The measures of central tendency in statistics are Mean

Measures of numerical values that represent the center or • Arithmetic mean

average of a set of data. They provide a summary of
• Weighted mean
Central Tendency where the bulk of the data is concentrated. There are
• Grand mean of combined data
three main measures of central tendency, namely:
• Geometric mean
Mean, Median, and Mode.

The mean or arithmetic mean, often referred to as the average, is The weighted mean is similar to Weighted Mean formula:
Example: the arithmetic mean, but it takes
calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and then dividing by the
∑(𝑤𝑥)
number of values. The symbol used are 𝝁 for population and 𝒙 for sample. Six friends in a Math class of 20 students into account the importance or 𝑥̅ =
∑(𝑤)
weight of each value in the
Where:
Population Mean formula: Sample Mean formula:
∑(𝑥)
received test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and dataset. In simple terms, the 𝑥̅ −weighted mean
∑(𝑥)
𝜇= 𝑥̅ = weighted mean gives more 𝑤 − weight of the given data
𝑛 𝑛
Where: Where: 90 . Find the mean of these test scores. 𝑥 − given data or 𝑥-values
𝑥̅ − sample mean
importance to certain values
𝜇 −population mean
𝑥 −given data or 𝑥-values 𝑥 −given data or 𝑥-values (those with higher weights) when
𝑛 −number of data or population 𝑛 −number of data or sample
calculating the average.

Example: The grand mean of all combined data is a measure used when Example:

A midshipman would like to SUBJECT UNITS GRADE In a P.E. class, there are 25-4th class midshipmen, 30-3rd class midshipmen and
you have multiple datasets, and you want to find the overall
NGEC 1 3 87
10-2nd class midshipmen. If the 4th class midshipmen averaged 89 in a practical
know his GPA. The table average or central tendency of all the combined data points.
NGEC 4 3 84
test, the 3rd class men averaged 85, and the 2nd class men averaged 82, find the
shows the midshipman’s
NGEC 7 3 85 Grand Mean formula: grand mean of the entire class.
grades and the equivalent ∑ 𝑛 𝑥
ELECTRO (LEC) 3 95 𝑥̅ = CATEGORY NUMBER OF SCORES MEAN/AVERAGE
∑(𝑛 )
credit units for each grade. ELECTRO (LAB) 1 82 Where: 4TH CLASS MDSHPMN 25 89

Determine his Grade Point P.E. 1 82

𝑥̅ −grand mean 3RD CLASS MDSHPMN 30 85
𝑛 − number of given data in 𝑘 group
SEAM 1 2ND CLASS MDSHPMN 10 82
Average (GPA). 3 85 𝑥 − mean of given data in 𝑘 group
The geometric mean gives you a single representative value that reflects the The Median is a positional average. When the scores are ranked, the median
The Characteristics of the Mean
multiplicative relationship among a set of numbers. It's particularly handy is the point where half is greater and half is lesser. The median of the set of
when dealing with quantities that are linked by multiplication, such as 1.The mean is affected by all values in the distribution.
scores is the middle value when the scores are arranged in order of
growth rates or ratios. 2.The mean is sensitive to extreme scores (known as increasing magnitude. After arranging the original scores in increasing (or
Geometric Mean formula: Geometric Mean of the Rates of Return formula:
Outlier values). decreasing) order, the median will be either of the following;
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 … 𝑥 𝑥̅ = 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 … 𝑅 a. If the number of scores is odd, the median is the centermost score.
3.The sum of the deviations about the mean is equal to
Where: Where: b. If the number of scores is even, the median is found by computing the
𝑥̅ −geometric mean 𝑥̅ −geometric mean zero, ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ = 0.
𝑥 − given data 𝑅 − rates of return average of the two middle numbers.
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of years

The Characteristics of the Median Example: The Mode is the most frequently
1. The median is not sensitive to extreme values
(Outliers). Find the median of the scores, occurring value in the set of scores in a
2. The median varies from sample to sample; it is more 7, 2, 3, 7, 6, 9, 10, 8, 9, 9 dataset. It is a nominal average.
subject to sampling variability than the mean.

Example:
The Midrange is another measure of central Example:
Determine the mode of the following scores.
tendency but not often used. The midrange is
a) 1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 7, 9, 2 Find the midrange of the following
the average obtained by adding the highest
b) 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9
score to the lowest score and then dividing data: 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9.
c) 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 6
d) 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10 the sum by 2.
 Dispersion refers to the spread of the The range of a set of data values is
Measures of values around the central tendency. The the difference between the greatest
two common measures of dispersion are
Dispersion the range and the standard deviation.
data and the least data value.

The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the individual amount Procedure for Computing a Standard Deviation
Example:
that each data value deviates from the mean. If a score is closer to the mean, the
1. Determine the mean of the 𝑛 numbers.
Find the range of the numbers of ounces dispensed by Machine 1 standard deviation is smaller. A more dispersed distribution has a higher standard
2. For each number, calculate the deviation (difference) between the
in the table. deviation.
Population Standard Deviation formula: Sample Standard Deviation formula: number and the mean of the numbers.
Machine 1 Machine 2
∑ 𝑥−𝜇 ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 3. Calculate the square of each of the deviations and find the sum of these
9.52 8.01 𝜎= 𝑠=
𝑛 𝑛−1 squared deviations.
Soda dispensed 6.41 7.99
in ounces. Where: Where: 4. If the data is a population, then divide the sum by 𝑛. If the data is a
10.07 7.95
𝜎 −population standard deviation 𝑠 −sample standard deviation sample, then divide the sum by 𝑛 − 1.
5.85 8.03 𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data
8.15 8.02 𝜇 −population mean 𝑥̅ −sample mean 5. Find the square root of the quotient in Step 4.
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of given data

The variance for a given set of data is the square of the The 𝒛 − 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 for a given value 𝑥 is the number of standard
Example:
standard deviation. deviations that 𝑥 is above or below the mean of the data.
The following numbers were obtained by
Population Variance formula: Sample Variance formula: Population z-score formula: Sample z-score formula:
∑ 𝑥−𝜇 ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 𝑥−𝜇 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝜎 =
𝑛
𝑠 =
𝑛−1
sampling a population. 𝑧 = 𝑧 =
𝜎 𝑠
Where: Where: 2, 4, 7, 12, 15 Where: Where:
𝜎 −population variance 𝑠 −sample variance 𝑧 − standard score or z-score 𝑧 − standard score or z-score
𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data Find the variance and the standard deviation of 𝜎 −population standard deviation 𝑠 −sample standard deviation
𝜇 −population mean 𝑥̅ −sample mean 𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of given data 𝜇 −population mean 𝑥̅ −sample mean
the sample.
 Relative Frequency Dist. Table Relative Frequency Histogram
Example:
A 4th class midshipman has taken two tests in his NGEC 4 class. He
scored 72 on the first test, for which the mean of all scores was 65
and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on a second
THE NORMAL
test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard
deviation was 12. In comparison to the other students, did the 4th DISTRIBUTION
class midshipmen do better on the first test or the second test?

Example: Normal Distribution in terms of the following components:

A normal distribution is a common pattern which forms a
• Shape: The normal distribution has a distinctive symmetric bell-shaped curve.
Use the relative frequency distribution table
bell-shaped curve that is symmetric about a vertical line • Central Tendency: The highest point on the curve, the peak, represents the
to determine the following:
mean (average) of the data.
a. percent of subscribers who required at through the mean of the data. The normal distribution is a
• Spread: The curve is more concentrated around the mean and gradually
least 25 seconds to download the file. fundamental concept in statistics and is essential in various decreases as you move away from the mean in either direction.
b. probability that a subscriber chosen at
fields for analyzing and understanding data. • Standard Deviation: The spread of the curve is measured by the standard
random will require at least 5 but less
deviation. A smaller standard deviation indicates a narrower and taller curve,
than 20 seconds to download the file. while a larger standard deviation results in a wider and flatter curve.

Properties of a Normal Distribution

• The graph is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean of The 68-95-99.7 rule, also known as the
Normal distribution of the distribution.
• The mean, median, and mode are equal.
empirical rule or three-sigma rule, is a
data in a graph, forming
a bell-shaped curve with • The y-value of each point on the curve is the percent (expressed guideline that describes the percentage of
as a decimal) of the data at the corresponding x-value.
a mean value (𝜇) of 5. data that falls within certain ranges in a
• Areas under the curve that are symmetric about the mean are
equal. normal distribution.
• The total area under the curve is 1.
 The empirical rule on a normal distribution graph
Example:
Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution
A survey of 1000 U.S. gas stations found that the price charged
In a normal distribution, approximately
for a gallon of regular gas could be closely approximated by a
• 68% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
normal distribution with a mean of $3.10 and a standard
• 95% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
deviation of $0.18. How many of the stations charge:
• 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the
a. between $2.74 and $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas?
mean.
b. less than $3.28 for a gallon of regular gas?

The standard normal

distribution is the normal
Example:
distribution of 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 that
Find the area of the standard normal
has a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1. The purpose of
distribution between 𝑧 = − 1.44 and 𝑧 = 0.
having a standard normal
distribution is to simplify
statistical calculations and
comparisons across different
normal distributions.

The Standard Normal Distribution, Areas, Percentages, and Probabilities

The Area of the Tailed Region Example: In the standard normal distribution, the area of the distribution from
𝑧 = 𝑎 to 𝑧 = 𝑏 represents
A tail region is a region of the standard normal Find the area of the standard normal • the percentage of z-values that lie in the interval from a to b.
distribution to the right of a positive z-value or • the probability that z lies in the interval from a to b.
distribution to the right of 𝑧 = 0.82. Because the area of a portion of the standard normal distribution can
to the left of a negative z-value. be interpreted as a percentage of the data or as a probability that the
variable lies in an interval, we can use the standard normal distribution
to solve many application problems.