IoT Module 1

Understand the basic principles of computer networking

Computer networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network

devices (also referred to as hosts), which interconnect through a network (Internet or Intranet)
and are separated by unique device identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and media
access control, MAC addresses). These hosts may be connected by a single path or through
multiple paths for sending and receiving data. The data transferred between the hosts may be
text, images, or videos, which are typically in the form of binary bit streams.

Network Types

Computer networks are classified according to various parameters

1) Type of connection, 2) Physical topology, and 3) Reach of the network.

1. Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of two
types Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.

(i) Point-to-point:
 Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections between
two hosts.
 Day-to-day systems such as a remote control for an air conditioner or
television is a point to point connection, where the connection has the whole
channel dedicated to it only.
 These networks were designed to work over duplex links and are functional
for both synchronous as well as asynchronous systems

(ii) Point-to-Multipoint:
 In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the same link.
 This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many connection type.
 Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and
IP telephony.
 One common scheme of spatial sharing of the channel is frequency division
multiple access (FDMA). Temporal sharing of channels include approaches
such as time division multiple access (TDMA).
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2. Physical topology
Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are
connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies.
Bus, Star, Mesh and Ring.

Bus
 A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection.
 A backbone cable or bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts.
 The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.
 The main advantage of this topology is the ease of installation.
 The bus topology has a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone
cable) can be used for an organization.
 Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to the bus, making
installation very easy and cheap.
 However, the main drawback of this topology is the difficulty in fault localization
within the network.

Star:
 Every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
 The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly, they can only do so
through the central hub.
 The hub acts as the network traffic exchange. For large-scale systems, the hub,
essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle all the simultaneous traffic flowing
through it. However, as there are fewer links (only one link per host), this topology is
cheaper and easier to set up.
 The main advantages of the star topology are easy installation and the ease of fault
identification within the network.
 However, the main disadvantage of this topology is the danger of a single point of
failure. If the hub fails, the whole network fails.
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Mesh:
 Every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link (in a point-to-point
manner).
 This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n(n-1)=2 dedicated full
duplex links between the hosts.
 This massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive. However, it offers
certain specific advantages over other topologies.
 The first significant advantage is the robustness and resilience of the system.
 Even if a link is down or broken, the network is still fully functional as there remain
other pathways for the traffic to flow through.

Ring:
 A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection.
 Here, each host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with its
two immediate neighbouring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each host.
 The repetition of this system forms a ring.
 The repeaters at each host capture the incoming signal intended for other hosts,
regenerates the bit stream, and passes it onto the next repeater.
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Table below compares the different topologies

3. Network reachability
Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
Personal area networks (PAN),
Local area networks (LAN),
Wide area networks (WAN), and
Metropolitan area network (MAN)

Personal Area Networks (PAN):

 PANs, as the name suggests, are mostly restricted to individual usage.
 A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless speakers,
laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a
house.
 Generally, PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power
technologies such as Bluetooth.
 The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimetres to a few meters.

Local Area Networks (LAN):

 A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through wired or wireless
connections.
 However, LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses.
 Typically, a few leased lines connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole
organization or a campus; the lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN
enabling hosts.
 The hosts are much more in number than the actual direct lines to the Internet to Access the
web from within the organization.
 Typically, the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000
Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels.
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 Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches,
terminals, and computers.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

 The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN and a WAN.
 Typically, MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a given
geographic location or city.
 An excellent example of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP) supplying
Internet connectivity to various organizations within a city.
 As MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even single
organizations.
 Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and cables.
 MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels.

Wide Area Networks (WAN):

 WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations.
 However, they are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country.
 The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate.
 Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use public switched telephone
networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links.
 Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise
during transmission and are very costly to maintain.
 The fault tolerance of WANs are also generally low.

Layered Network Models: The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network,
be it a large-scale or a small-scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific
layers. Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models are
the
1. Open systems interconnection developed by the International Organization of
Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
2. Internet protocol suite.

1. OSI Model
The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked
communication device into seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks based
on the underlying technology and internal structure of the hosts. These seven layers, from
bottom-up, are as follows: 1) Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network layer, 4)
Transport layer, 5) Session layer, 6) Presentation layer, and 7) Application layer.
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Physical Layer:
 This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the OSI model. The physical layer is
responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical operations of the host at the actual
physical level. These operations include signal generation, signal transfer, Voltages the
layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances, and signal loss.
 This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh, bus, or ring),
communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and bit rate control operations.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a symbol.

Data Link Layer:

 This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model. The data link layer is mainly concerned
with the establishment and termination of the connection between two hosts, and the
detection and correction of errors.
 IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers Medium access control (MAC)
and
logical link control (LLC).
 MAC is responsible for access control and permissions for connecting networked devices
 whereas LLC is mainly tasked with error checking, flow control, and frame synchronization.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.

Network Layer:
 This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model. It provides a means of routing data
to various hosts connected to different networks through logical paths called virtual circuits.
 These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before reaching the
actual
destination host.
 The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing of packets, congestion
control, error handling, and Internetworking.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.
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Transport Layer:
 This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer. The transport layer is tasked with
end-to-end error recovery and flow control to achieve a transparent transfer of data
between hosts.
 This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-
length data transfer between hosts.
 Transport layer ensures that the particular erroneous data segment is re-sent to
the receiving host.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a segment or
datagram.

Session Layer:
 This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer. It is responsible for establishing,
controlling, and terminating of communication between networked hosts.
 The session layer sees full utilization during operations such as remote procedure calls and
remote sessions.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

Presentation Layer:
 This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model. It is mainly responsible for data
format conversions and encryption tasks.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

Application Layer:
 This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer. It is directly accessible by an end-user
through software APIs (application program interfaces) and terminals.
 Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and other such
operations are initiated from this layer.
 The application layer deals with user authentication, identification of communication hosts,
quality of service, and privacy.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

2. Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite is yet another conceptual framework that provides levels of
abstraction for ease of understanding and development of communication and networked
systems on the Internet. However, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and
provides only four levels of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport layer,
and 4) application layer. This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP
protocol suite as the foundation technologies of this suite are transmission control protocol
(TCP) and Internet protocol (IP).
The TCP/IP protocol suite comprises the following four layers:
Link Layer:
 The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the network
interface layer.
 It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
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 According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in use,
frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of
technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM).

Internet Layer:
 Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to the network layer of the
OSI model. It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
 Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol (ARP),
Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP).
 Traditionally, this layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6, enabling the
accommodation of a much number of addresses and security measures.

Transport Layer:
 Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally synonymous with the transport layer of
the OSI model.
 This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control, congestion control,
segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner.
 It is also independent of the underlying network. Transmission control protocol (TCP) and
user datagram protocol (UDP) are the core protocols upon which this layer is built
 it have the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services between two or
more hosts or networked devices.

Application Layer:
 This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers and defines the
protocols
for the transfer of data.
 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing information protocol (RIP), and
simple network management protocol (SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated
with this layer.
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Internet of things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain embedded
technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the external
environment.

The sequences of technical developments toward the emergence of IoT are

described in brief

1. ATM
 ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account.
 ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account
through a specially coded card.
 The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even
when banks were closed beyond their regular work hours.
 The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.

2. Web

 World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform.

 The Web became operational for the first time in 1991.
 It has been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing and
communication.

3. Smart Meters
 The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000.
 These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power grid.
 They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers power usage and eased the process of
billing and power allocation from grids.

4. Digital Locks
 Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-automation
systems.
 Digital locks are so robust that smartphones can be used to control them.
 Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new
members in the access lists, can be easily performed, and that too remotely using
smartphones.
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5. Connected Healthcare
 Healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of medical
emergencies and take preventive measures.
 The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse
of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals.
 These systems makes the availability of medical records and test results much faster,
cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.

6. Connected Vehicles
 Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or even with
sensors and actuators contained within it.
 These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.

7. Smart Cities
 This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation systems.
 The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables unified and
synchronized operations and information dissemination.
 Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking, transportation, and others.

8. Smart Dust
 These are microscopic computers, Smaller than a grain of sand each
 They can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate.
 Smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose problems in
the human body.

9. Smart Factories
 These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and
manage factory floors all on their own.
 The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is
drastically reduced.

10 UAVs
UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions tasked
with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock
maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.

The interdependence and reach of IoT over various application domains and
Networking paradigms
Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over IoT-based
platforms. Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms, along with modern
developments, makes IoT quite robust and economical for commercial, industrial, as well as
consumer applications. IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking,
smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart
roads, structural health, urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock
calculation, water leakages, radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter
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access control, snow level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air
pollution, smart grid, tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field
communications) payments, intelligent shopping applications, landslide and avalanche
prevention, early detection of earthquakes, supply chain control, smart product
management, and others.
various technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and networking
paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of people (IoP),
and Industry 4.0. Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but
the omnipresent nature of IoT implies that these domains act as subsets of IoT. The
paradigms are briefly discussed here

M2M

 The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected machines

and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention.
 The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status (stocks,
health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the
systems and the environment, and others.

CPS
 The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop—from
sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback mechanism.
 CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback control loop
 which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the system keeps on actuating and
sensing.
 Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level
operations are automated.

IoE

 The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-effects of
the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment.
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 The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming, sustainable
and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and processes,
and others.
 In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and affects the
environment falls under the purview of IoE.

Industry 4.0

 Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to

digitization in the manufacturing industry.
 The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and
the industrial revolution, respectively.
 This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories, where machines talk to
one another without much human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT.
 The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and
workforce management, optimization of production time and resources, and better
upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.

IoP

 IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize

online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining
confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
 A famous site for IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely
limited the power of banks and governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of
corporations, governments, and their spy agencies.

IoT Vs M2M
IOT M2M
In terms of operational and functional scope, IoT communications and interactions between
is vaster than M2M various machines and devices
comprises a broader range of interactions such as
These interactions can be enabled through
the interactions between devices/things, things,
a cloud computing infrastructure, a
and people, things and applications, and people
server, or simply a local network hub
with applications
Internet connectivity is central to the IoT theme M2M collects data from machinery and
sensors, while also enabling device
management and device interaction.
Not focused on the use of telecom networks Telecommunication services providers
introduced the term M2M, and
technically emphasized on machine
interactions via one or more
communication
networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite,
public networks)
Connectivity protocols are FTP,HTTP,IP etc.. M2M is part of the IoT and is considered
as one of its sub-domains
IoT Module 1

IoT Vs CPS
IOT CPS
In terms of operational and It encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback as
functional scope, IoT is vaster a complete package
than M2M
Digital Twin in not required
digital twin is attached to a CPS-based system
It focuses on networking, than
Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system
controls. can be easily given corrective directions/commands to
obtain desirable outputs.
Not focused on the use of it allows for the comparison of the physical system’s
telecom networks output, performance, and health
Connectivity protocols are
considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT,
FTP, HTTP, IP etc...

IoT Vs WoT
IOT WoT
Creating networks enables access and control over IoT resources and applications
comprising objects, things,
people, systems, and
applications
In terms of operational and
REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers
functional scope, IoT is
of WoT
vaster than WoT
It focuses on networking, RESTful principles and RESTful APIs application program
than controls. interface) enables both developers and deployers to benefit
from the recognition, acceptance, and maturity of existing web
technologies
Not focused on the use of
Its an application layer-based hat added over the network layer
telecom networks
Connectivity protocols are Using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP,
FTP, HTTP, IP etc... and others

Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both legacy

and modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm.
We can divide the IoT paradigm into four planes services, local connectivity, global
connectivity, and processing.
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Services
 The service plane is composed of two parts: 1) things or devices and 2) low-power
connectivity.
 the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and lowpower connectivity
 For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is mainly built
upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
 The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart glasses,
factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other
 The immediate low-power connectivity protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular. In
contrast, modern-day technologies are mainly wireless and often programmable such as
Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH, Insteon, and others

Local Connectivity
 It is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT deployments.
 Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep scheduling,
and others fall within the scope of this plane.
 The local connectivity plane falls under the purview of IoT management as it directly
deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things and applications The modern-
day “edge computing” paradigm is deployed in conjunction with first two planes:
services and local connectivity

Global Connectivity
 It enables IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity
between things, users, controllers, and applications.
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 it decides how and when to store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which
form to forward it.
The Web,
 data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others make up this plane
The paradigm of
 “fog computing” lies between the planes of local connectivity and global connectivity

Processing

 top-up of the basic IoT networking framework

 The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas such
as industries, transportation, healthcare, and others is the result of this plane
 The members in this plane may be termed as IoT tools, simply because they wring-out useful
and human-readable information.
 The various sub-domains of this plane include intelligence, conversion, learning cognition,
algorithms, visualization and analysis.

IoT Networking Components

An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with their
application domains.to establish any IoT network we need following six types of components
1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT WAN, 5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy

IoT Node:
 These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN.
 Each of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside it).
 The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a common
gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.
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IoT Router
 An IoT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily tasked with the routing of
packets between various entities in the IoT network
 it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network.
 A router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.

IoT LAN
 The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the purview of a single
gateway.
 Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity technologies.
 IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet
 Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization.

IoT WAN
 The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as LANs.
 They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational range
lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometres
 IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the segments they are
connecting.

IoT Gateway:
 An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
 Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
 Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer using
only layer 3.

IoT Proxy
 Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions between
IoT nodes and other entities.
 Typically, application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network entities
under it
 It helps to extend the addressing range of its network.

Various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as well as talk to
the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it. The devices have locally unique (LU-x)
device identifiers. These identifiers are unique only within a LAN.A router acts as a
connecting link between various LANs by forwarding messages from the LANs to the IoT
gateway or the IoT proxy. As the proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally
possible to include features such as firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures
besides the regular routing operations. Various gateways connect to an IoT WAN, which
links these devices to the Internet. This network may be wired or wireless however, IoT
deployments heavily rely on wireless solutions. Wireless technology is the only feasible and
neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles of laying wires and dealing with the restricted
mobility rising out of wired connections.