CSEC Social Studies STUDY NOTES 1 UNITS UNIT 1 — THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE FAMILY UNIT 2 — THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY UNIT 3 — INSTITUTIONS UNIT 4— GOVERNMENT AS AN INSTITUTION UNIT 5 — REGIONAL INTEGRATION GLOSSARYUNIT 1 — THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE FAMILY FAMILY TYPES 4. Nuclear family- is a married or unmarried couple who share a common residence with their children. The children may be the couple's own or they may be adopted. 2. Single parent family- is a family which consists of a mother or a father with his/her children. This type of family is formed as a result of divorce or separation, a partner is deserted, one person chooses to raise his/her child/children alone and also the death of a partner and the surviving partner chooses to raise the children from the union alone. 3. Extended family- this type of family is made up of members from more than two generations. 4. Reconstituted family- this is where divorced spouses with their new partners and their children from the former marriages are living together. Advantages of Nuclear family over Single parent family 1. The children may benefit from the love and affection of both parents. 2. There may be greater economic/financial support for the family. 3. The responsibility of rearing the family may be shared. FAMILY UNIONS 4. Legal marriage- this is where a man and a woman is legally united, share a common residence and share a socially approved sexual relationship. There are several types of marriages which include Monogamy (one man to a woman), Polygamy (a person can marry more than one woman or man), Polygyny (one man to three wives) and Polyandry (One woman to three husbands) 2, Common law or consensual union- this is where a man and a woman are not married, however, share a common residence and a sexual relationship i3. Visiting relationship- this is where a man and a woman are not married, do not share a common residence, however, they share a sexual relationship. An individual may enter in a visiting relationship because he/she may choose to live alone. Also, an individual may be involved with a partner who is already married and cannot live with this person. Also, it may be that one partner is unable to permanently accommodate the other partner in his/her place of residence. Disadvantage of this relationship- the relationship is usually a loose one. Also sometimes the female may end up having children for several partners. 4, Homosexual/Same Sex unions- as the world becomes more tolerant of individual's sexual preferences, we are seeing the establishment of homosexual or same sex unions. In this union, two males or two females live together with their child or children (whether adopted or belong to one of the partners) in the same household. Where it is possible, the couple is married. 5. Sibling households- in this union, it comprises of brothers and sisters or brothers only or sisters only. The older siblings are legally responsible for the younger siblings. There are several reasons why this union may occur including parents migrating, parents dying or the imprisonment of parents. CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAMILY Sociologists agree that in order for a group to be seen as a family, this group must satisfy the following characteristics: The couple must be adults of both sexes (heterosexual). 2 The couple must be engaged in a socially approved sexual relationship (legal marriage). 3. The couple must be engaged in reproduction. 4. The couple must share a common residence with their offspring, 5. The couple must be engaged in economic cooperation. TYPES OF RESIDENCES 4. Neolocal residence- this is where the couple moves away from their respective families and live on their own. 2. Patrilocal residence- this is where the couple move in with or live near the relatives of the groom.3. Matrilocal residence- this is where the couple move in with or live near the relatives of the bride. TRACING KINSHIP OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIP Remember, a married couple belongs to two families; that is their original families and the one they have created by their marriage Their original family is called consanguine family because they are related to that family by blood. The family which they created by being married is called conjugal family. Any children out of this union are related to both families. Kinship of family relationships may be traced either through the male or female line or both. For example O represents male lO represents female M represents married M Rodney Jones O | Marcia Wright 10. 110 ol M | Simone Joan | Keven O Miguel O Jones Jones Steves Jones I M \0 | M I O Bob! Susan Michael | Mia 10 Moodie 10 Adams Steves Ingram Steves _ Steves. I a | ' | ' AndreQ ONigel lan Peter O Adams Adams — Ingram Ingram What is relationship between Nigel Adams and Marcia Wright? Marcia Wright is the great grandmother of Nigel Adams. What is the link between lan Ingram and Andre Adams? They are cousins.FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY 1. Procreation- this is where the couple produces new members for the society. 2. Socialization (child rearing) - this is done by teaching children the accepted behaviours of the society. Also, teaching them their roles and however to act as a role model. Teach them how to perform basic skills and to undertake various responsibilities. 3. Provide economic maintenance- This is where adults work to provide for the basic needs (food, clothing and shelter) for their children. 4. Provides emotional support- this is where the family satisfies members’ emotional and psychological needs by making members feel loved, wanted and protected 5. Regulates sexual behaviour- this is where the family prohibits sexual relationships between close family members. How the government compliments the role of the family The government provides: 1. Welfare payments and social security benefits to help people to satisfy their basic needs. Day nurseries to care for the children of working mothers. Schools which assist with the socialization of children. Foster homes/foster care for orphans, the aged, and the mentally and physically challenged. Feeding programmes for those who are unable to provide their own meals. 6. Home help services for persons who are old or incapacitated and live alone. 7. Counselling programmes in schools and health care institutions. BON a The persistence and/or influence of the Amerindian, European, African and Asian family patterns in the Caribbean The Caribbean is described as a multicultural society. This is because the culture of the Caribbean society is shaped by influence of groups such as the Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and the Asians who all lived in the Caribbean at different points in History.Culture is all the ideas, beliefs, customs, language, art, technology and practices of a society which have been passed on from generation to generation. In other words, it is the way of life of a people. In today’s society, ethnic groups still follow their ancestors’ cultural practices because: 1. They are proud of their cultural traditions and therefore want to preserve them 2. There is a need to retain cultural identity in a multicultural society. 3. They develop confidence in their cultural practices because they work well for them. 4. They pass on their cultural practice to new generations during the socialization process. 5. They are taught their cultural traditions by their religious and educational institutions. 6. They are reluctant to try non-traditional practices. The cultural practices of our ancestors ‘Area Cultural practices Group Birth Christening the baby to mark | European his/her acceptance into Christianity. Death Holding of wakes. The belief | African in spirits and ghosts. Marriage Courtship. Going on European honeymoon. Religion Christianity, Buddhism, European Shango, Hinduism, Islam, African Kumina. Amerindian Chinese and Indian Festivals Carnival and Crop over African Diet Cooking pepper pot, Roti, ‘Amerindian, Ackee and Saltfish Indian and African Medicine The use of herbal cures and Amerindian, remedies. African Dances Dancing maypole, John ‘African Canoe and the Kumina.Music Singing folk songs and ‘Africans calypsos. Language Speaking English, Dialect and | European, French patois African, Amerindian Story telling Relating Anancy stories African Dress Wearing East Indian saris, Indian, European European jacket and tie. Architecture Using Amerindian, European, | Amerindian, Asian styles of building European, Chinese Traditional roles of the members of the family Status Role Father To earn an income to satisfy the economic needs of the family. To discipline the children To make important decision for the family. Wife To love and cherish her spouse Mother To socialize the children. To be the care giver. To be a homemaker. To be a counselor To be a decision taker. Child To assist parents with chores around the house. Husband To love and cherish his spouse Grandparents To assist parents with child rearing or otherwise. members. To baby sit children while parents work To settle disputes among familyich contribute to the changing roles and ies of members of the Caribbean 1. Greater recognition of the rights of women, that is, equality of the sexes. 2. Greater choice of employment for women 3. Availability of technology. 4. Economic factors. 5. Increase educational opportunities for women. 6. Expansion of family education programmes. 7. Greater choice of leisure activities for women. How the changing roles have affected the men 1. Identity crisis for males- There are greater sharing of traditional gender roles in the family. As a result, some traditional male roles in the family are no longer regarded as solely male roles. 2. Marginalization of the males- The recognition of gender equality has led women to move towards creating egalitarian relationships in the home. As a result, men who formerly dominated the home now have to allow their partners to share authority and decision making in the family. How the changing roles have affected the women More women have been able to develop a positive self-esteem and a feeling of independence because they are: 1. Earning their own income and this makes them feel less dependent on the male for financial support. 2. Making a contribution to the society through the use of their knowledge and skills. 3. Escaping the drudgery of housework by moving into new areas of employment Having smaller families. Enjoying equal pay for equal work. osThe factors which assist in the preparation for parenthood A family plan Guidance on parenting Adequate financial resources. Physical maturity Emotional and psychological readiness. ARONA The importance of Family Life Education 1. It provides information related to health and the development and function of the body. 2. It teaches how to socialize and develop healthy relationships with persons of the opposite sex. 3. It helps to develop respect for wholesome family life. 4. It teaches parenting skills and the responsibilities for parenthood. 5. It provides individuals with the information to make a family plan so that they may avoid unwanted pregnancies. 6. Iteducates women about how to improve their quality of life by spacing and reducing the number of births. 7. It teaches family planning techniques and the relationship between sex and pregnancy. 8. It helps to save the lives of women who are prone to high-risk pregnancy and birth by helping them to avoid pregnancy. Characteristics of good parents 1. Problem solving skills to deal with the many problems which the children will face. 2. Possess the skills to provide the love and warmth which the children will need. 3. Possess money management skills in order to budget properly for the material needs of their children. 4. Possess the knowledge of good nutrition in order to nourish their children's bodies. Contemporary social issues which influence Caribbean Family Life A social issue is a condition which is widespread and contains behaviour which a large number of people think is undesirable or unacceptable. For example drug abuse, teenage pregnancy,substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, promiscuity, suicide, poverty to name a few. The drug problem may be difficult to solve in the Caribbean societies because: 1. The authorities may lack adequate human and financial resources to solve it. 2. The lure of pleasure from substance abuse may be too strong for some individuals to resist. 3. The legislation to deal with it may not be a strong enough deterrent. The impact of contemporary social issues on the family 1. The family’s scarce financial resources may have to be used to rehabilitate a family member. 2. They may cause conflict in the family, for example, promiscuity, substance abuse, incest and domestic violence. 3. They may affect the morale and/or self-esteem of the family members as they may become alienated by other members of society, for example poverty and AIDS. 4. Other family members may learn the negative behaviour and the cycle will continue, for example, substance abuse and domestic violence. 5. Some children may be deprived of their parents, for example, through imprisonment for crime, death from AIDS or desertion of both parents. 6. The health of the family may be affected, that is, through substance abuse or sexually transmitted diseases. Strategies government use to deal with social issues 1. Educating the citizens on the causes and effects of the problems/issues in order to bring about a change in attitudes. 2. Enacting legislation with heavy penalties to discourage people from engaging in some of them. 3. Prosecuting offenders who are involved in social issues which are of a criminal nature. 4. Providing assistance to victims, for example, welfare payments to the poor and sheltered homes for battered women. 5. Seeking international, technical and financial assistance to deal with the problems, for example, funding for AIDS awareness programmes.6. Creating more employment opportunities to prevent people from becoming involved in crime and also to alleviate poverty. NB: In today’s society, one of the greatest threat to the family is the family itself, that is, the increasing family break-ups and the delinquent behaviours exhibited by the parents. Therefore, governments thought it necessary to impose laws in order to protect this important institution. LAWS RELATED TO INHERITANCE, CHILD CARE AND DIVORCE LAWS RELATED TO INHERITANCE Inheritance is the money or property which has passed from a deceased person to his or her successors. Matters relating to inheritances are dealt with in the Succession Act. Recent amendments to the Act give: 1. the surviving partner in a common-law union the right to share of the property of the union. 2. a child bom out of wedlock has the same rights to inheritance as a child bom to married parents In Barbados, the following conditions apply: Where the deceased person leaves a will, the surviving spouse is entitled to: 1. One quarter of the property if the deceased leaves a child who is a minor or a child who suffers from a mental or physical disability and cannot maintain himself or herself. 2. Half of the property if there is no such child as described above Where the deceased person does not leaves a spouse but no child or next of kin, the spouse is entitled to the following: Where the deceased leaves a spouse but no child or next of kin, the spouse is entitled to the entire estate. 2. Where there is no child but there is next of kin, the spouse inherits two-third of the property and the remainder is distributed equally among the next of kin. 3. If there is one child, the spouse inherits two-thirds of the property and the child inherits the remainder. 4. If there is more than one child, the spouse inherits one-third of the property and the remainder is divided among the children.5. Where there is neither spouse nor child, the next of kin inherits all the property. Laws related to Child Care Most Caribbean countries have a Maintenance Act which is designed to ensure that a single parent receives some financial support from the other parent to maintain their child or children. In the event that a parent fails to provide support, the Family Court issues an order which if refused can lead to imprisonment. Amendments to the Family Law Act/Maintenance Act in some territories have given employers the authority to cease the salaries of fathers who fail to meet child support payments which were decreed by the court. The Family Law Act also stipulates that parents should not leave young children unattended for unreasonable lengths of time without making provision for their safety and supervision. Laws related to Divorce Terms to note 1. Divorce- is the legal termination of a legal marriage. 2. Annulment- is the cancellation of a marriage on the grounds that it is not legal. 3. Legal separation- is the separation of married partners by an order of the court. Conditions under which a divorce may be granted 4. Itis no longer necessary for a party to the marriage to prove that a matrimonial offence had been committed against him or her. A partner simply has to provide evidence that the marriage had broken down and that the relationship is not likely to improve. This ground for divorce is known as “irretrievable breakdown of the marriage” 2. The partners have to provide proof to the court that they had separated and lived separate and apart for a continuous period of not less than twelve months before the date of filing the application for the divorce.3. Where the partners have been married for less than two years before the date on which the application was filed, the court will not hear the application unless it is satisfied that the parties had made attempts at reconciliation with the assistance of marriage counselors. DIVORCE SETTLEMENTS: Divorce legislation provides that a party to a marriage is liable to maintain the other party after a divorce if that other party is unable to support himself or herself adequately for any of the following reasons: 1. the partner has to take care of a child of the marriage who is under the age of eighteen 2. the partner's age or physical or mental condition may prevent him or her from working to eam a living. 3. any other reasonable reason. The money that is awarded by the court to the spouse is called Alimony. in determining the amount of maintenance the court will take into account the partner's financial needs and obligations, responsibilities, income, age and state of health.UNIT 2 - THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY Types of social groups: Primary, Secondary, Formal and Informal. The differences between a group and social group Group Social group 1. Itis transitory or temporary 1. It is recurrent or permanent 2. The interaction among members is not frequent. 2. Interaction among members is frequent. 3. Members do not share a “we” feeling, that is, a sense of belonging to the group. 3. Members share a “we” feeling, that is, a sense of belonging to the group. 4. There is no established pattern of behaviour and as such, members behave how they choose to. 4. There is a se pattern of behaviour established and as such, all members are expected to follow this pattern. Example: Spectators at a cricket match, quests ata wedding Example: Parent Teacher Association, A class of students The difference between a primary and secondary group Features Primary group Secondary group Size itis small Itis bigger than a primary group 1. The members 1. The interaction Degree of interact with one among the members interaction another frequently is less frequent than among and face to face. in a primary group. members 2, Each member 2. Each member only another. other. interacts with one 3. The interaction is based on the personal attraction of the members to each interacts with some of the members. In other words, all the members are rarely in direct contact with each other at any time.1. The relationship is |1. The relationship is Type of personal and impersonal, formal relationship intimate. and functional. among 2. Members are 2. Members are members accepted by one accepted by one another because of another because of who they are and what they can what they mean to contribute to the each other. group. Examples ‘A group of friends, a_| A church, a trade union study group The differences between a formal and informal group Features Formal group Informal group There is a clearly There is no defined Structure defined hierarchical structure. The structure with status, structure is informal roles and clear lines of and based on the authority. personal relationships which exist among the members. There is an ‘Someone usually Leader appointed or emerges as elected leader. leader. There are written There are no Rules rules and written rules. sanctions. The goalis clearly | Goals change with the Goal defined and enduring. | changing activities of the group. Individuals must satisfy | Members may join and Membership certain criteria for leave quickly. requirements membership. A trade union, A A study group, A group Example national police force of friends at schoolOther definitions of groups Peer group: is a group that is made up of persons of approximately the same age, who share similar interests, values and backgrounds. Their value may conflict with those of the society. Members of a peer group do not necessarily have to be friends. Members are identified by the slang words they use, their hair styles or style of clothing in which they wear. Members normally have common experiences and they are encouraged to deal with these experiences in the same way. Peer Pressure is the influence of the members of the peer group to make others conform to the group's values and behaviour. In-groups and Out-group- When you speak about some of the groups to which you belong, you often refer to the other members as “we". These are your in-group. On the other hand, when you refer to other groups of which you are not a member, you refer to the members as “they’. These are your out-group. Interest groups- These are formed by people who have a particular interest to protect. They usually aim to influence government to maintain or increase any advantages or benefits which they enjoy e.g. National Association of Farmers. Pressure groups- These are groups which aim to influence the opinions of citizens and persuade the government or an organization to take a particular course of action e.g. a group formed to protest against a steep increase in the price of a basic food item and to get the government or business to either remove or reduce the price increase. SOCIAL CONTROL Itis necessary for a society to implement measures which will result in control over its citizen. In order to achieve this, all societies have implemented the following to maintain order and control Social control- is the means by which a society or group teaches its members to obey its norms. It is the means by which a society or group teaches its members how it expect them to behave.Norms- are unwritten rules or standards which a group or society has established to regulate how its members are to behave in particular situations. For example, you are expected to pay your debts, support your children and be faithful to your spouse. Folkways- are norms which deal with habits such as shaking of hands when you are introduced to someone or saying please and thank you. Mores- are norms which deal with more serious matters which may affect the welfare of individuals. They reinforce the society's moral values and carry penalties for individuals who violate them. For example, you should not steal another's property or deliberately injure someone. Sanctions- are punishments which a group or society uses in order to get its members to conform to its rules and regulations or laws. Laws- are written rules of the society which have been enacted and are enforced by the government. Values- are those ideas and principles which a group or society shares about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, important or unimportant. The way a person thinks or acts are influenced by his/her values. Requirement for group cohesion In order for a social group to coexist in a way which promotes togetherness, there must be a goal, a leader who has authority, tules and members who are cooperative and committed. Goal- in any social group, there must be something that makes its members want to be apart of the group. In other words, there must be something in the group to excite and sustain the interests and satisfy the needs of its members. This is seen as the goal or the aim of the social group. Leadership- in any social group, there must be someone who has the responsibilty for setting the goal of the group and for coordinating the activities of the members in order to ensure the goal 17is achieved and the needs of the members are met. If the members feel that the group is not satisfying their needs, they may not be motivated to participate in the group's activities and may leave the group. Authority- the leader must have authority and he/she must be prepared to use it to direct the affairs of the group. Control- groups must have rules/norms which regulate the behavior of members and promote order and stability within the group when members follow them. Commitmentiloyalty- Members must take a personal interest in the success of the group. Characteristics of a good leader 1. He/she is able to communicate with the members. 2. He/she is able to command the respect of members because of his or her skills, knowledge or experience. 3. He/she is able to initiate policies and set goals for the group. 4. He/she is able to delegate tasks and the authority for accomplishing them. 5. He/she is able to motivate members to achieve the group's goal. 6. He/she is able to allocate resources for achieving the group's goal. 7. He/she is able to coordinate the activities of sub-groups. LEADERSHIP STYLES 1. Democratic/Participative- There is a two-way flow of communication, that is, from the leader to the members and from the members to the leader. The members are allowed to participate in making decision for the group. The leader delegates some authority to subordinates. 2. Authoritarian/Autocratic- There is a one way flow of communication, that is, from the leader to the members. The leader does not take suggestions from the members. The leader does not delegate any authority.3. Laissez-faire- The leader gives limited directions to the group. The members are left to find their own methods to complete their tasks. Authority- The leader must have authority and must be prepared to se it to: direct the activities of the members; allocate resources for accomplishing tasks and apply sanctions when members do anything that may conflict with the group's rules or prevent from achieving its goals. Cooperation and commitmentiloyalty- Members must pool their ideas, skills and resources and work together to achieve the group's goals. The members must also have a personal interest in the success of the group. If any of the above factors are missing from the group, this will affect the ability of the group to stay together and achieve its goal. Some members may not remain committed to the goal of the group because: a. They are no longer interested in the success of the group. b. They may not be allowed to participate in making decisions for the group. c. They may be dissatisfied with the way the group is being led. d. They may not be deriving the expected benefits from the group. e. They may no longer share the same values as the other members. f. They may think that the group does not have all of the necessary resources to achieve the goal Characteristics of social groups- all social groups have the following common characteristics: a leader, rules, a goal (s), a structure, mark of identity, rituals, voluntary or involuntary membership, common needs, interests and values, specific ways of interacting and cooperation to achieve its goals. Aspects of social interaction within and between groups Social interaction is about the acts which we perform towards people and their reactions to these acts. These acts and reactions may produce conflicts, competition, cooperation, coercion or exchange.Competition occurs when two or more individuals or group try to achieve the same goals. Competition within a group may lead to conflict among members of the group as some members of the group may not compete according to the rules. Also, competition may create stress among members as they may find it difficult to keep up with the competition. Competition may also help the group to become more productive as the members work harder and become more efficient in what they are doing. Conflict is a state of disagreement between individuals within a group or between groups. Disagreement exists because groups are made up of members with different ideas and personalities. Exchange/compromise is when conflicts are settled which involve some form of negotiation in which both parties give up something but gain at least part of what they want most. Coercion is the act of making someone do something against his/her will. Basic needs of a society All societies have five basic needs which are: 1. Its members must be replaced (procreation) 2. Its new members must be socialized and educated (education) 3. Goods and services must be produced to satisfy the needs of its members (production) 4. There must be a peaceful and orderly environment in which people can live and function (government) 5. Its members should understand why they exist which will offer them consolation in times of crisis (religion) SOCIAL INSTITUTION/SOCIAL NORMS Definitions 1. This is an accepted practice or pattern of behavior which societies have developed for meeting their basic needs. 2. This is a set of norms and values which outline how these needs are to be met. 203. This is a social norm because it is a pattern of behavior that people are normally expected to follow. 4. Marriage, education and religion are all examples of social institutions because they are the socially accepted practices for meeting some of a society’s basic needs FUNCTIONS OF INSTITUTIONS 1. Economic Institutions- All societies must be able to feed, clothe and shelter their members. As such, they establish institutions/organizations such as farms and factories to produce raw materials and manufactured goods respectively. Transport companies, wholesalers and retailers are required to distribute the goods which are produced. There must be banks to finance the production, insurance companies to insure the goods and advertising agencies to advertise them 2. Educational Institutions- Schools, colleges and universities are established in order to socialize, educate and prepare people for the job market. As such, they perform the following functions: a. Teaching basic skills such as functional literacy and numeracy. b. Teaching knowledge and skills for specific jobs. c. Transmitting the culture of the society (that is the beliefs, norms and values of the society) d. Developing skills in critical thinking. e. Preparing the individual to live in society. 3. Recreational Institutions- People cannot work all the time; taking time out to rest and enjoy oneself is a key part of life. Recreational institutions are designed to give people pleasure and amusement to relieve stress of daily living and to stay fit and healthy. 4. Religious Institutions- religious institutions such as churches, mosques and synagogues, through their religious teachings, provide people with a reason for their existence and reasons for some of the difficult situations which confront them. They also give them encouragement to preserve in difficult situations. They also provide a unifying force and some form of social control for the society through the values which they teach. 215. Political Institutions- the functions of political institutions such as the government include: a. Making laws for the society. b. Administering sanctions to those who break the laws. ¢. Settling disputes among groups with competing conflicting interests through its courts system. d. Making policies for the society. e. Defending the nation state. f. Maintaining international relations with other countries. THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT A government is a group of people who have the authority: 1. Set goals and make policies for the good of a country. 2. Make laws and regulations defining how people are to go about achieving these goals. 3. Enforce compliance with the laws and regulations. The government of a country includes all those legal and political institutions which regulate the activities of the members of a society. Some of these institutions include the cabinet, parliament, law courts, police force, statutory bodies and ministries or government departments. The types of government systems include, but not limited to, Democracy and Authoritarian. 1. Democracy- is a system of government which allows citizens to govern themselves by either participating in the decision-making process directly as a member of the legislature and/or the Executive or indirectly by choosing as their representatives those persons who they think will best represent their interests. Democracy is government by the people and for the people. Under a democratic system of government, citizens are allowed to: a. Offer themselves as candidates for Parliament b. Participate in electing members of Parliament in regularly held free and fair elections. c. Form competing political parties. d. Choose representatives from among at least two competing political parties 222. Authoritarian- is a form of government in which the political decisions are made by an individual or a small group within the government without the knowledge or consent of the other members of government or the citizens. Types of authoritarian forms of government are Oligarchy (this is where the country is ruled by a small group or elite), Dictatorship (this is where the country is ruled by an individual known as a dictator who exercises absolute authority. A dictator's power is not limited by the law) and Totalitarianism (this is a system of government formed by one political party. It does not tolerate opposition). 3. Adult Suffrage/Universal Suffrage- This is the right of eligible citizens (eighteen years and over) to vote in national elections The Franchise or suffrage means the right of an individual to vote on the basis of citizenship and having reached the age of eighteen. Citizens are given the opportunity to exercise this right once every five years. It should be noted that in addition to being eighteen years of age and a citizen of that nation, an individual must be registered with the organization responsible for conducting elections. All those persons who are qualified and are registered to vote in an election are called the electorate. PLEASE NOTE: the right to vote is a privilege which can be withdrawn temporarily in the event that a person is imprisoned for committing a crime or committed in a mental institution. DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES Types of govemment systems Features/characteristics Proprietary Government * The king gave colonies to Lord Proprietors. * Proprietors appointed Governors to manage the colonies. The Government comprised the Governor, a Council whose members were nominated by the Governor and an Assembly elected by land owners 23Old Representative System The Crown took over the colonies from the Lord Proprietors. The Governor was appointed by the Crown as its representative. The structure of government remained as it was under Proprietary Government. Crown Colony The colonies, with the exception of Barbados, gave up their elected assemblies and with them their right to self- government. The government comprised the Governor, an Executive Council and a Legislative Council made up of officials who headed government department in the colonies and members nominated by the governor. The councils were purely advisory in nature. The Governor had executive. Legislative and judicial powers. In other words, the Governor had the authority to make policies and laws and to administer the laws. Modification to Crown Colony The elective principle was reintroduced. The legislative Council comprised officials, nominated members and elected members. The development of political parties occurred in this stage Ministerial Government Universal Suffrage was introduced. Governor asked the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives to form the government. 24Premier/Chief Minister, as the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives, appointed members of his party to ministerial positions. The Governor retained control of defence, security and external affairs. Full Internal Self Government Ministers were responsible for all the internal affairs of the colonies. Foreign affairs and defence remained the responsibility of Britain, The Governor acted on the advice of the Ministers. The Premier headed the Cabinet. The Legislature comprised the House of Representatives and the Senate. Constitutional Monarchy Political independence was acquired from Britain. The Government became responsible for the internal and external affairs of the country. The Crown-appointed Governor was replaced by a locally appointed Governor General as Head of State. He is a symbolic representative of the monarch and has limited constitutional powers. He acts upon the advice of the prime minister. Republicanism In countries such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, instead of the Constitutional Monarchy, these countries chose Republicanism. This is where a president, instead of a Governor General, was the Head of State. 25© There are two types of Republicanism; Presidential and Parliamentary. Presidential Republicanism exists in Guyana and this is where the Head of State who is the Executive President is also the Head of Government. This therefore means that the executive President has full constitutional powers. Parliamentary Republic exists in Trinidad and Tobago and Dominica and it is based on a parliamentary system in which the Head of State holds a ceremonial function and the Prime Minister has executive authority and is therefore the Head of Government. THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH The Constitution The constitution of a country is a written document which contains the most important laws and principles by which the citizens agree to be governed. This document is seen as a contract between the citizens and their government. It outlines: Structure of government Powers of the executive, legislature and the judiciary Rights, freedoms and responsibilities of the citizens Methods of choosing the government Role of the civil service. MP PEN> The Structure of the Government In the Caribbean, the structure of the government is made up of the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. In attempt to prevent the abuse of power by the government in carrying out its function, the principle of separation of powers is 26applied. This means that the powers of the government is divided among these three bodies/branches with the view that each body/branch should function independently of the other. It should be noted that the independent functioning of branches of the government is not always possible, for example, members of the Executive are also members of the Legislature. Each branch of government is supposed to act as a check on the other branches to prevent the abuse of power. For example: a. The Executive should not spend public funds without the approval of Parliament. b. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament has the power to investigate controversial expenditure by the Executive c. The Judiciary can declare void or illegal any Act of Parliament which seeks to take away citizens rights and freedoms. The Structure of Parliament/Legislature The Legislature or Parliament is made up of the Senate (Upper House) and the Lower House (House of Representative). It should be noted that if the Legislature has one body, as in the case of Dominica, it is described as unicameral. Where the Legislature or Parliament is made up of two bodies (as in the case of Jamaica), it is described as bicameral. Composition of Parliament Senate/Upper House- All the members of the Senate are known are Senators and they are nominated by: 1. The Head of State to represent particular interests such as business, religion and/or education. These Senators are called Independent Senators. 2. The Prime Minister. These Senators are called Government Senators. 3. The leader of the Opposition. These Senators are called Opposition Senators. It should be noted that all Senators are appointed by the Head of State. The majority of the Senators are nominated by the Prime Minister and this therefore gives the government the majority of votes in the Senate. 27House of Representative/Lower House- is comprised of the elected members of the Cabinet, other elected members of the governing party and elected members of the Opposition Party/Parties. The Functions of the House of Representatives Passes legislation Repeal legislation Amends the constitution when necessary Approves the national budget Authorizes the expenditure of public funds Ratifies international treaties Examine government's activities and performance through parliamentary questions. NOON > Functions of the Senate 1. Considers all Bills passed in the House of Representatives before they can become law. 2. May introduce any Bill except one of a financial nature. How laws are made Stages Explanations ‘ Cabinet prepares an outline of the matter for Draft Stage which legislation is required and sends it to the Attorney General's office. The legal draftsmen in the Attorney General's office put the proposal into legislative form. This is called a Draft Bill The Draft Bill is sent to Cabinet for approval * The Minister gives notice in the House of Representatives of his or her intention to introduce a Bill. . The final draft (after being accepted by Cabinet) First Reading | _ is brought to the House of Representatives where it is circulated to the members for them to study. No debate takes place at this stage. 28The Draft Bill may also be circulated to the public or interest groups for comments. If there is too much opposition to the Draft Bill, it may be scrapped or significantly modified in response to the comments received. Second Reading During this stage, the members of the governing party outline its aims and benefits in order to get the majority of the Members of Parliament to support it. Those who do not support it will highlight any flaws or unintended outcomes which it may have. If any flaws or unintended outcomes are identified, the Bill goes to the Committee Stage Committee Stage At this stage, a group of parliamentarians is selected from all the parties to do a detailed study of the Bill. They consider the points made during the debate and suggest any necessary amendments to the Bill. Report Stage When the Select Committee has completed its work, the Bill is brought back to the House of Representatives for its third and final reading. The Bill is debated again and voted on. Third reading | No further amendments are made at this stage. At this stage it is either passed or rejected. ‘© Ifthe majority of the Members of the House Senate Representatives vote in favour of the Bill it is said debate to be passed. Where there is a bicameral legislature, it is then sent to the Senate where is goes through the same stages as it did in the House of Representative. « Ifthe Senate passes the Bill, it is then sent to the Assent Governor General or President for his/her /proclamation assent. If the Governor General signs the Bill, it is said to be proclaimed. When this done the Bill becomes an act of Parliament. In other word, it now becomes law. 29The Executive (the Cabinet) The Executive or the Cabinet is made up of the Prime Minister (Chief Executive Officer) and the Ministers of Government. The Prime Minster who is the head of the Cabinet (except for Guyana where the head of the Cabinet is the President who appoints the Ministers) chooses the Ministers who are then appointed by the Governor General. The Function of the Cabinet Cabinet is responsible for: 1. making policies and programmes for the country 2. seeing that the policies and programmes are carried out 3._ initiating proposal for legislation 4. initiating proposals for taxation. NB: When the members of the Cabinet meet, government policies are discussed and approved. When a policy has been approved by the Cabinet, it becomes the policy of the Cabinet and every member of the Cabinet is expected to defend it in public and in Parliament, that is, whether or not they personally agree with this policy. In other words, the members of the Cabinet, if they disagree with the policy, are not at liberty to criticize it in public. This is known as the principle of collective responsibility. It should be noted that the Cabinet is answerable to Parliament. As such, Ministers must give explanations about their Ministry's policies when they are asked to do so by other Members of Parliament. When a Minister is given an area of responsibility by the Prime Minister, he/she is said to have a portfolio. Each Minister is in charge of an office called a Ministry or government department. The Minister is assisted by a Minister without Portfolio or a junior Minister who is also known as a Parliamentary Secretary. Parliamentarian Secretaries are not members of the Cabinet. THE FUNCTION OF THE PRIME MINISTER 1. To determine the composition and size of the Cabinet. 302. To choose the members of Cabinet and recommend their appointment or dismissal to the Governor General. 3. To choose judges in consultation with the Leader of the Opposition and recommends their appointment to the Governor General. To assign or reassign responsibilities to Cabinet members. To advice the Governor General when to dissolve Parliament. To fix the date for elections To take the lead in formulating policies for the country To coordinate the work of the various Ministers. PANDAS THE ROLE OF THE CIVIL/PUBLIC SERVICE Each ministry has a staff comprising a Permanent Secretary who is the most senior civil servant in the Ministry and other junior civil servant. They are responsible for implementing the government's policies related to that particular Ministry. For example, the ministry of Education will deal with policies related to education. 1. The Permanent Secretary and other senior civil servants in the Ministry are expected to use their professional knowledge and skills to advise the Minister on the soundness of the Ministry's policies and to device strategies for implementing them. 2. They are also to monitor and evaluate the policies to see that they are carried out efficiently and effectively. 3. Civil servants are obliged to carry out government's policies no matter what their personal feelings may be towards the government or its policies. 4. Civil servants are expected to carry out their functions impartially. THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS, Functions Explanations Manage the finances of the | Draw up a budget to show how country (budgeting). revenue will be raised and how it will be spent. * Make policies to control how the citizens spend their money. Raise revenue through Levy taxes on: direct and indirect taxation. | « Incomes (direct taxation) 31Property, goods and services (indirect taxation) to finance expenses incurred on behalf of the people. Maintain international relations. Exchange ambassadors with other countries. Make agreements with other countries for cooperation in many areas Maintain law and order. Make laws for order and peace in the society. Maintain courts to settle disputes and punish wrong doers Employ police to protect citizens and their property and to enforce the law. Create employment opportunities. Create jobs directly by employing people in the civil service and statutory corporations. Create jobs indirectly by providing the investment conditions for private enterprises to create jobs. Provide social services. Provide welfare payments such as grants to the poor. Provide social security such as national insurance, unemployment benefits, and pensions Provide sanitation, health care and education. Provide infrastructure Build roads, harbours, airports, industrial estates, schools and hospitals. Install water mains, Defend the nation state Maintain an army to defend the country against external aggression 32THE STRUCTURE OF THE COURT SYSTEM (JUDICIARY) The court system in all Caribbean countries, with the exception of Guyana, is made up of the Privy Council (which is based in England) at the top, followed by a Court of Appeal, then a High Court (with a civil and criminal division) and lastly, the Magistrates’ Courts. The Privy Council is not a feature of Guyana’s court system. The Privy Council will eventually be replaced by the Caribbean Court of Justice. FUNCTIONS OF THE JUDICIARY 1. To interpret and administer the laws of the country. 2. To review any law passed by the legislature or any action taken by the executive. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COURTS Courts Functions The Magistrates’ Court |e Trials conducted in this court are called summary trials. * The Magistrate tries minor criminal offences «The Magistrate conducts preliminary enquiries into serious criminal or indictable offences such as murder or rape. He/she also conducts investigations into unnatural deaths in a coroner's court. High Court: criminal * This court tries serious offences which division the Magistrates’ Court conducted the preliminary enquiries. High Court: civil * This court settles disputes relating to division matters such as divorce, libel and disputed ownership of property. Court of Appeal ‘This court consists of a panel of three judges. An individual who believes that he/she did not get a fair trail in either the Magistrates’ Court or High Court may have his case reviewed by the Court of Appeal. 33* This court either confirms, reverse, increase or reduce the sentence imposed by the lower court. The Privy Council This English-based court is the final appellate court for the Caribbean countries except Guyana. * An individual who is not satisfied with the decision of the Appeal Court may appeal to the Privy Council for a review. THE ROLE OF A PRISON SYSTEM Aprison system is necessary to: « Provide a form of punishment to deter the prisoner from repeating the offence. ¢ Deter would-be criminals. Reform the prisoner by providing him/her with counseling opportunity to acquire desired values and attitudes and basic educational skills or further education. * Protect the victim and the society from the criminal. « _ Instil confidence in the judicial system. * Dispense justice by satisfying the victim that the wrong doer has been punished. FUNCTION OF THE POLICE Protect life and property. Prevent crime Detect and investigate crime Apprehend and interrogate suspects. Preserve peace and maintain order. Enforce traffic and parking laws. Investigate accidents Monitor the flow of traffic. 34THE ROLE OF THE POLICE IN THE COURT SYSTEM The police assist the courts in their work by: 1. Investigating criminal offences and bringing suspected persons to trial. 2. Recording statements from accused persons and providing them as evidence to be used by the court prosecutor. 3. Providing witnesses for the prosecution. 4. Executing warrants to ensure that accused persons keep court appointments. 5. Compiling criminal records of offenders which may be used to influence the sentences of magistrates and judges Acting as court prosecutors. Providing protection for witnesses who may be threatened to deter them for giving evidence. 8. Maintaining order and security during court sittings. 6. tk TYPES OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS IN THE COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN There are basically two types of Electoral Systems in the Commonwealth Caribbean. These are the First past the post system and the Proportional Representation. « First past the post system - in this type of Electoral System, the country is divided into constituencies. A constituency is a body of voters in a specific geographic area who elect a representative to sit in the House of Representatives. It should be noted that each political party contesting the election usually nominates a candidate for each constituency. How does it work? People vote for a particular candidate to represent the constituency. The candidate who gains the majority vote wins the election in that constituency; this also means that this is the candidate who has won the seat in the House of Representatives. This system is used in all the Commonwealth Caribbean except Guyana. * Proportional Representation - in this Electoral System, the entire country is treated as one constituency. Political parties have to prepare a list of candidates based on the number of 35