Physics Definitions To remember for CSEC

Momentum:
Linear momentum is defined as the product of a body`s mass and linear velocity.

Law of conservation of momentum:

Provided that no external forces are acting on a system of colliding bodies the total
momentum(vector sum) before collision is equal to the total momentum (vector sum) after
collision.

Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit area.

Archimedes` Principle
Archimedes` principle states that for a body partially or fully submerged in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Hooke`s Law
Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension of an elastic body is proportional
to the force/load applied.

Elastic Limit (E)

This is the point after which the body will not return to its original shape, if the force is
removed ( the spring is permanently deformed).

Boyle`s Law
For a fixed mass of gas the pressure is inversely related to the volume provided that absolute
temperature remains the same.

Charles` Law
For a fixed mass of gas the volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
provided that the pressure remains the same.

Pressure Law
For a fixed mass of gas the pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
provided that the volume remains the same.

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is defined as the random and spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclei.
Resulting in the spontaneous emission of ionizing radiation from the nuclei of certain
elements due to the instability of the nuclei.

Spontaneous:
Spontaneous means the process is not affected by external forces such as temperature or
pressure.

Half-life:
Half life is the time taken for the number of nuclei or activity present to decay to half its
original value.
Magnification:
Magnification is the ratio of image distance to object distance or ratio of image height to
object height.

Reflection:
This is the process where a wave changes its velocity(not speed), and direction.

The theory of reflection is applied to questions involving

1) Mirrors
2) In the topic of refraction but during total internal reflection

Theory associated with reflection

Laws of reflection
1) Diagram Law: The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence
all lie on the same plane.

Definitions:

Normal: This is a line drawn at 90C to the reflecting surface.

Angle of incidence, I : angle between the normal and incident ray

Angle of reflection, r : Angle between the normal and the reflected ray

2) 2nd law of reflection:

Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection:

Waves:

Progressive Waves:
These are waves which continuously transfer energy away from the source and never returns
it.

Transverse Waves:
These are waves in which the particles are displaced perpendicular to the direction along
which the wave energy is moving.

Waves

Progressive Stationary Waves

Transverse Longitudinal
Properties of electromagnetic waves
1) Can transfer energy from one place to another.
2) Does not require a medium to travel through.
3) They all travel at (3×108ms-1) in a vacuum.
4) They are all transverse waves.
5) They can all be polarized.

Gamma X-ray UV Visible IR Micro Radio

Light

---- going in this direction, increases wave length ---

---- going in this direction, increases frequency -----

Longitudinal Waves (sound waves)

Longitudinal Wave:
A longitudinal wave is one in which the particles of the medium are displaced parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.

Main example of longitudinal wave (Sound wave)

Sound waves are generated using a vibrating medium especially applied to musical
instruments.
Consider Table:
Musical Instrument Vibrating System
Guitar String under tension
Drum Stretched Animal Skin
Flute Column of air
Whistle Air
Steel-pan Tempered Steel
Tuning Fork Prongs

Ultra sounds:
Ultra sounds are sound waves with very high frequencies, much higher than the upper
audioable limit of 20 000 hz.
Section A:
Mechanics

Newton`s laws:

Reference June 2017

1st Law: This law states that if a body is at rest, it remains at rest. If a body is moving it will
continue to move in a straight line with constant/uniform speed unless compelled to react
otherwise by a resultant unbalanced force.
2nd Law: The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the unbalanced/resultant
force and occurs in the direction of the force.

*This law is applied to situations where an object is accelerating. (F = ma)

3rd Law: If body ‘A’ exerts a force on body ‘B’, then body ‘B’ will exert an equal but opposite
force on body ‘A’.

Typical calculations for Newton`s Laws:

January 2000 P2 :

Explanation of Motor:
When the switch is closed, current flows through the coil in the direction AB, causing a
downward force to be exerted and an upward force on CD according to Flemming`s left hand
rule.

This force is due to the interaction between the uniform field of the permanent magnet and
circular field of the coil. The coil therefore moves in an anticlockwise direction. As the coil
moves past the vertical position, the current direction in AB and CD are reversed. Hence the
direction of the forces are reversed on them, causing the coil to rotate continuously in one
direction due to the commutator.

January 2018 Qu 6 b) ii
When the switch is closed current flowing through the coil in the direction DC, causes a
downward force to be exerted on the arm DC and an upward force to be exerted on the arm
BA, according to Flemming`s left hand rule.

The force is due to the interaction between the uniform field of the permanent magnet and
circular field of the coil. The coil will therefore move in a clockwise direction. As the coil
moves past the vertical position the current directions in DC and BA are reversed. Hence the
direction of the force are reversed on them, causing the coil to rotate continuously in one
direction due to the commutator.

Temperature:
Temperature is direct measure of the Kinetic energy of a system i.e. temperature is directly
related to the kinetic energy of molecules.

Temperature always goes from higher temperature to lower temperature.Temperature is

related to the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance. Block X has a higher
temperature than Y, so its molecules have a higher kinetic energy and greater motion
compared to those in Y.

The transfer of thermal energy would cease when both bodies have the same temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to raise/change the
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1K.

Heat Capacity
This is the heat energy required to change the temperature of the substance/entire body by
1K.

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

Specific latent heat of fusion is the heat of energy required to convert 1kg of a substance from
a solid to a liquid state without any change in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific latent heat of vaporization is the heat energy required to convert 1kg of a substance
from a liquid to vapour state without any change in temperature.

Upper Fixed Point (Steam Point) :

Value: 100C
This is the temperature of steam above boiling water at 100C and a standard atmospheric
pressure of 1 atmosphere (1 atm).

Lower Fixed Point (Ice Point) :

Value: 0C
This is the temperature of pure melting ice at 0C and standard atmospheric pressure.

Focus On Thermometers
The table below summarises for each thermometer type, the physical property used to
measure temperature.

Thermometer Physical Property

Thermocouple EMF
Liquid in glass Volume
Constant Volume Gas Pressure
Platinum Resistance Resistance

All Features of Thermometers

Table 1: This shows the use and the range

Type Use Range

Thermocouple Thermometer Measures extremely high -200 C to 2500 C
rapidly changing -250C to 800C
temperatures i.e responds to
changing temperatures
Clinical Thermometer Used to measure body 34 C to 43C
temperature 35C to 43C
Laboratory Thermometer Measures boiling and -10 C to 110 C
 freezing points of water and -20 C to 110C
room temperature
Alcohol Thermometer Used to measure extremely -40C to 60C
low temperatures

Table 2: Type of thermometer, design feature, reason for design feature

Type of thermometer Design Feature Reason for Design Feature

Mercury in glass (laboratory Narrow bore Allows it to be sensitive to
thermometer or liquid in small changes in
glass thermometer) temperature( gives more
precise readings)
Clinical Thermometer Constriction in the narrow Allows it to retain a
bore measured temperature
Thermocouple A low heat capacity small It has the ability to measure
junction which has a small rapidly changing
mass temperatures.
Alcohol Thermometers Choice of liquid/alcohol Alcohol of different types
would freeze at different
temperatures allowing for
specific ranges .

Vacuum Flask:
3 Methods Of Heat Transfer

1) Conduction: There must have physical contact.

2) Conduction: There must be the free movement of gas or liquid to the external
atmosphere.
3) Radiation: Needs a black dull surface to be absorbed for it to cause a heating effect.

The features of the vacuum flask will minimize the transfer of thermal energy.

I. The cork stopper: The cork stopper is an insulator which is a poor conductor of heat
and prevents convection currents from escaping the flask.
II. Vacuum: The vacuum prevents heat from leaving or entering the flask by conduction
and convection.
III. Double-walled glass vessel with silvered walls: This prevents/reduces heat energy
leaving or entering the flask by radiation.
Moments
The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line
of action of the force to the fulcrum.

Centre of Gravity:
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the total weight of the body seems
to act.

Explain why, in the absence of other forces, an object may be balanced at its centre of
gravity:
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the total weight of the body seems
to act. Since the total weight of the body acts downwards through this point then putting a
support exactly underneath this point will be able to balance it (hold it up).

Equilibrium:
The concept is used to solve ALL moments calculations
Conditions necessary for equilibrium (you have to state all of what is below):
1) The sum of the forces along an axis = 0 i.e. the total upward force = total downward
force

2) Principle Of Moments:
The principle of moments states that if a system is in equilibrium then the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about
the point.
Unit of Moment: Nm
Formula: moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
action of the force.

Devices which use the theory/principle of moments:

 Crowbar
 Wheel barrow
 Opening a door
 Using a spanner

Nature and origin of forces:

1) A force is defined as a push or pull
Unit: kgms-2 or N
Instrument used to measure force: Spring Balance

W- weight, acts downwards from the centre of gravity.

Calculate Weight:
Weight = mass ×acc. due to gravity
Centre of Gravity: the centre of gravity is the point thorugh which all the weight of the body
appears to act.

R (Reaction force) – it originates from the point of contact between two bodies.
Example; where a wheel touches the ground. The reaction force is generally directed
upwards.

T(Tension) – Is a force in string or spring that is directed to allow the spring or string to
regain its original length ( in most cases it will go opposite to the weight)