1.

1 Functions and Relations (Part 1)

(MAT 049-PreCalculus)

NESTOR G. ACALA, PhD

Mathematics Department
Mindanao State University Main Campus
Marawi City
[email protected]
Topic Outline
Topic Outline

• relations
Topic Outline

• relations
• functions
Topic Outline

• relations
• functions
• domain and image of a relation (function)
Topic Outline

• relations
• functions
• domain and image of a relation (function)
• algebra of functions
Functions and Relations
 Functions and Relations

A relation r between two sets A and B is any subset of the Cartesian

product A × B, where

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B }.

• domain of r : Dr = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ r }
• image of r : Ir = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ r }.

If Dr = A, then r is a relation from A to B. The set B is called the range of

r.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}. Then

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, c )}.

Let
r1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)} and r2 = {(1, b), (2, b)}.
Clearly, r1 , r2 ⊆ A × B. Moreover,
• r1 is a relation from A to B since Dr1 = {1, 2, 3} = A.
• The image of r1 is Ir1 = {a, b}.
• r2 is a relation between A and B
with Dr2 = {1, 2}, and Ir2 = {b}.
Remark
A relation can be thought of as a machine where the elements in the domain are
the inputs used to generate outputs.
For instance, the relation

r1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)}

can be thought of as a machine in which the inputs are any of the numbers 1, 2,
3. The machine has a rule that if the input is odd, the output is a and if the
input is even, the output is b.
Remark
A relation can also be described as a mapping that assigns elements of A to
elements of B. The figure below indicates relation r1 from A to B.
Remark
If A and B are subsets of R, then the relation can be described using equations
or inequalities, and can be represented as graphs in the Cartesian plane.
Example: Consider the relation s = {(x , y ) : x 2 + y 2 = 4}. Some elements
of the relations are given in the table below.
√ √
x −2 0 2 −√2 √2
y 0 ±2 0 ± 2 ± 2
 y
(0, 2)
-
•2 s : x2 + y2 = 4
√ √ √ √
(− 2, 2) • - √2 • ( 2, 2)

-1 Ds = {x ∈ R : −2 ≤ x ≤ 2}
Is = {y ∈ R : −2 ≤ y ≤ 2}
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
• √
−2 − 2−1 1
√
•
2
x
2

- −1
√ √ √ √
(− 2, − 2) • - −√2 • ( 2, − 2)

(0, −2)
- −2
•
Remark
If a relation r is given in equation or inequality in terms of x and y , then

• To find the domain, solve for y in terms of x and restrict x so that y takes only
real values.

• To find the image, solve for x in terms of y and restrict y so that x takes only
real values.
  
1
Example: Given relation t = (x , y ) : y = . Find Dt and It .
x −1

Solution: Note that y is already in terms of x and is defined for all real numbers
except when x = 1 (i.e. when the denominator is zero). Thus,

Dt = R\{1}.
 To determine the image of t, we express x in terms of y :
1
y= =⇒ y (x − 1) = 1
x −1
=⇒ xy − y = 1
=⇒ xy = y + 1
y +1
=⇒ x = .
y
Hence, x is defined for all real numbers except when y = 0. Thus,

It = R\{0}.
 Example: Let w = {(x , y ) : x + y 2 = 4}. Find the domain and image of w .

Solution: Solving for y in terms of x,

x + y 2 = 4 =⇒ y 2 = 4 − x
√
=⇒ y = ± 4 − x .

Note that y is a real number as long as the radicand is nonnegative, that is

4 − x ≥ 0 or x ≤ 4. Hence,

Dw = {x ∈ R : x ≤ 4} = (−∞, 4].
Solving for x in terms of y :

x + y 2 = 4 =⇒ x = 4 − y 2 .

Clearly, x is a real number for any value of y , that is y can assume any real
value. Since there is no restriction on y , we have

Iw = R.
 Functions

A function f from A to B, denoted by f : A −→ B, is a relation in which

each element x in A is paired with exactly one element, denoted by f (x ) in
B. In this case, A is called the domain of f , denoted by Df and B is called
the range of f , denoted by Rf . The symbol f (x ) is read as "f of x" and
called the value of f at x.
Remark
If f is a function and (x , y ) ∈ f , then

y = f (x ),

and we say that y is the image of x under f or x is a pre-image of y under f .

Example
Consider f = {(x , y ) : y = x 2 .}. Then

(x , y ) ∈ f =⇒ y = f (x ) = x 2 .

Note that f (2) = 4 and f (−2) = 4, that is (2, 4), (−2, 4) ∈ f . Thus, we say 4 is
the image of 2 and −2 under f or we can also say that −2 and 2 are pre-images
of 4 under f .
Remark
• In a function, no two ordered pairs have the same first component.

• Graphically, each vertical line must intersect the graph of a function at most
once. This is called the vertical line test.

• If the range of a function f is R then f is said to be a real-valued function.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}. Which of the following relations
are functions from A to B?

r1 = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)}

r2 = {(1, b), (2, b)}
r3 = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, a), (3, b)}

• r1 is a function from A to B.
• r2 is not a function from A to B since Dr2 6= A. However, if C = {1, 2},
then r2 is as a function from C to B.
• r3 is not a function since the element 2 in the domain A is paired to more
than one element.
Example: The relation s : x 2 + y 2 =√4 in√the previous√example
√ is not a
function because the ordered pairs (− 2, √ 2) and (− 2, − 2) have the
same first component, that is the element − 2 in the domain has more than
one image.
Illustration:
Example: Consider g = {(x , y ) : x = y 2 − 4} whose graph is shown below.
Notice that (−3, 1), (−3, −1) are distinct elements of g which have the
same first components. Thus, g is not a function. This can be justified
further by the vertical line test.

y
x = −3
vertical line -2 x = y2 − 4
• (−3, 1) -1
(−4, 0)
•
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
1
x
• (−3, −1) - −1
- −2
Remark
f : A → B is a function iff given (x , y1 ), (x , y2 ) ∈ f implies y1 = y2 .

Example: Consider f = {(x , y ) : x ∈ R\{0}, y ∈ R, x 2 y − 4 = 0}. Show f

is a function.

Proof: Let (x , y1 ), (x , y2 ) ∈ f , we need to show y1 = y2 . Now,

4
(x , y1 ) ∈ f =⇒ x 2 y1 − 4 = 0 =⇒ y1 = x2 , and also
4
(x , y2 ) ∈ f =⇒ x 2 y2 − 4 = 0 =⇒ y2 = x2 .
4
Thus, y1 = x2 = y2 . Hence, f is a function.
 Algebra of Functions

Let f and g be functions from A → B. The functions f and g are said to be

equal, denoted by f = g , if f (x ) = g (x ) for all x ∈ A. Otherwise, we say f
is not equal to g , and we write f 6= g .
Example: Let f , h and g be functions from R to R defined by
p
f (x ) = (x − 1)2 , h(x ) = x − 1, g (x ) = |x − 1|.
p
• Clearly, f (x ) = (x − 1)2 = |x − 1| = g (x ) for all x ∈ R.
Hence we have f = g .

• Note that f (−3) = 4 and h(−3) = −4. Thus, f 6= h.

 Example: Let f and h be functions defined by
(x − 1)(x + 2)
f (x ) =
x −1
h(x ) = x + 2.

Are f and h equal?

Solution: Since Df = R\{1} while Dh = R, we have f 6= h. In fact, h(1) = 3

while f (1) is undefined. However, for all x ∈ E = R\{1}, f (x ) = h(x ). Hence,
we can strict the domain of h to E so that f = h.
Let f and g be real-valued functions. We define the sum f + g , difference
f − g , the product fg , and the quotient gf as follows:

(f + g )(x ) = f (x ) + g (x )
(f − g )(x ) = f (x ) − g (x )
(fg )(x ) = f (x )g (x )
f f (x )
(x ) = , g (x ) 6= 0.
g g (x )
Remark
In the previous definitions, x must be chosen such that both f (x ) and g (x ) are
defined. Thus,

Df +g = Df −g = Dfg = Df ∩ Dg
D f = (Df ∩ Dg ) − {x : g (x ) = 0}
g
 2 1
Example: Given f (x ) = and g (x ) = , find f + g , f − g , fg
x +1 x −1
f
and g and determine the domain of each function.

Solution: Since f is not defined at x = −1 and g is not defined at x = 1, we

have
Df = R\{−1} and Dg = R\{1}.
Thus,
Df +g = Df −g = Dfg = Df ∩ Dg = R\{−1, 1}.
 2 1
(f + g )(x ) = f (x ) + g (x ) = +
x +1 x −1

2(x − 1) + 1(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)

2x − 2 + x + 1 3x − 1
= = .
(x + 1)(x − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1)
Hence,
3x − 1
(f + g )(x ) = , ∀x ∈ R\{−1, 1}.
(x + 1)(x − 1)
 2 1
(f − g )(x ) = f (x ) − g (x ) = −
x +1 x −1

2(x − 1) − 1(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)

2x − 2 − x − 1 x −3
= = .
(x + 1)(x − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1)
Thus,
x −3
(f − g )(x ) = , ∀x ∈ R\{−1, 1}.
(x + 1)(x − 1)
 2 1 2
(fg )(x ) = f (x ) · g (x ) = · = .
x +1 x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
Thus,
2
(fg )(x ) = , ∀x ∈ R\{−1, 1}.
(x + 1)(x − 1)
 2
f f (x ) 2 2(x − 1)
(x ) = = x +1 = ·x −1= .
g g (x ) 1 x +1 x +1
x −1
f
For the domain of ,
g

D f = (Df ∩ Dg ) − {x : g (x ) = 0}
g

= R\{−1, 1} − {x : g (x ) = 0}
= R\{−1, 1} − {1} = R\{−1, 1}.
Thus,
f 2(x − 1)
(x ) = , ∀x ∈ R\{−1, 1}.
g x +1
 √
Example: Let f (x ) = x + 3 and g (x ) = x 3 . Find 2f − g + 5 and
fg − f + g , and determine their domains.

Solution:
√
(2f − g + 5)(x ) = 2f (x ) − g (x ) + 5 = 2 x + 3 − x 3 + 5,
√ √
(fg − f + g )(x ) = (fg )(x ) − f (x ) + g (x ) = x 3 x + 3 − x + 3 + x 3 .

The function g assumes real values for any x ∈ R. Thus Dg = R. However, the
function f assumes real values only when the radicand x + 3 is nonnegative, that
is x + 3 ≥ 0 or x ≥ −3. Hence, Df = [−3, ∞).
 √
Example: Let f (x ) = x + 3 and g (x ) = x 3 . Find 2f − g + 5 and
fg − f + g , and determine their domains.

Solution:
√
(2f − g + 5)(x ) = 2f (x ) − g (x ) + 5 = 2 x + 3 − x 3 + 5,
√ √
(fg − f + g )(x ) = (fg )(x ) − f (x ) + g (x ) = x 3 x + 3 − x + 3 + x 3 .

The function g assumes real values for any x ∈ R. Thus Dg = R. However, the
function f assumes real values only when the radicand x + 3 is nonnegative, that
is x + 3 ≥ 0 or x ≥ −3. Hence, Df = [−3, ∞).
Therefore, the domain of the functions 2f − g + 5 and fg − f + g is just the
intersection of Df and Dg . That is,

D2f −g +5 = Dfg −f +g = Df ∩ Dg = [−3, ∞) ∩ R = [−3, ∞).