Course Name: A Bridge Course on Fundamentals of Electronics

A Bridge course aims to cover the gap between the understanding level of the high school courses and
higher educational courses. Bridge course is preparative course for college level course with an academic
curriculum that is offered to enhance the knowledge of the students by means of preparing for the
intellectual challenges of Science and engineering subject and to know basic information about core
subject.

Bridge courses are the tool to help students to success in their graduate level studies. It is also a pre
requisite and foundational course to know the basic information about science subjects.

Objective

The bridge course aims to act as a buffer for the new entrants with an objective to provide adequate time
for the transition to hard core of higher courses. This gives them a breather, to prepare themselves
before the onset of courses for first year degree programme. During this interaction of with the faculty
and their classmates the students will be equipped with the knowledge and the confidence needed to
take on bigger challenges in future.

Syllabus for Bridge Course: Electronics

Module I: Introduction to Electronics - Definition, applications, scope, development of electronic devices

starting from vacuum tubes to microprocessors and microcontrollers.

Measuring instruments – block diagram. 06 hrs

Module II: Signals - Definition, types, mathematical representation, graphical representation, frequency
spectrum representation. Examples – impulse, step, triangular, saw tooth, sinusoidal, square. 06 hrs

Module III: Fundamentals of electrical networks – electric network, types of networks, network
components, symbols. Ohm’s law, resistance, series and parallel connection of resistors – examples.

10 hrs
 Module I

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

The definition of electronics technically says “Electronics is an engineering

branch that concerns with the flow of current through semiconductor, gas or
any form of matter.

Electronics can also be defined as the profession of applying scientific principles

to the design, development & fabrication, repair & maintenance of electrical or
electronic machines, instruments and communication systems.

Electronics is an applied form of science that deals with electrons. It handles

electric circuits containing active elements, passive elements and other
underlying techniques making it as an important part of engineering. The world
is growing at a fast rate and it is relevant for the technology enthusiast to
upgrade with latest changes happening in the society.

Need of Electronics

We are living in an electronic era where machine robots are capable to do

human work with more ease and high efficiency. Capsules and tablets contain
wireless sensors that collect information from the body to diagnose. Transparent
smartphones will exist in the coming days, we can see through them and they
may lead to the use of windows or mirrors in our home to be used as PC screens
and TV monitors. Sensors are placed on the plants to detect the shortage of
water and alert the farmers.

Not only above applications, there are numerous electronic applications that
change our daily lives in the nearby future.

Applications of Electronics
Consumer Electronics
This industry is most applicable to the common people. Consumer Electronics
are devices and equipment meant for everyday use. This is again categorized as:

Office Gadgets such as calculators, Personal computers, Scanners and Printers,

FAX machine, Front Projector etc.

Home appliances such as Washing Machine, Refrigerator, Air Conditioner,

Microwave Oven, Vacuum Cleaner etc.

Audio and Video Systems such as Headphone, VCRs, DVD players, Colour TVs,
Microphone and Loudspeaker, Video game consoles.

Advanced Consumer Devices such as Setup Box, ATM, Dishwasher, Smart

Phones, PDA (personal digital assistant), Barcode Scanners, POS terminals.
Storage Devices for optical playback and taping, and portable infotainment.
Examples are DVDs, HDD jukebox, Portable MP3 player.

Industrial Electronics
This industry is powerful in making real-time automation. This include:

Industrial automation and motion control, Machine learning, motor drive

control, Mechatronics and robotics, Power converting technologies, Photo voltaic
systems, Renewable energy applications, Power electronics, and Biomechanics.

Industrial automation and motion control

Machines are replacing humans these days with increased productivity, time
and cost. Moreover, safety is also considered for unmanageable works. Hence to
delegate the human’s, automation has become the preferable choice for
industries.

Image processing
3D world has been evolved from a single or multiple 2D images. Various
algorithms are developed to extract 3D information from 2D patterns.

Moreover, image processing has involved in computer graphics, Artificial

intelligence, Robotics for navigation, Inspection and Assembly, Computer Vision
for Face and gesture recognition, Virtual reality, medical analysis.

Medical applications

Advanced sophisticated instruments are being developed for data recording and
physiological analysis. They are proven to be more useful in diagnosing diseases
and for healing purpose.

Some of the medical devices and equipment used are:

 Stethoscope to listen inner sounds happening inside the human or

animal body
 Respiration Monitors for knowing the patient condition due to change
in body temperature, pulse, respiration and blood flow.
 Defibrillator causes electrical shock to heart muscles and brings
backs the heart to the normal working condition.
 Glucose meter for measuring sugar levels in the blood.
 Pace Maker for reducing and increasing the count of the heart beat.
Defence and Aerospace
Defence and Aeronautical applications include:

Missile Launching systems

Rocket Launchers for space

Aircraft systems
Cockpit controllers
Military Radars
Boom barrier for military applications

Automotive (Automobiles)
 Anti-collision unit
 Infotainment console
 Anti-lock braking system
 Cruise control
 Traction control
 Window regulators
 Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
 Airbag control

SCOPE OF ELECTRONICS
Some of the present and emerging technologies are

 Wireless communication
 Internet telephony
 Satellite communication
 Nanotechnology
 Teleconferencing
 Embedded systems
 Advanced Optical Networks
 Brain Computer Interface
 GPRS, GPS
 Remote sensing
 RADAR
 OFC
 3G,4G and 5G
 CDMA
 Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GSM
 Microprocessors, Microcontrollers and many more
Some of Government sector Electronics Labs/Divisions and companies

 CSIR, CSIO
 DRDO
 BSNL
  BEL, BHEL
 CDAC
 Doordarshan
 ISRO
 IIT’s
Some of Private sector Electronics companies

 Panasonic, Sony, Samsung, Phillips, Toshiba, SANSUI, Videocon, Onida,

Haier, LG, Hitachi, WIPRO etc…
The history of electronics can be summarized as:

 1890: Hertz performed experiment on generation of electromagnetic waves.

 1894: Sir J. C. Bose discovered the propagation of radio waves.
 1895: H. A. Lorentz postulated the existence of electron.
 1897: J. J. Thomson experimentally verified the existence of electron.
 1897: Braun invented first electron tube.
 1904: Fleming invented diode.
 1906: De Forest invented triode.
 1912: Application of radio and birth of Institute of Radio Engineers at USA.
 1930: Monochrome Television invented.
 1950: Colour TV came to existence.
 1963: IEEE introduced.
 1948: Brattain, Bardeen invented point contact transistor.
 1948: Shockley discovered junction transistor.
 1951: Commercial production of transistor.
 1958: Kilby (Texas Instruments, USA) gave idea of monolithic.
 1961: Fairchild and Texas Instruments commercially produced Integrated Circuits(IC).
 1960: Small Scale Integration (SSI) (<100 components per chip).
 1966: Medium Scale Integration (MSI) (>100 and <1000 components per chip).
 1969: Large Scale Integration (LSI) (>1000 and <10000 components per chip).
 1975: Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) (>10000 components per chip).

INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

Definition of instruments
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity to be
measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc. Generally
instruments are classified in to two categories.
1. AbsoluteInstrument 2. SecondaryInstrument

Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of the
instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the measuring
quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically which
is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use. Example:
Tangentgalvanometer.
Secondary instrument
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically secondary
instruments are suitable for measurement.
Secondary instruments
Indicating instruments, Recording, Integrating, Electromechanically Indicating instruments
 Indicatinginstrument
This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
Recordinginstrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over a
specified period of time.
Integratinginstrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MEASURING INSTRUEMENT

The elements of the measurement system are listed below,
 Input variables
 Primary sensing element
 Variable conversion element
 Variable manipulation element
 Data transmission element
 Data processing element
 Data presentation element
 Observer
Input variables
Input variables may be any unknown variable. Without any input variables, the final result can not
be achieved by the system.
Inputs should be in a certain amount of measured quantity.

Primary sensing element

The first element of the measurement system is the primary sensing element. The main function
of the primary sensing element is to sense the input variable and gives the output according to
the measurand.
This output will be the input of the next element. So this output is converted analogous electrical
signal. This is achieved by using transducers.
Variable conversion element
It receives the output of the primary sensing element as input. As the name indicates, the
conversion of the variable from one form to another form takes place. The conversion process is
done without altering any data contained in the input.
 The requirement of this element depends upon the measuring instruments, some may need and
some may not because they are converted into a required form in the previous element (primary
sensing element).
Variable manipulation element
This element manipulates the input variable.
As per required magnification, the variables are manipulated by manipulation otherwise called as
amplification. This is done for the required output from the input variable.
The manipulation process does not depend upon the variable conversion element, so the
manipulation of variables can proceed directly without any conversion element in some cases.
Data transmission element
Transmission of data or information from one element to another element takes place in this data
transmission element. Data transmission is the main function of this element.
Data transmission elements such as data cables, transmitters, and receivers, transmission shafts,
etc are used to transmit the data from one element to another element.
Data processing element
Data is modified and processed before the final result comes. The data processing element
modifies the data for some reasons like,
1. Modification for final output form,
2. Modification for some final calculations,
3. Modification for errors in the instruments such as positive error, negative error, zero error,
temperature error, etc.
For the following reasons, the data processing element is used in all measurement systems.
Data presentation element
Finally, data is present to the observer via the data presentation element. The presentation
element is such as to monitor, recorders, needle pointers, LCD and LED display, alarms, indicators
like the analog indicator and digital indicator, etc. Without data presentation element, data
cannot be delivered to the observer.

CONCLUSION
Electronics is having a great scope and without electronic gadgets, our daily lives
cannot happen. Technology is advancing quickly in the field of semiconductors and
upgraded electronic applications will shape the world.

Module II

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS :
Anything that carries information can be called a signal. Signals constitute an important part of our
daily life. A Signal is defined as a single- valued function of one or more independent variables which
contain some information. A signal may also be defined as any physical quantity that varies with time,
space or any other independent variable. A signal may be represented in time domain or frequency
domain. Human speech is a familiar example of a signal. Electric current and voltage are also
examples of signals. A signal can be a function of one or more independent variables. A signal can be
a function of time, temperature, position, pressure, distance etc. If a signal depends on only one
independent variable, it is called a one-dimensional signal, and if a signal depends on two independent
variable, it is called a two-dimensional signal.
REPRESENTATION OF DISCRETE TIME SAIGNALS
Discrete-time signals are signals which are defined only at discrete instants of time. For those signals,
the amplitude between the two time instants is just not defined. For discrete time signal the
independent variable is time n, and it is represented by x(n).
There are following four ways of representing discrete-time signals:
1. Graphical representation
2. Functional representation
3. Tabular representation
4. Sequence representation
 Module III

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric networks. In this
introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the types of
network elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −
Electric Circuit
Electric Network

Current

Voltage

Power

So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further.
Let’s start with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage source or
current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks" but
the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as
I=dQ/dt
Where,
Q is the charge and its unit is Coulomb.
t is the time and its unit is second.

As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is
measured in terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to
positive terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative
terminal.

Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is
obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to flow.
Mathematically, it can be written as
V = W/Q
Where,
 W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.

 Q is the charge and its unit is Coulomb.

As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow
through a pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can be
written as

P = dw/dt
Where,

 W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule. 

 t is the time and it is measured in seconds. We can re-write the above equation a 
P = VI

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
 Active Elements and Passive Elements

 Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements

 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements

 Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements

Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of delivering
power.
 Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the
capability of both delivering and absorbing power.

Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.

 Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb power.
That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.

Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to obey the
property of linearity.
 Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and current.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
 Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and current.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.

Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements

Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction of
current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same
impedance in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.

Resistors:
Flow of electric current through a conductor experiences a certain amount of
resistance. The resistance, expressed in ohms (, named after George ohm),
kilo-ohms (k, 1000), or mega-ohms (M, 106) is a measure of how much a
resistor resists the flow of electricity. The magnitude of resistance is dictated by
electric properties of the material and material geometry. This behaviour of
materials is often used to control/limit electric current flow in circuits.
Henceforth, the conductors that exhibit the property of resisting current flow
are called resistors.
A resistor is a dissipative element. It converts electrical energy into heat energy.
When electrons enter at one end of a resistor, some of the electrons collide with
atoms within the resistor. These atoms start vibrating and transfer their energy
to neighbouring air molecules. In this way, a resistor dissipates electrical energy
into heat energy.

Resistors are used for:

– Limiting current in electric circuits.
– Lowering voltage levels in electric circuits (using voltage divider).
– As current provider.
– As a sensor (e.g., photoresistor detects light condition, thermistor
detects temperature condition, strain gauge detects load condition,
etc.)
– In electronic circuits, resistors are used as pull-up and pull-down
elements to avoid floating signal levels.

Electric Function/ Description Symbol

Component
A straight line represents a
connecting wire.
Connecting Wire It's commonly constructed of
copper and has insulation on
both ends to link two places
electrically.
A zip zap line is used to depict
the resistor.
Brass terminals are represented
Resistor by two heavy dots at the ends,
to which a wire is attached.
Alloys like as nichrome,
manganin, constantan, and
eureka are commonly used to
make resistor wire.
 The positive terminal of a cell is
represented by a thin long line,
Cell while the negative terminal is
represented by a thick and short
line.
Electrical current source.
Fuse In an electric circuit, to limit the
current.

To build or break an electric

Plug key circuit for an extended period of
time.

A cell that is made up of two or

Battery more cells.
The cells are placed in a row
here.
Electrical current source.

When voltage is placed across

the terminals of an electric
Electric bulb device, such as an incandescent
lamp, glow lamp, or
fluorescent lamp, it creates
light.
Connecting wires Wires are linked together.

Connecting wires Crossing wires that aren't

linked.
 It's a device that measures the
difference in potential between
Voltmeter two locations in an electric
circuit.

It's a tool for determining

Ammeter current in an electric circuit.

Alternating current is a type of

Alternating current that changes direction
current fast on its own.

Ohm’s Law
● Under similar physical conditions, the current flowing through a wire is
directly proportional to the difference in potential applied across its ends.
VI
V/I = constant
V=RI
Therefore,
V = IR
Where R is the resistance offered.
Resistances in Series
 The sum of the individual resistances of multiple resistors in series equals
their equivalent resistance.
 If resistances R1, R2 an R3 are connected in series, then the equivalent
d

resistance can be calculated as,

Rs = R1  R2  R3

 When numerous resistors are connected in series, the combined resistance Rs

equals the total of their individual resistances R1, R2 ,R3 and hence, Rs is
greater than any individual resistance.
  In series circuit, current remains the same and potential difference vary.

 The current in a series circuit is constant throughout the electric circuit. As a

result, connecting an electric lamp and an electric heater in series is clearly
impractical, as they require currents of vastly different values to function
effectively.
 The main disadvantage of a series circuit is that if one component fails, the
circuit is broken and none of the other components works.

Resistances in Parallel
 If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance Rp is given by
 1 1 1 1
Rp = + +
R1 R 2 R3
The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances is equal to the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance of a group of resistances linked in parallel.

 In parallel circuit, potential difference remains the same and current will be
vary.
 The current flowing through the electrical devices is divided in a parallel

circuit.
 This is especially useful when each device has a different resistance and
requires a varied amount of current to function properly.