Work Study ❑ Rearrange elements into more logical sequence

- the systematic examination of the methods of ❑ Simplify remaining elements and operations
carrying out activities such as to improve the
effective use of resources and to set up standards Methods Design is concerned with either of the
of performance for the activities carried out. following situations:
A. Design of a new method or process
❑ Required for new product or service and there is
no existing standard
❑ Method must be designed from scratch, using
best existing practice for similar operations.
B. Redesign of an existing method or process
based on a previous methods analysis.

Productivity
• Productivity is an index that measures output
(goods and services) relative to the input (labor,
Method study materials, energy, and other resources) used to
- is the systematic recording and critical produce it.
examination of existing and proposed ways of • It is usually expressed as the ratio of output to
doing work, as a means of developing and input:
applying easier and more effective methods and
reducing costs.

Work Measurement
- is the application or techniques designed to • Productivity growth is the increase in
establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out productivity from one period to the next relative to
a specified job at a defined level or performance. the productivity in the preceding period.

Methods Study
- a systematic technique for the design and
improvement of work methods.
- It is the analysis and design of work methods and Productivity measures can be based on:
systems, including the tooling, equipment, ❑ Single Factor Productivity (SFP)
technologies, workplace layout, plant layout, and SFP = Units Produced / Labor or Machine or
work environment. Capital or Energy
❑ Multi – Factor Productivity (MFP)
Methods Analysis is concerned with the study of MFP = Units Produced / Any combination of Input
an existing method or process. Element
❑ Total Measure of Productivity (TMP)
Objectives:
TMP = Units Produced / All inputs or resources
❑ Eliminate unnecessary and non-value-adding used
workelements
❑ Combine elements and operations
Problem Solving Tools Check Sheet (Defect Concentration Diagram)
• The Seven Basic Tools of Quality is a
designation given to a fixed set of graphical
techniques identified as being most helpful in
troubleshooting issues related to quality.
• They are called basic because they are suitable
for people with little formal training in statistics and
because they can be used to solve the vast
majority of quality-related issues. 3. Control Charts
- also known as Shewhart charts (after Walter A.
Seven Basic Tools of Quality: Shewhart) or process-behavior charts, in statistical
1. Cause-and-effect diagram process control are tools used to determine if a
2. Check sheet manufacturing or business process is in a state of
3. Control chart statistical control.
4. Histogram
5. Pareto chart 4. Histogram
6. Scatter diagram • is the most commonly used graph to show
7. Flowchart frequency distributions.
• It looks very much like a bar chart, but there are
1. Ishikawa diagrams important differences between them.
• also called fishbone diagrams, herringbone • A histogram is a graphical representation of the
diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams, or distribution of numerical data.
Fishikawa) are causal diagrams created by Kaoru
Ishikawa that show the causes of a specific event. 5. Pareto Chart
• It is known as a fishbone diagram because of its • named after Vilfredo Pareto, is a type of chart
shape, similar to the side view of a fish skeleton. that contains both bars and a line graph, where
• This diagram is used to identify all of the individual values are represented in descending
contributing root causes likely to be causing a order by bars, and the cumulative total is
problem. represented by the line.
• Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are • The left vertical axis is the frequency of
product design and quality defect prevention to occurrence, but it can alternatively represent cost
identify potential factors causing an overall effect. or another important unit of measure.
Each cause or reason for imperfection is a source • The right vertical axis is the cumulative
of variation. percentage of the total number of occurrences,
total cost, or total of the particular unit of measure.
2. Check Sheet
• a form (document) used to collect data in real 6. Scatter Diagram
time at the location where the data is generated. - also called a scatter graph, scatter chart,
• It is also called defect concentration diagram. scattergram, or scatter plot) is a type of plot or
• The data it captures can be quantitative or mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates
qualitative. to display values for typically two variables for a
• When the information is quantitative, the check set of data.
sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet.
7. Flowchart The number of machines assigned depends on
• Flowchart is a diagram that uses graphic symbols whether n1 or n2 gives the lowest total expected
to depict the nature and flow of the steps in a cost per piece
process.
• Another name for this tool is "flow diagram." Random Servicing
- Machine servicing time is not on regular cycle
Worker and Machine Relationships and could be completely random
Worker-machine relationships can be of three - use probability theory (binomial expansion) to
types: estimate percentage of idle time.
1) Synchronous servicing
2) Completely random (asynchronous) servicing Probability of m (out of n) machines down:
3) Combination of both - ‘real-life’

Synchronous Servicing
- Case with a fixed machine cycle time in which the
worker loads/unloads the machine (both worker
and machine are utilized simultaneously) at regular Where:
intervals. Ideally, several machines can be p = probability of downtime
serviced (machine coupling). q = 1 – p, probability of runtime

Number of machine assignment: Total expected cost per unit:

Where:
N = number of machines the operator is assigned Where:
l = total operator loading and unloading (servicing) K1 = hourly rate of the operator
time per machine K2 = hourly rate of the machine
m = total machine running time (automatic power n = number of machines assigned
feed) R = rate of production, pieces from n machines per
hour
There are cost implications in the decision of
deploying machine coupling: Assembly-Line Balancing
• Its objective is to minimize the imbalance
between machines or personnel while meeting
required output from the line.
Where: • The line-balancing problem is one of assigning all
n1 = lower integer of N (round down) tasks to a series of workstations so that each
n2 = higher integer of N (round up) workstation has no more than can be done in the
K1 = Operator rate workstation cycle time, and so that the unassigned
K2 = Machine working time rate (idle) time across all workstations is minimized
The steps in balancing an assembly line are: Motion Study and Work Design
1. Draw the precedence diagram.
2. Determine the workstation cycle time. Motion Study
• the careful analysis of body motions employed in
doing a job.
• The purpose of motion study is to eliminate or
3. Calculate theoretical minimum number of
reduce ineffective movements and facilitate and
workstations.
speed effective movements.
• Through motion study, in conjunction with the
principles of motion economy, the job is
redesigned to be more effective and to produce a
higher rate of output.
4. Balance the line by assigning specific tasks to
workstations. Select a primary rule by which tasks
Work Design - design of the methods and motions
are to be assigned to workstations, and a
used to perform a task. It includes:
secondary rule to break ties. Assign tasks,
one at a time, to the first workstation until the sum ❑Workplace layout and environment
of the task times is equal to the workstation cycle ❑Tooling and equipment used in the task
time, or no other tasks are feasible because of
time or sequence restrictions. Repeat the process Basic Motions
for workstation 2, workstation 3, and so on until all - As part of motion analysis, the Gilbreths
tasks are assigned. concluded that all work, whether productive or
5. Measure the effectiveness of the balance by nonproductive, is done by using combinations of
using either of the two methods: 17 basic motions that they called therbligs
(Gilbreth spelled backward).

Therbligs
• Basic or elemental motions of the human body
• Term was coined by Frank Gilbreth
• 17 basic motion elements
Line-Balancing Heuristics: • Basic building blocks of virtually all manual work
performed at a single location.
Therbligs 6. Smooth continuous curved movements are to be
preferred to straight-line motion involving sudden
and sharp changes in direction.
7. Ballistic movement are faster, easier and more
accurate than restricted or controlled movements.
8. Work should be arranged to permit an easy and
natural rhythm wherever possible.
9. Eye fixations should be as few and as close as
possible.

B. As related to the Workplace Arrangement

1. There should be a definite and fixed place for all
tools and materials.
2. Tools, materials and controls should be located
Principles of Motion Economy close to the point of use.
• Principles concerning the economy of 3. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used
movements which have been developed from to deliver material close to the point of use.
direct experimentation and form a good basis for 4. Drop deliveries should be used wherever
the development of improved methods at the possible.
workplace. 5. Materials and tools should be located to permit
• Its objective is to maximize efficiency and the best sequence of motions.
minimize worker fatigue. 6. Provisions should be made for adequate
conditions for seeing.
Principles of Motion Economy 7. Good illumination is the first requirement for
- Classified as three main types: satisfactory visual perception.
A. Use of human body 8. The height of the workplace and the chair
B. Arrangement of the workplace should be preferably arranged so that alternate
C. Design of tools and equipment sitting and standing at work are easily possible.
9. A chair of the type and height to permit good
A. As related to the uses of the Human Body posture should be provided for every worker.
1. Two hands should begin and complete their
motions at the same time. C. As related to the Equipment Design
2. Two hands should not be idle at the same time 1. The hands should be relieved of all work that
except during rest periods. can be done more advantageously by a jig, a
3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite fixture, or a foot-operated device.
and symmetrical direction and should be made 2. Two or more tools should be combined
simultaneously. whenever possible.
4. Hand and body motions should be confined to 3. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned
the lowest classification with which it is possible to whenever possible.
perform the work satisfactorily. 4. Where each finger performs some specific
5. Momentum should be employed to assist the movement, such as in typewriting, the load should
worker wherever possible, and it should be be distributed in accordance with the inherent
reduced to a minimum if it must be overcome by capacities of the fingers.
muscular effort. 5. Levers, hand wheels, and other controls should
be located in such positions that the operator can  Qualified employee can be defined as a
manipulate them with the least change in body representative average of those employees who
position and with the greatest speed and ease. are fully trained and able satisfactorily to
perform any and all phases of the work
Work Measurement involved, in accordance with
• is concerned with determining the length of time it the requirements of the job under consideration.
should take to complete the job.  Standard pace can be defined as the effective
• application of techniques designed to establish rate of performance of a conscientious, self-
the standard time. paced, qualified employee when working neither
fast nor slow and giving due consideration to
Standard Time – amount of time that should be the physical, mental, or
allowed for a qualified and well-trained worker to visual requirements of the specific job.
process one work unit using standard method and
working at a normal pace. Stopwatch timing methods:
1) Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset
Time standards may be developed in four ways: to zero at the start of each work element.
1. Historical Experience 2) Continuous timing method – stopwatch is
2. Time study allowed to run continuously throughout the
3. Work sampling duration of the work cycle.
4. Predetermined Motion Time Systems
Observed Time - is the arithmetic mean of the
1. Historical Experience times for each element measured, adjusted for
• How the task was performed last time unusual influence for each element
• Easy and inexpensive
• Data available from production records or time
cards
• Data is not objective and may be inaccurate Normal Time - is the observed time adjusted for
• Not recommended worker performance

2. Time Study
• involves timing a sample of a worker’s
performance and Performance ratings are established for each
using it to set a standard. worker.
• involves the use of a timing device, study of the PR = 1.0 denotes worker performed at normal
existing work method, recording observed times, pace
rating the subject’s performance compared with PR < 1.0 denotes worker performed at a slower
normal pace, and adding allowances. pace
PR > 1.0 denotes worker performed at a faster
Time Study pace
 Fair day’s work can be defined as the amount
of work that can be produced by a qualified Standard Time – the adjustment to the total
employee when working at a standard pace and normal time provides for allowances such as
effectively utilizing her or his time where work is personal needs, unavoidable work delays , and
not restricted by process limitations. worker fatigue.
 (1) the variability of the observed times,
• Formula 1 (job time): ST = (NT)(1 + AF) (2) the desired accuracy,
• Formula 2 (workday): ST = NT/ (1 – AF) (3) the desired level of confidence for the
estimated job time.
where:
ST = standard time Very often the desired accuracy is expressed as a
NT = normal time percentage of the mean of the observed times.
AF = allowance factor

Formula 1 is most often used in practice which

assumes that allowances are added to normal
time.

• If presumes that allowances should be applied to

the total work period, then Formula 2 is the correct
one.

PFD Allowances Another alternate formula used when desired

• Personal time – rest room breaks, phone calls, accuracy is stated as an amount (e.g. within one
water fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5% typical). minute of the true mean) instead of a percentage
• Fatigue – rest allowance to overcome fatigue is:
due to work – related stresses and conditions (5%
or more)
• Delays – machine breakdowns, foreman
instructions (5% typical)

Recommended Number of Observation Cycles

Typical values of z, cumulative probabilities of the
Standard

Normal Distribution used in this computation

are:

Determination of Sample Size – Statistical

Method:
The number of cycles that must be timed is a
function of three things:
Work Sampling repetitive basis; the time required to perform a task
• It is a statistical technique for determining the decreases with increasing repetitions.
proportions of time spent by subjects in various
defined categories of activity. The Concept of Learning Curve
• Subjects can be workers or machines.
• Random observations are used to record
subject’s activity.
• The only technique available for measuring and
evaluating non-repetitive jobs.

Determination of Sample Size:

Learning Curve Formula

- The formula is based on the existence of a linear
relationship between the time per unit and the
number of units produced when these two
variables are expressed in logarithms. The unit
time (i.e., the number of direct labor hours
required) for the nth unit can be calculated using
the formula:
- It also results to standard time per piece:

Predetermined Motion Time Systems (PMTS)

• divide manual work into small basic elements that
already have established times (based on very Ergonomics
large samples of workers). • derived from the Greek words ergos (work) and
• are an outgrowth of basic motions called therbligs nomos (laws).
• The most common predetermined time standard • the science of fitting the task or workplace to the
is methods time measurement (MTM) abilities and limitations of the human operator.
• Therbligs are stated in terms of time • Ergonomists contribute to the design and
measurement units (TMUs) , which are equal to evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments
only .00001 hour, or .0006 minute and systems in order to make them compatible
each. with the needs, abilities and limitations of people.

Learning Curve Physical Ergonomics - It appropriates work

- displays the phenomenon that human posture, safe load lifting and carrying techniques
performance of activities typically shows and adapts proper techniques in manual material
improvement when the activities are done on a handling.
 Basal Metabolism Rate (BMR)
• Cognitive Ergonomics - Concerned with the Hourly Basal Metabolism Rates (BMRh):
capabilities of the human brain and sensory • For a 20-year-old male, BMRh/kg = 1.0 kcal/hr
system while performing information processing per kg of body weight
activities. • For a 20-year-old-female, BMRh/kg = 0.9 kcal/hr
• Organizational ergonomics - concerned with per kg of body weight
the optimization of sociotechnical systems,
including their organizational structures, As a person ages his or her basal metabolism
policies, and processes. rates declines slowly, so the age correction is
simply subtract 2% from the preceding values for
Metabolism each decade above 20 years (we ignore people
- Sum of biochemical reactions that occur in the significantly younger than 20 because they are not
cells of living organisms. in the workforce)

Functions: Daily Digestive Metabolism

1. Provide energy for vital processes and activities The daily rate of digestive metabolism is estimated
including muscle contraction to about 10% of the combined rate of the basal
2. Assimilate new organic material into the body and activity metabolism.

Types of Metabolism: DMRd = 0.1(BMRd + AMRd)

• Basal Metabolism – energy used only to sustain
vital circulatory and respiratory functions. Where:
• Activity Metabolism – energy associated with DMRd = daily digestive metabolism rate
physical activity BMRd = daily basal metabolism rate
• Digestive Metabolism – energy used for AMRd = daily activity metabolism rate
digestion
Energy Expenditure
Daily Metabolic rates:
TMRd = BMRd + AMRd + DMRd Recommended Energy Expenditure

Energy Expenditure Rate

The energy expenditure rates are assumed to be
for a person who weighs 72 kg (160 lb).

If a person’s weight differs from 72 kg (160 lb),

then an adjustment should be made by ER value
Time-Weighted Average Energy Expenditure:
by the ratio:

- W/72 if the weight given is in kg

- W/160 if the weight is given in lb

where W = the person’s body weight

Rest Period VM, the "Vertical Multiplier" factor,
- If the overall workload is exceedingly high (i.e., DM, the "Distance Multiplier" factor,
exceeds the recommended limits), aerobic FM, the "Frequency Multiplier" factor,
metabolism may not be sufficient to provide all the AM, the "Asymmetric Multiplier“ factor, and
energy requirements, and the worker may rely on CM, the "Coupling Multiplier" factor.
greater amounts of anaerobic metabolism,
resulting in fatigue and the buildup of lactic acid. NIOSH also devised a lifting index (LI) to provide
- Sufficient recovery must then be provided to a simple estimate of the hazard level of lifting a
allow the body to recover from fatigue and recycle given load, with values exceeding 1.0 deemed to
the lactic acid. be hazardous.
- One guideline for rest allocation was developed
by Murrell:

Work Environment Design

Illumination
NIOSH Lifting Guidelines - The basic theory of illumination applies to a point
Recognizing and attempting to control the growing source of light of a given luminous intensity.
problem of work-related back injuries, the National - Light emanates spherically in all directions from
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health the source with 1candela (cd) sources emitting
(NIOSH) issued what is commonly referred to as 12.57 lumens (lm) (as determined from the surface
the NIOSH lifting guidelines. area of a sphere).
- The amount of light striking a surface, or a
Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) section of this sphere, is termed illumination or
illuminance and is measured in foot-candles (fc).
⁻ based on the concept of an optimum weight, with
adjustments for various factors related to task
variables. The amount of illumination striking a surface drops
⁻ Once the RWL is exceeded, musculoskeletal off as the square of the distance (d) in feet from
injury incidences and severity rates increase the source to the surface:
considerably.
⁻ The formulation for RWL is based on a maximum
load that can be handled in an optimum posture.
⁻ As the posture deviates from the optimum,
Luminance
adjustments for various task factors, in the form of
⁻ Some of that light is absorbed and some of it is
multipliers, decrease the acceptable load.
reflected.
⁻ The amount reflected is termed as luminance and
Recommended Weight Limit (RWL)
is measured in foot-lamberts (fL).
RWL = LC x HM x VM x DM x FM x AM x CM

Where:
LC is the load constant, 51 lb (23 kg)
HM, the "Horizontal Multiplier" factor,
⁻ It is determined by the reflective properties of the
surface known as reflectance:

Reflectance Light Source and Distribution

- is a unitless proportion and ranges from 0 to 100 Two important parameters related to artificial
percent. lighting:
- High quality white paper has a reflectance of 1. Efficiency – light output per unit energy (lm / w
about 90 percent, newsprint and concrete around or lumens per watt)
55 percent, cardboard 30 percent, and matte black 2. Color rendering – relates to the closeness with
paint 5 percent. which the perceived colors of the object observed
- Reflectance is usually calculated as the ratio match the perceived colors of the same object
between the luminance of the target surface and when illuminated by standard light sources.
the luminance of a standard surface of known
reflectance placed at the same position on the Glare – the excessive brightness in the field of
target surface vision.

Direct glare can be reduced by:

1. Using more luminaires with lower intensities
Visibility 2. Using baffles or diffusers on luminaires
- refers to the clarity with which the human sees 3. Placing the work surface perpendicular to the
something. light source
- has 3 critical factors: visual angle, contrast, and 4. Increasing overall background lighting to
illuminance. decrease the contrast

• Visual Angle Reflected glare can be reduced by:

- the angle subtended at the eye by the target 1. Using non-glossy or matte surfaces
- is usually defined in arc minutes (1/60 of a 2. Reorienting the work surface or task in addition
degree) for small targets by to modifications for direct glare

Color – visual effect caused by the eye’s ability to

react differently to different wavelengths of light.

Color is used to:

1. Reduce sharp contrasts
Contrast 2. Increase reflectance
- the difference in luminance between a visual 3. Highlight hazards
target and its background 4. Call attention to features
 Noise Dose
Noise
– OSHA uses the concept of noise dose, with the
⁻ Sound waves are produced from the vibration of
exposure to any sound level above 80 dBA
some object or when matter is disturbed.
causing the listener to incur a partial
⁻ The velocity of sound waves in air is
dose.
approximately 1,100 ft/s (340m/s).
- If the total daily exposure consists of several
⁻ Sound can be defined in terms of the frequencies partial exposures to different noise levels, then the
that determine its tone and quality, along with the several partial doses are added to obtain a
amplitudes that determine its intensity. combined exposure:
⁻ The level of frequency that is audible to the
human ear is 20 to 20,000 cycles per second or
hertz (Hz)
⁻ The fundamental equation of wave propagation is

Permissible Noise Exposures

Decibel Scale (dB) – the logarithmic ratio of the

actual sound intensity at the threshold of hearing of
a young person.

The sound pressure level L in decibels is given by

A computational formula can be used for

intermediate noise levels:
Work Environment Design
Since sound pressure levels are logarithmic
quantities, the effect of the coexistence of two or
more sound sources in one location requires that a
logarithmic addition be performed as follows:

The noise dose can also be converted to an 8-h

time-weighted average (TWA) sound level. This is
the sound level that would produce a given noise
dose if a worker were exposed to that sound
level continuously over an 8-h workday. Where:
• NWB = natural wet-bulb temperature (measure of
evaporative cooling, using a thermometer with a
wet wick and natural air movement)
• GT = globe temperature (measure of radiative
If earplug is considered or used, its effectiveness is load, using a thermometer in a 6-in-diameter black
measured quantitatively by a noise reduction rating copper sphere)
(NRR). Thus, the equivalent noise exposure for the • DB = Dry-bulb temperature (basic ambient
listener is equal to temperature; thermometer shielded from radiation)

Vibration
- Vibration is the rapid to-and-fro motion of the
particles of an elastic body or medium that
produces sound.
- Frequency, amplitude, velocity and acceleration
are the parameters of vibration.

3 Classifications of vibration:
1. Whole or a major portion of body is affected
2. Vibrations are transmitted through a supporting
area
3. Vibrations are applied to a localized body area

The most commonly used index in industry today

establishes heat exposure limits and work/rest
cycles based on the wet-bulb globe temperature,
or WBGT:

For outdoors with solar panels

WBGT = 0.7 NWB + 0.2GT + 0.1DB

For indoors or outdoors with no solar panels

WBGT = 0.7NWB + 0.3GT