IT123 Discrete Mathematics

Sets and Subsets

Sets, in mathematics, are an organized collection of objects and can be represented in set-
builder form or roster form. Usually, sets are represented in curly braces {}, for example, A =
{1,2,3,4} is a set.

In sets theory, you will learn about sets and it’s properties. It was developed to describe the
collection of objects. You have already learned about the classification of sets here.
The set theory defines the different types of sets, symbols and operations performed.

Set Theory is a branch of mathematical logic where we learn sets and their properties. A set is a
collection of objects or groups of objects. These objects are often called elements or members of
a set. For example, a group of players in a cricket team is a set.

Since the number of players in a cricket team could be only 11 at a time, thus we can say, this set
is a finite set. Another example of a finite set is a set of English vowels. But there are many sets
that have infinite members such as a set of natural numbers, a set of whole numbers, set of real
numbers, set of imaginary numbers, etc.

Set Theory Origin

Georg Cantor (1845-1918), a German mathematician, initiated the concept ‘Theory of sets’ or ‘Set
Theory’. While working on “Problems on Trigonometric Series”, he encountered sets, that have
become one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Without understanding sets, it
will be difficult to explain the other concepts such as relations, functions, sequences, probability,
geometry, etc.

Definition of Sets
Sets are represented as a collection of well-defined objects or elements and it does not change
from person to person. A set is represented by a capital letter. The number of elements in the
finite set is known as the cardinal number of a set.

What are the Elements of a Set

Let us take an example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the
elements of the set or members of the set. The elements that are written in the set can be in any
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Sets and Subsets

order but cannot be repeated. All the set elements are represented in small letter in case of
alphabets. Also, we can write it as 1 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A etc. The cardinal number of the set is 5. Some
commonly used sets are as follows:

• N: Set of all natural numbers

• Z: Set of all integers
• Q: Set of all rational numbers
• R: Set of all real numbers
• Z+: Set of all positive integers

Order of Sets
The order of a set defines the number of elements a set is having. It describes the size of a set.
The order of set is also known as the cardinality.

The size of set whether it is is a finite set or an infinite set, said to be set of finite order or infinite
order, respectively.

Representation of Sets
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or {Bat, Ball, Wickets}.
The elements in the sets are depicted in either the Statement form, Roster Form or Set Builder
Form.

Statement Form
In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are written and enclosed
in the curly brackets.

For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.

In statement form, it can be written as {even numbers less than 15}.

Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.

For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.

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Sets and Subsets

Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….

Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4

Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

Set Builder Form

The general form is, A = { x : property }

Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}

Solution:

2=2x1

4=2x2

6=2x3

8=2x4

So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

Also, Venn Diagrams are the simple and best way for visualized representation of sets.

Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite sets, proper set,
equal sets, etc. Let us go through the classification of sets here.

Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or null set. It is
denoted by { } or Ø.

A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set because in a grapes
basket there are no apples present.
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Sets and Subsets

Singleton Set
A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.

Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.

Finite set
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.

Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.

A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Infinite set
A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.

Example: A set of all natural numbers.

A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

Equivalent set
If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called equivalent sets.
The order of sets does not matter here. It is represented as:

n(A) = n(B)

where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.

Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}

In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements. Therefore, set A and set
B are equivalent.

Equal sets
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements, the order of
elements do not matter.

Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1}

A=B
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Disjoint Sets
The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any common element.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no common
element between them.

Subsets
A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B, denoted as A ⊆ B.
Even the null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In general, a subset is a part of
another set.

Example: A = {1,2,3}

Then {1,2} ⊆ A.

Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.

Note: The set is also a subset of itself.

If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄B.

Proper Subset
If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be written as A⊂B.

Example: If A = {2,5,7} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper subset of B = {2,5,7}

But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.

Superset
Set A is said to be the superset of B if all the elements of set B are the elements of set A. It is
represented as A ⊃ B.

For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and set B = {1, 3, 4}, then set A is the superset of B.

Universal Set
A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the universal set. It is the
set of all possible values.
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Sets and Subsets

Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be:

U = {1,2,3,4,5}

Operations on Sets
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets combine to form a
single set under some of the given conditions. The basic operations on sets are:

• Union of sets
• Intersection of sets
• A complement of a set
• Cartesian product of sets.
• Set difference

Basically, we work more on union and intersection of sets operations, using Venn diagrams.

Union of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all the elements of set A and
set B. It is denoted as A ∪ B.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:

A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only the common
elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:

A ∩ B = { } or Ø

Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their intersection will give null set.
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Sets and Subsets

Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not in set
P. It is denoted by P’.

Properties of Complement sets

1. P ∪ P′ = U
2. P ∩ P′ = Φ
3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and U′ = Φ.

Cartesian Product of sets

If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a set of all ordered
pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. It is denoted by A × B.

We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;

A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has elements of A but no
elements of B. It is denoted as A – B.

Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}

A – B = {1}
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Sets and Subsets

Subsets are a part of one of the mathematical concepts called Sets. A set is a collection of
objects or elements, grouped in the curly braces, such as {a,b,c,d}. If a set A is a collection of
even number and set B consists of {2,4,6}, then B is said to be a subset of A, denoted by B⊆A and
A is the superset of B. Learn Sets Subset And Superset to understand the difference.

The elements of sets could be anything such as a group of real numbers, variables, constants,
whole numbers, etc. It consists of a null set as well. Let us discuss subsets here with its types and
examples.

What is a Subset in Maths?

Set A is said to be a subset of Set B if all the elements of Set A are also present in Set B. In other
words, set A is contained inside Set B.

Example: If set A has {X, Y} and set B has {X, Y, Z}, then A is the subset of B because elements of A
are also present in set B.

Subset Symbol
In set theory, a subset is denoted by the symbol ⊆ and read as ‘is a subset of’.

Using this symbol we can express subsets as follows:

A ⊆ B; which means Set A is a subset of Set B.

Note: A subset can be equal to the set. That is, a subset can contain all the elements that are
present in the set.

All Subsets of a Set

The subsets of any set consists of all possible sets including its elements and the null set. Let us
understand with the help of an example.

Example: Find all the subsets of set A = {1,2,3,4}

Solution: Given, A = {1,2,3,4}

Subsets =

{}
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Sets and Subsets

{1}, {2}, {3}, {4},

{1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,3},{2,4}, {3,4},

{1,2,3}, {2,3,4}, {1,3,4}, {1,2,4}

{1,2,3,4}

Types of Subsets
Subsets are classified as

• Proper Subset
• Improper Subsets

A proper subset is one that contains a few elements of the original set whereas an improper
subset, contains every element of the original set along with the null set.

For example, if set A = {2, 4, 6}, then,

Number of subsets: {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}, {2,4,6} and Φ or {}.

Proper Subsets: {}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}

Improper Subset: {2,4,6}

There is no particular formula to find the subsets, instead, we have to list them all, to differentiate
between proper and improper one. The set theory symbols were developed by mathematicians
to describe the collections of objects.

What are Proper Subsets?

Set A is considered to be a proper subset of Set B if Set B contains at least one element that is not
present in Set A.

Example: If set A has elements as {12, 24} and set B has elements as {12, 24, 36}, then set A is the
proper subset of B because 36 is not present in the set A.
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Proper Subset Symbol

A proper subset is denoted by ⊂ and is read as ‘is a proper subset of’. Using this symbol, we can
express a proper subset for set A and set B as;

A⊂B

Proper Subset Formula

If we have to pick n number of elements from a set containing N number of elements, it can be
done in NCn number of ways.

Therefore, the number of possible subsets containing n number of elements from a set
containing N number of elements is equal to NCn.

How many subsets and proper subsets does a set have?

If a set has “n” elements, then the number of subset of the given set is 2n and the number of
proper subsets of the given subset is given by 2n-1.

Consider an example, If set A has the elements, A = {a, b}, then the proper subset of the given
subset are { }, {a}, and {b}.

Here, the number of elements in the set is 2.

We know that the formula to calculate the number of proper subsets is 2n – 1.

= 22 – 1

=4–1

=3

Thus, the number of proper subset for the given set is 3 ({ }, {a}, {b}).

What is Improper Subset?

A subset which contains all the elements of the original set is called an improper subset. It is
denoted by ⊆.

For example: Set P ={2,4,6} Then, the subsets of P are;

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{}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} and {2,4,6}.

Where, {}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} are the proper subsets and {2,4,6} is the improper subsets.
Therefore, we can write {2,4,6} ⊆ P.

Note: The empty set is an improper subset of itself (since it is equal to itself) but it is a proper
subset of any other set.

Power Set
The power set is said to be the collection of all the subsets. It is represented by P(A).

If A is set having elements {a, b}. Then the power set of A will be;

P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

To learn more in brief, click on the article link of power set.

Properties of Subsets
Some of the important properties of subsets are:

• Every set is considered as a subset of the given set itself. It means that X ⊂ X or Y ⊂ Y, etc
• We can say, an empty set is considered as a subset of every set.
• X is a subset of Y. It means that X is contained in Y
• If a set X is a subset of set Y, we can say that Y is a superset of X