

137
5.4 Lesson 4
5.4.1 Distance and Midpoint Formulas

Recall from the Pythagorean Theorem that, for a right triangle with hypotenuse of
length c and legs of lengths a and b, you have a2 + b2 = c2 .

a c

You will find a formula for the distance d between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in
the plane. You see from the figure below that the distance between the points (x1 , y1 )
and (x2 , y2 ) on the vertical line must be |y2 − y1 | and the distance between the points
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the horizontal line must be |x2 − x1 |. By The Pythagorean
Theorem, you get
p
d= |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
p
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

138
 y
(x1 , y2 )
u
6
y
62

|y2 − y1 | d

y1
? u u (x2 , y1 )
(x1 , y1 )
-x
x
1 x
-2
|x2 − x1 |

The distance d between the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in the plane is
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Now you will find the coordinates (x, y) of the midpoint B of the line segment that
joins the points A(x1 , y1 ) and C(x2 , y2 ). In the figure below triangles ARB and BP C
are congruent because d(A, B) = d(B, C) and the corresponding angles are equal.

y
C(x2 , y2 )
6 u
B(x, y)
u uP
A(x1 , y1 )  |x2 − x| -
u uR
 |x − x1 | -

- x
0

139
Hence d(A, R) = d(B, P ) and thus

x − x1 = x2 − x.

x1 +x2
Solving this equation for x, you get 2x = x1 + x2 , and so x = 2
. Similarly,
y1 +y2
y= 2
. The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in

the plane is !
x1 + x 2 y 1 + y 2
, .
2 2
Example 5.18. Find

(a) the distance between the points (−4, 5) and (3, 2).

(b) the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−4, 5) and (3, 2).
Solution 5.19. (a) By the Distance Formular, you get
p
d= (3 − (−4))2 + (2 − 5)2
p
= (7)2 + (−3)2
√
= 49 + 9
√
= 58

= 7.62.

(b) By the Midpoint Formular, you have

!
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
Midpoint = ,
2 2
!
−4 + 3 5 + 2
= ,
2 2
!
−1 7
= , .
2 2

140
 Activity d

(1) Find the distance between, and the midpoint of the line segment joining the
points.

(a) (2, −5), (−6, 1).

(b) (2, 10), (10, 2).

(2) Find x such that the distance between the points (3, −4 and (x, 5) is 15.

5.5 Lesson 5

5.6 Conic Sections

5.6.1 Definitions

Before we go any further, we need to define the following terms vertex, focus and
directrix.
Definition 5.20. A vertex is an extreme point on a conic section.
Definition 5.21. A locus is the set of all points whose coordinates satisfy a given
equation or condition.
Definition 5.22. A focus is a point that is used to construct and define a conic sec-
tion, at which rays reflected from the curve converge.
Definition 5.23. A directrix is a line used to construct and define a conic section.

5.6.2 Circles

Cutting a cone perpendicular to the base axis of the cone gives us a circle.

141
We have seen the equation x2 + y 2 = r2 many times before and we know that this is
a circle of radius r that is centred at the origin (0, 0). However, now we want to see a
general formula of an equation of a circle that is centred at an arbitrary point (h, k).
Suppose, we shift the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 to become (x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = r2 .We looked
at shifting functions. From there, we know that the x and the y in x2 + y 2 = r2 has
been shifted to x = 1 and y = −2 respectively, which means the new center is at
(1, −2).
Definition 5.24. A circle is the set of points (x, y) which are a fixed distance r, the
radius, away from a fixed point (h, k), the center

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 .

The equation (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 is called the standard form of an equation of a

circle.

Activity e

(1) Write an equation for the circle that satisfies the following conditions

(a) center (2, −3), radius 5 units.

(b) endpoints of a diameter at (9, 4) and (−3, −2).

(2) Find the center and radius of the circle with the given equation. Then graph the
circle

142
 (a) x2 + y 2 = 169.

(b) (x + 5)2 + (y − 11)2 = 49.

5.7 Lesson 6
5.7.1 Parabola

Cutting the cone parallel to the side of the cone, that is not the base, gives us a
parabola.

In this section we would like t write equations of parabolas in standard form as well
as well graph parabolas.
Definition 5.25. A parabola is the set of all points whose distance from a fixed point,
called the focus, is equal to the distance from a fixed line, called the directrix. The
point halfway between the focus and the directrix is called the vertex of the parabola.
Table 5.1 summarises some information about parabolas.
Example 5.26. Write the equation y = x2 − 6x + 11 in standard form. solution
We need to write this equation in the form y = a(x − h)2 + k. In fact, what we need to
do is to complete the square for the given equation.
Therefore, we have y = (x − 3)2 + 2 as the standard form of the equation y =
x2 − 6x + 11.

143
 Form of Equation y = a(x − h)2 + k x = a(y − k)2 + h
Vertex (h, k) (h, k)
Axis of symmetry  x = h   y =k 
1 1
Focus h, k + h + ,k
4a 4a
1 1
Directrix y=k− x=h−
4a 4a
Direction of opening upward if a > 0 right if a > 0
downward if a < 0 left if a < 0
Table 5.1: Parabolas

Example 5.27. Identify the coordinates of the vertex and focus, the equations of the
axis of symmetry and directrix, and the direction of opening of the parabola with the
equation 3(y − 3) = (x + 6)2 solution
We observe that the given equation has powers of y and x as 1 and 2 respectively.
Therefore, we will consider the standard form of the equation of a parabola with
vertex (h, k) and axis of symmetry x = h is y = a(x − h)2 + k.
First, we re-write the given equation into the standard equation of parabola.

3(y − 3) = (x + 6)2
1
(x + 6)2


y−3=
3
1
(x + 6)2 + 3


y=
3
1
(x − (−6))2 + 3


y=
3
We have a = 13 , h = −6 and k = 3.
Therefore,
coordinate of the vertex is(h, k) = (−6,
 3)
1
coordinate of the focus is h, k + = (−6, 3 + 3/4)
4a
the equation of the axis of symmetry is x = −6
1
the equation of the axis of directrix y = k − = 3 − 3/4
4a
a = 13 > 0, the parabola opens upward.

144
 Activity f

(1) Identify the coordinates of the vertex and focus, the equations of the axis of
symmetry and directrix, and the direction of opening of the parabola with the
given equation.

(a) y = (x − 3)2 − 4.

(b) y = −3x2 − 8x − 6.

(2) Write an equation of a parabola with focus at (3, 8) and equation of the directrix
is y = 4

5.8 Lesson 7
5.8.1 Ellipse

In this section we look at ellipses. We should be able to identify the foci, vertices,
axes and centre of an ellipse; write equations of ellipse centred at the origin; and
write equations of ellipse not centred at the origin.
Cutting a cone at an angle other than 90◦ such that the curve we get is still closed,
we get an ellipse.

145
Definition 5.28. An ellipse is the set of all points (x, y) in a plane such that the sum
of their distances from two fixed points is a constant. The fixed points are called foci
(singular focus) of the ellipse

Figure 5.1 shows ellipses with centre at (h, k)

Figure 5.1: (a) Horizontal ellipse with centre (h, k) (b) Vertical ellipse with centre
(h, k)

Table 5.2 provide the information on equations of an ellipses with centres at

(h, k)
Given the vertices and foci of an ellipse not centred at the origin we can derive the
equation of an ellipse in standard form as follows,

146
 (x − h)2 (y − k)2 (x − h)2 (y − k)2
Standard form of equation + =1 + =1
a2 b2 b2 a2
Direction of major axis horizontal vertical
Foci (h ± c, k) (h, k ± c)
Length of major axis 2a 2a
Length of minor axis 2b 2b
Table 5.2: Ellipse with centre (h, k)

(1) Determine whether the major axis is parallel to the x– or y-axis.

(a) If the y-coordinates of the given vertices and foci are the same, then the
major axis is parallel to the x-axis. Use the standard form
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1 major axis parallel to the x-axis
a2 b2

(b) If the x-coordinates of the given vertices and foci are the same, then the
major axis is parallel to the y-axis. Use the standard form
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1 major axis parallel to the y-axis
b2 a2

(2) Identify the center of the ellipse (h, k) using the midpoint formula and the given
coordinates for the vertices.

(3) Find a2 by solving for the length of the major axis, 2a, which is the distance
between the given vertices.

(4) Find c2 using h and k, found in Step 2, along with the given coordinates for the
foci.

(5) Solve for b2 using the equation c2 = a2 − b2 .

(6) Substitute the values for h, k, a2 , and b2 into the standard form of the equation
determined in Step 1.
Example 5.29. Write the standard form of the equation of an ellipse that has vertices
√ √
(−2, −4) and (−2, 4) and foci (−2, −2 3) and (-2,2 3 ). solution
The x-coordinates of the vertices and foci are the same, so the major axis is parallel
to the y-axis. Thus, the equation of the ellipse will have the form,
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
b2 a2

147
We determine the centre (h, k). The center is half-way between the vertices (−2, −4)
and (−2, 4). Using the midpoint formula,
 
(−2) + (−2) (−4) + (4)
(h, k) = ,
2 2
= (−2, 0).
Next, we compute a2 . We know that the length of the major axis of any ellipse is 2a
units. In this ellipse, the length of the major axis which is parallel to the y−axis is the
distance between the y values in the vertices (−2, −4) and (−2, 4).

2a = 4 − (−4)

2a = 8

a = 4.
Therefore, a2 = 16.

√
Now we find c2 . The foci are given by (h, k ± c). So, (h, k − c) = (−2, −2 3) and
√
(h, k + c) = (−2, 2 3). But the centre (h, k) = (−2, 0). So, we substitute k = 0 in any
√ √
of the equations: k + c = 2 3 or k − c = −2 3. Consider,
√
k+c=2 3
√
0+c=2 3
√
c=2 3

c2 = 12
To determine the value of b2 , we use the relation c2 = a2 − b2 . So,
c 2 = a2 − b 2

12 = 16 − b2

b2 = 4
Now that we have found the values of h, k, a2 and b2 , we can substitute them into the
standard for equation for an ellipse:
(x + 2)2 (y − 0)2
+ = 1.
b2 a2
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
4 16

148
 Activity g

(1) Find the coordinates of the centre and foci and the lengths of the major and
minor axes for the ellipse with the given equation. Then graph the ellipse,
y 2 x2
(a) + = 1.
18 9
(x − 1)2 (y + 2)2
(b) + = 1.
20 4
(2) Write an equation for the ellipse that satisfies each of the following conditions

(a) Endpoints of the major axis at (−11, 5) and (7, 5), end points of the minor
axis at (−2, 9) and (−2, 1).

(b) Endpoints of the minor axis at (0, 5) and (0, −5), foci at (12, 0) and (−12, 0).

5.9 Lesson 8
5.9.1 Hyperbola

In this section you will look at the hyperbola. At the end of this section we should be
able locate a hyperbola’s vertices and foci; write equations of hyperbolas in standard
form; graph hyperbolas centered and not centered at the origin.
Suppose we have two cones joined at the corner at 180◦ . Then cutting these double
cones at an angle, not parallel to the base, gives us a hyperbola.

149
Definition 5.30. A hyperbola is the set of all points (x, y) in a plane the difference
of whose distances from two distinct fixed points, called foci, is constant.

Figure 5.2: Key features of a hyperbola

(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (y − k)2 (x − h)2

Standard form of equation − =1 − =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
Direction of Transverse Axis horizontal vertical
Foci (h − c, k), (h + c, k) (h, k + c), (h, k − c)
Vertices (h − a, k), (h + a, k) (h, k + a), (h, a − c)
length of Transverse axis 2a units 2a units
length of Conjugate axis 2b units 2b units
b a
Equations of Asymptotes y − k = ± (x − h) y − k = ± (x − h)
a b
Table 5.3: Ellipse with centre (h, k)

Given the vertices and the foci of a hyperbola not centred at the origin, we can derive
the equations of an ellipse in standard form as follows,

150
 (1) Determine whether the transverse axis is parallel to the x– or y-axis.

(a) If the y-coordinates of the given vertices and foci are the same, then the
transverse axis is parallel to the x-axis. Use the standard form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2

(b) If the x-coordinates of the given vertices and foci are the same, then the
transverse axis is parallel to the y-axis. Use the standard form

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
− =1
a2 b2

(2) Identify the center of the hyperbola, (h, k), using the midpoint formula and the
given coordinates for the vertices.

(3) Find a2 by solving for the length of the transverse axis, 2a, which is the distance
between the given vertices.

(4) Find c2 using h and k found in Step 2 along with the given coordinates for the
foci.

(5) Solve for b2 using the equation b2 = c2 − a2 .

(6) Substitute the values for h, k, a2 , and b2 into the standard form of the equation
determined in Step 1.
Example 5.31. Write the standard form of the equation of a hyperbola that has ver-
√ √
tices at (9, −3) and (−5, −3) and foci at (2 + 53, −3) and (2 − 53, −3). solution
The y− coordinates of the vertices and foci are the same, so the direction of the
transverse axis is horizontal and we will determine the parameters for the equations

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− = 1.
a2 b2

We determine the centre (h, k). The centre is half-way between the vertices (9, −3)
and (−5, −3). Using the midpoint formula,
 
9 + (−5) (−3) + (−3)
(h, k) = , = (2, −3).
2 2

151
Next, we find a2 . The length of the transverse axis, 2a, is bounded by the vertices.
So, we can find a2 by finding the distance between the x-coordinates of the vertices.

2a = | − 5 − 9|

2a = 14

a=7

a2 = 49

Now we need to find c2 . The coordinates of the foci are (h ± c, k). So (h − c, k) =

√ √
(2 + 53, −3) and (h + c, k) = (2 − 53, −3). We can use the x-coordinate from either
√
of these points to solve for c. Using the point (2 + 53, −3), and substituting h = 2,
√
h+c=2+ 53
√
2 + c = 2 + 53
√
c = 53

c2 = 53

Next, solve for b2 using the equation b2 = c2 − a2 :

b 2 = c 2 − a2

= 53 − 49

=4

Finally, substitute the values found for h, k, a2 , and b2 into the standard form of the
equation.
(x − 2)2 (y + 3)2
− =1
49 4

152
 Activity h

(1) Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola. Find the center, ver-
tices, foci, and asymptotes. Sketch the hyperbola.

(a) 9y 2 − x2 + 2x + 54y + 62 = 0.

(b) 9x2 − y 2 + 54x + 10y + 55 = 0.

(2) Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola with the given charac-
teristics.

(a) Vertices: (±1, 0); asymptotes: y = ±5x.

√
(b) Vertices: (0, 4), (0, 0); passes through the point ( 5, −1).

(c) Vertices: (3, 0), (3, −6); asymptotes: y = x − 6, y = −x.

153
Unit Summary
In this unit you have studied polynomial functions. You have graphed these func-
tions, used a quadratic model to solve an application problem,equations of a straight
line,inequalities and conical sections of standard positions.

Further Reading
(1) Sullivan, M. (2012). College Algebra, 9th Edition. Prentice Hall

(2) Larson, R. & Hodgkins, A. V. (2009). College Algebra with Applications for
Business and the Life Sciences. Houghton Mifflin Company

(3) Stewart, J., Redlin, L. & Watson, S. (2004). College Algebra, 4th Edition.
Thomson-Brooks/Cole.

(4) Heuttenmueller, R.(2004). College Algebra Demystified. McGraw-Hill.

Unit Test
(1) Let f (x) = −x2 + 6x + 4. Write down the coordinate of its

(a) vertex and

(b) intercepts.

(2) A manufacturer finds that the revenue generated by selling x units of a certain
commodity is given by the function R(x) = 80x − 0.4x2 , where the revenue R(x)
is measured in dollars.

154
 (a) What is the maximum revenue?

(b) How many units should be manufactured to obtain this maximum?

(3) Let g(x) = x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 .

(a) Find the zeros of g.

(b) Sketch the graph of g.

(4) Find the center and radius of the circle with the given equation. Then graph the
circle

(a) (x − 4)2 + (y − 1)2 = 9

(b) x2 + y 2 + 4x − 8 = 0

(5) Write an equation for the circle that satisfies each set of conditions

(a) center (0, 3), radius 7 units.

(b) endpoints of a diameter at (−5, 2) and (3, 6).

(6) Write an equation of a parabola with focus at (3, −1) and vertex at (5, −1).

(7) Write an equation for the ellipse with major axis 16 units long and parallel to
the x−axis, minor axis 9 units long, centre at (5, 4).

(8) Find the coordinates of the vertices and foci and the equations of the asymp-
totes for the hyperbola with the given equation. Then graph the hyperbola,
y2 x2
(a) − = 1.
18 20
(b) 5x2 − 4y 2 − 40x − 16y − 36 = 0.

(9) State whether the graph of each equation is a parabola, circle, ellipse, or hy-
perbola

(a) y 2 − x − 10y + 34 = 0

(b) 3x2 + 2y 2 + 12x − 28y + 104 = 0

155
Answers to unit Activities
Activity a

(1) (a) (−1, −1); x = −1

(b) (− 43 , 17
4
); x = − 34

(2) (a) Minimum f (−2) = 73

(b) Maximum f (−3.5) = 185.75

(3) (a) R(x) = − 16 x2 + 100x

(b) M K13, 333.33
(c) 300; M K15, 000
(d) M K50

(4) (a) A(w) = −w2 + 200w

(b) 100 metres
(c) 10, 000m2

156
Activity b

(1) (a) f (x) = −x(x − 4)(x + 3). So, the zeros are x = 0, x = 4 and x = −3.

(b) f (x) = (x − 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 1). So, the zeros are x = 2 and x = −2

Activity c

(1) 1

(2) 4y − 3x = −14

(3) 12y − 5x = 18

(4) Slope = − 32 , y − intercept = 3 and the graph is as below.

157
 y
6

(0, 3) u 3

- x

(5) 2y + x = −11

(6) 2y − 5x = 1

(7) Hint: Check if line segments AB and AC are perpendicular.

Activity d

(1) (a) d = 10, midpoint = (−2, −2)

(b) d = 11.31, midpoint = (6, 6)

(2) x = 15

Activity e

(1) Write an equation for the circle that satisfies the following conditions

(a) (x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 52

(b) (x − 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 45

(2) Find the center and radius of the circle with the given equation. Then graph the
circle

(a) Center at (0, 0) and radius 13

(b) Center at (−5, 11) and radius 7

158
Activity f

(1) Identify the coordinates of the vertex and focus, the equations of the axis of
symmetry and directrix, and the direction of opening of the parabola with the
given equation.

[(a)]

(a) Vertex: (3, −4)

Focus: (3, −15/4)
Symmetry: x = 3
Directrix: y = −17/4
Direction of opening: Upwards.

(b) y = −3x2 − 8x − 6 = (x + 4/3)2 = −2/9

Vertex: (−4/3, 2/9)
Focus: (−4/3, 2/9 + 1/4)
Symmetry: x = −4/3
Directrix: y = 2/9 − 1/4
Direction of opening: upward

(2) y = −1/16(x − 3)2 + 12 or x = −1/16(y − 8)2 + 7

Activity g

(1) Find the coordinates of the centre and foci and the lengths of the major and
minor axes for the ellipse with the given equation. Then graph the ellipse,

[(a)]

(a) Centre: (0, 0)

√
Foci: (0, ± 27)
√
Length of major axis: 2 18
Length of minor axis: 6

(b) Centre: (1, −2)

159
 Foci: (1 ± 4, −2)
√
Length of major axis: 2 20
Length of minor axis: 4

(2) Write an equation for the ellipse that satisfies each of the following conditions
(x + 2)2 (y − 5)2
(a) + =1
92 42
x2 y2
(b) + =1
132 52
Activity h

(1) Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola. Find the center, ver-
tices, foci, and asymptotes. Sketch the hyperbola.
[(a)]
(a) 9y 2 − x2 + 2x + 54y + 62 = 0
solution
(y + 3)2 (x − 1)2
− =1
2 18
Center: (1, −3)
√

Vertices: 1, −3 ± 2
√
Foci: (1, −3 ± 2 5)
Asymptote: y = −3 ± 31 (x − 1)
(b) 9x2 − y 2 + 54x + 10y + 55 = 0
solution
(x + 3)2
− (y − 5)2 = 1
1/9
Center: (−3, 5)
Vertices: − 10 8



3
, 5 , − , 5
 √  3
10
Foci: −3 ± 3 , 5
Asymptote: y = 5 ± 3(x + 3)

(2) Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola with the given charac-
teristics.

160
(a) Vertices: (±1, 0); asymptotes: y = ±5x

Solution
2 y2
x − =1
25
√
(b) Vertices: (0, 4), (0, 0); passes through the point ( 5, −1)

Solution
(y − 2)2 x2
− =1
4 4
(c) Vertices: (3, 0), (3, −6); asymptotes: y = x − 6, y = −x

Solution
(y + 3)2 (x − 3)2
− =1
9 2

161