DBMS

MODULE 1

1. With a neat diagram, explain three schema architectures.?

ANS. The three-schema architecture, also known as ANSI/SPARC architecture, is a

design approach for databases that divides data views into three layers: external schema,
conceptual schema, and internal schema. Here is an explanation of the three layers:

1. External Schema (User View): This layer represents how individual users or user groups
view the data. It provides specific data views tailored to users' needs, hiding unnecessary
details and offering a user-friendly interface.

2. Conceptual Schema (Logical View): The conceptual schema represents the logical
structure of the entire database as seen by the administrator. It combines all user views
without revealing how data is stored, ensuring data consistency and integrity.

3. Internal Schema (Physical View): The internal schema defines how and where data is
stored and accessed. It focuses on efficient storage, indexing, and performance
optimization, detailing the physical representation of the database on the computer
system.

The three-schema architecture ensures data independence by separating the logical and
physical layers, allowing modifications to one layer without affecting the others. This
separation offers benefits such as flexibility, data independence, efficient data access,
improved security, and simplified data management. Despite its advantages, the
architecture introduces complexity, additional development effort, potential
inconsistencies, and a learning curve due to managing interactions between the schemas.
 2. List and explain the characteristics, advantages of the DBMS approach.?

ANS . The Database Management System (DBMS) approach has several key
characteristics and advantages.

Characteristics of the DBMS approach include:

1>Self-Describing Nature of a Database System: The DBMS catalog stores information

about the structure of every file, the type and storage format of every data item, and
various constraints/rules on the information. This metadata describes the structure of the
database.

2>Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction: The structure of
database knowledge files is stored within the DBMS catalog separately from the
programs that access them, providing program-data independence. Data abstraction
allows users to work with a conceptual representation of data, hiding implementation
details.

3>Support for Multiple Views of the Data: A database can have many users, each of
whom may require a special perspective or view of the database. A view can be a subset
of the database or derived data that is not explicitly stored.

4>Sharing of Data and Multi-user Transaction Processing: A multi-user DBMS must allow
multiple users to access the database at the same time, ensuring that several users trying
to update equivalent data do not interfere with each other.

Advantages of the DBMS approach include:

1>Reducing Data Redundancy: A DBMS prevents data redundancy by maintaining a

single database, ensuring that any change is reflected immediately and eliminating
duplicate data.

2>Sharing of Data: The DBMS allows multiple users to share data, with various levels of
authorization to access the data. Remote users can also access the database
simultaneously and share data between themselves.

3>Data Integrity: A DBMS ensures that data is accurate and consistent in the database,
which is crucial as there are multiple databases in a DBMS that contain data visible to
multiple users.

4>Data Security: Only authorized users should be allowed to access the database, with
their identity authenticated using a username and password. Unauthorized users should
not be allowed to access the database under any circumstances.

5>Privacy: The DBMS ensures that only authorized users can access a database
according to its privacy constraints. There are levels of database access, and a user can
only view the data he is allowed to.
6>Backup and Recovery: The DBMS automatically takes care of backup and recovery,
ensuring that users don't need to backup data periodically and restoring the database
after a crash or system failure to its previous condition.

7>Data Consistency: A DBMS ensures data consistency by eliminating data redundancy

and immediately reflecting any changes made to the database to all users

3. Explain the following:

a) DBMS
b) Database
c) Database Schema
d) Weak Entity Type
e) Participation Constraint
f) Cardinality ratio
g) Recursive relationship
h) Specialization
i) DBMS catalog
j) Snapshot.

ANS

a) DBMS (Database Management System): is a software system that allows users to

define, create, maintain, and control access to the database. It is a layer between
programs and data, making it possible for end-users to create, read, update, and delete
data in the database
.
b) Database is a collection: of data organized in a specific format, making it easy to
access, manage, and manipulate. It is a structured set of data, designed to serve a specific
purpose and managed by a DBMS

.
c) Database Schema: is the overall design of the database, including the tables, fields, and
relationships between data elements. It is a blueprint of the database structure that
defines how data is organized and accessed

.
d) Weak Entity Type: is an entity type that cannot exist independently and must be
associated with another entity type to have meaning. It is a dependent entity type that
relies on a strong entity type for its existence

.
e) Participation Constraint: is a rule that defines the minimum and maximum number of
times an entity can participate in a relationship. It is a constraint that ensures the integrity
of the relationship between entities

.
f) Cardinality Ratio: is a measure of the number of entities in one entity type that can be
associated with entities in another entity type. It is a constraint that ensures the integrity
of the relationship between entities

.
g) Recursive Relationship: is a relationship between an entity type and itself. It is a
relationship where an entity can have a relationship with itself, such as a manager having
a relationship with their subordinates

.
h) Specialization: is a process of defining subsets of an entity type based on specific
criteria. It is a way of creating more specific entity types from a general entity type, such
as creating an entity type for "employee" and then specializing it into "manager" and
"staff"

.
i) DBMS Catalog : is a collection of metadata that describes the structure and
characteristics of the database. It is a database that stores information about the
database, such as the schema, constraints, and relationships between tables

.
j) Snapshot : is a point-in-time view of the database. It is a copy of the database at a
specific moment in time, used for backup and recovery purposes or for reporting and
analysis

4. Develop an ER diagram for various databases [Company, University, Airlines],

considering at least 5 entities.?

ANS. To develop an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) for various databases, we need to
consider entities, attributes, and relationships. Entities are definable things or concepts
within a system, attributes are properties of entities, and relationships are the
associations between entities.

1] For the [Company] database, we can consider the following entities:

Employee: Represents the employees of the company.
Attributes: Employee ID, Name, Address, Phone Number, Email, Position, Salary.
Department: Represents the various departments in the company.
Attributes: Department ID, Name, Manager ID.

Project: Represents the projects that the company is working on.

Attributes: Project ID, Name, Description, Start Date, End Date, Budget.

Task: Represents the tasks assigned to the employees for each project.
Attributes: Task ID, Name, Description, Assigned Date, Deadline, Status, Employee ID.
Client: Represents the clients of the company.
Attributes: Client ID, Name, Address, Phone Number, Email.

2] For the [University] database, we can consider the following entities:

Student: Represents the students of the university.

Attributes: Student ID, Name, Address, Phone Number, Email, Department ID.
Course: Represents the courses offered by the university.
Attributes: Course ID, Name, Description, Credits, Department ID.
Professor: Represents the professors of the university.
Attributes: Professor ID, Name, Address, Phone Number, Email, Department ID.
Department: Represents the various departments in the university.
Attributes: Department ID, Name, Chairperson ID.
Section: Represents the sections of a course.
Attributes: Section ID, Course ID, Professor ID, Schedule.
3]For the [Airlines] database, we can consider the following entities:

Flight: Represents the flights operated by the airline.

Attributes: Flight ID, Flight Number, Departure City, Arrival City, Departure Time, Arrival
Time, Aircraft ID.
Aircraft: Represents the aircraft owned by the airline.
Attributes: Aircraft ID, Model, Capacity, Manufacturing Year.
Crew: Represents the crew members of the airline.
Attributes: Crew ID, Name, Position, License Number, Department ID.
Route: Represents the routes operated by the airline.
Attributes: Route ID, Departure City, Arrival City, Distance, Flight ID.
Passenger: Represents the passengers traveling on the flights.
Attributes: Passenger ID, Name, Address, Phone Number, Email, Flight ID.
 5. Explain different types of user-friendly interfaces and types of users who typically
use each.?
ANS. User-friendly interfaces are essential for easy interaction between users and
computer systems. Different types of user-friendly interfaces cater to various user needs
and skill levels. Here are the different types of user-friendly interfaces and the types of
users who typically use each:

1> Command Line Interface (CLI)

Description: CLI involves computers responding to low-level commands typed by the

user.
Users: Users who are well-informed and knowledgeable of low-level commands,
indicating high-level computer skills.

2> Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Description: Users interact with a visual representation of commands through graphical

icons.
Users: Users who have sufficient knowledge of different computer commands but not
high-level computer skills.

3> Menu-Based Interfaces

Description: Simple and easy-to-use interfaces containing a series of menus and sub-
menus, accessed through pressing different buttons.
Users: Users who lack high-level computer skills but understand human language
computer commands.

4> Form-Based Interfaces

Description: An interface that contains text-boxes and drop-down menus to enable the
user to input information to enter data into a system.
Users: Users who require no knowledge of computer commands, only human language.

5>Natural Language Interfaces

Description: The user interacts with the computer by talking to it in their natural
language.
Users: Users who have no prior knowledge of computer commands but understand how
computers work.

6> Speech Input and Output Interfaces

Description: Users interact with the computer by speaking to it, and the computer
responds by speaking back.
Users: Users who prefer hands-free interaction or have specific accessibility needs.

7> Virtual Reality User Interface (VRUI)

Description: A UI that creates a virtual reality environment through 3D graphical
representations.
Users: Users who enjoy immersive experiences, such as gamers or architects.

8> Web User Interface (WUI)

Description: An interface that allows users to access software running on a remote server
through a web browser.
Users: Users who need to access software or services from any device with an internet
connection.

These interfaces are also used in database management systems (DBMS) to improve user
interaction and experience. DBMS interfaces may include menu-based interfaces, forms-
based interfaces, graphical user interfaces, natural language interfaces, speech input and
output interfaces, interfaces for parametric users, and interfaces for database
administrators (DBA)

6. Explain component modules of DBMS and their interaction. diagram.?

ANS. The components of a Database Management System (DBMS) are as follows:
Hardware
Software
Data
Procedures
Database Access Language
People

The components of a Database Management System (DBMS) are as follows:

Hardware

1. The hardware refers to the physical parts of the computer and includes various
storage devices like hard disks and printers.
2. Hardware is the most visible part of any information system, and it is used for
keeping and accessing the database.

Software

1. Software is the actual DBMS between the physical database and the users of the
system.
2. All requests from the user for accessing the database are handled by DBMS.

Data

1. Data is an important component of the database management system.

2. The main task of DBMS is to process the data.

3. Databases are used to store, retrieve, and update data.

Procedures

1. Procedures refer to the instructions used in a database management system and

encompass everything from instructions to set up login and logout, manage day-
to-day operations, take backups of data, and generate reports.

Database Access Language

1. Database Access Language is a language used to write commands to access,

update, and delete data stored in a database.

2. Users can write commands using Database Access Language before submitting
them to the database for execution.

People

1. People are the users of the database who can access or retrieve the data on
demand using the application and the interfaces provided by the DBMS.

2. The users of the database can be classified into different groups, such as native
users, online users, sophisticated users, specialized users, application users, and
DBA (Database Administrator).

These components work together to manage and interact with databases efficiently,
ensuring data security, accessibility, and integrity.
 MODULE 2

1. Study SQL queries for different databases.?

ANS. The steps involved in converting ER constructs to corresponding relational tables
are as follows:
• Identify Entities and Attributes: Analyze the ER diagram to identify entities and
their attributes. Each entity corresponds to a table, and each attribute becomes a
column in the table
•
Define Primary Keys: Assign a primary key to each table. This key uniquely
identifies each row in the table

Convert Relationships:

One-to-One Relationship: Merge the related tables into one table with a
composite primary key consisting of the primary keys of the original tables

One-to-Many Relationship: Add a foreign key in the "many" table referencing the
primary key of the "one" table. The primary key of the "one" table remains
unchanged

Many-to-Many Relationship: Create a linking table with foreign keys referencing

the primary keys of the related tables. The linking table will have a composite
primary key consisting of the foreign keys

Convert Multivalued Attributes: For each multivalued attribute, create a separate table
with a foreign key referencing the primary key of the original table. The new table will
have a composite primary key consisting of the foreign key and the multivalued attribute

Normalize the Tables: Analyze the tables for redundancies and apply normalization
techniques like decomposition to eliminate redundancy and improve data integrity

Verify and Refine: Review the created tables and relationships for accuracy and
efficiency. Refine the schema as needed based on further analysis or specific database
requirements

2.Explain all the SQL commands with syntax and examples.?

ANS. SQL commands are used to manipulate and query databases. Here are some of the
most common SQL commands with their syntax and examples:
SELECT

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

Example: SELECT * FROM Customers;
This command retrieves data from a database.

UPDATE

Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2 WHERE

condition;
Example: UPDATE employees SET employee_name = 'John Doe', department =
'Marketing';
This command updates existing records in a table.

DELETE

Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example: DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerID = 1;
This command deletes data from a database.

INSERT INTO

Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);

Example: INSERT INTO Customers (first_name, last_name) VALUES ('Mary', 'Doe');
This command inserts new data into a database.

CREATE DATABASE

Syntax: CREATE DATABASE database_name;

Example: CREATE DATABASE MyDatabase;
This command creates a new database.

ALTER DATABASE

Syntax: ALTER DATABASE database_name MODIFY NAME new_database_name;

Example: ALTER DATABASE MyDatabase MODIFY NAME NewDatabase;
This command modifies a database.

CREATE TABLE

Syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype, column2 datatype);

Example: CREATE TABLE Customers (first_name varchar(50), last_name varchar(50));
This command creates a new table.

ALTER TABLE

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

Example: ALTER TABLE Customers ADD email varchar(50);
This command modifies a table.
DROP TABLE

Syntax: DROP TABLE table_name;

Example: DROP TABLE Customers;
This command deletes a table.

CREATE INDEX

Syntax: CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name);

Example: CREATE INDEX idx_firstname ON Customers (first_name);
This command creates an index (search key) for a table.

DROP INDEX

Syntax: DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;

Example: DROP INDEX idx_firstname ON Customers;
This command deletes an index.

3. Briefly explain the various Data Types and Domains in SQL. ?

ANS. In SQL, data types and domains play a crucial role in defining the nature of data that
can be stored in a database.

Data Types in SQL:

Numeric Data Types: Used to store numeric values like INT, BIGINT, DECIMAL, and
FLOAT.

Character Data Types: Store character strings such as CHAR, VARCHAR, and TEXT.

Date and Time Data Types: Store date and time values like DATE, TIME, and
TIMESTAMP.

Binary Data Types: Store binary data like images or audio files using BLOB and BYTEA.

Boolean Data Type: Stores logical values TRUE and FALSE.

Interval Data Types: Used to store intervals of time like INTERVAL YEAR, MONTH, and
DAY.

Array Data Types: Store arrays of values using ARRAY and JSON.

XML Data Type: Specifically for storing XML data.

Spatial Data Types: Used for storing geometric or geographic data such as POINT, LINE,
and POLYGON.
Domains in SQL:

char(n): Fixed-length character string with user-specified length.

varchar(n): Variable-length character string with user-specified maximum length.

int: Integer data type.

smallint: Small integer data type.

numeric(p,d): Fixed-point number with user-specified precision.

real, double precision: Floating-point and double-precision floating-point numbers.

float(n): Floating-point number with user-specified precision.

Domains in SQL define the constraints and rules that apply to a set of columns. They help
maintain data integrity and consistency by enforcing specific rules on data values.
Domains can be used to define data types, default values, constraints, and more for a
group of columns.

4. What are the relational algebra operations in Set Theory? Briefly explain them
with examples.?

ANS. Relational algebra is a procedural query language that operates on relations,

which are tables containing rows and columns. It is used to define operators that
transform one or more input relations into an output relation without changing the
original relations.
The main operators in relational algebra are:

Selection (σ): It selects required tuples from a relation based on a specified condition or
predicate.
For example, σ(c>3)R selects tuples from relation R where the value of attribute c is
greater than

Projection (π): It projects required column data from a relation.

For example, π(B,C)R shows columns B and C from relation R, removing duplicate data.

Cartesian Product (X): It combines every tuple in relation A with every tuple in relation B,
resulting in a relation with all attributes of A followed by each attribute of B.
For example, A X B combines every record of A with every record of B.
Union (U): It combines tuples from two relations, removing duplicate tuples. The two
relations must have the same set of attributes.
For example, π(Student_Name)FRENCH U π(Student_Name)GERMAN lists the names of
students in both FRENCH and GERMAN relations, removing duplicates.

Set Difference (-): It defines a relation consisting of tuples that are in relation R but not in
S. The two relations must have the same set of attributes.
For example, π(Student_Name)FRENCH - π(Student_Name)GERMAN lists the names of
students in the FRENCH relation but not in the GERMAN relation.

Intersection (∩): It defines a relation consisting of tuples that are in both R and S. The two
relations must have the same set of attributes.
For example, π(Student_Name)FRENCH ∩ π(Student_Name)GERMAN lists the names of
students in both FRENCH and GERMAN relations.
These operators can be combined and used to express complex queries that transform
many input relations into an output relation.

5. Write a note on Relational Model Constraints in SQL.?

ANS. Write a note on Relational Model Constraints in SQL

The Relational Model in SQL is a way of organizing and storing data in a database using
tables, columns, and rows. It is a widely used model for managing data in a structured
way. The Relational Model has several constraints that ensure the data's accuracy,
reliability, and consistency.
These constraints can be divided into three categories:

• Domain Constraints,
• Key Constraints,
• Referential Integrity Constraints.

1. Domain Constraints specify the data types and valid values that can be stored in a
column. For example, a column defined as an integer data type can only store
integer values. Similarly, a column defined as a date data type can only store date
values.

2. Key Constraints ensure that each row in a table has a unique identifier. A primary
key is a column or set of columns that uniquely identifies each row in a table. For
example, a CustomerID column in a Customer table can be defined as a primary
key to ensure that each customer has a unique identifier.

3. Referential Integrity Constraints ensure that the relationships between tables are
maintained. A foreign key is a column or set of columns in one table that refers to
the primary key of another table. For example, a Billing table can have a foreign
key referencing the CustomerID column in the Customer table to ensure that each
billing record is associated with a valid customer.

SQL provides several constraints that can be used to enforce the Relational Model's
constraints, such as NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK, and
DEFAULT. These constraints can be specified when creating a table using the CREATE
TABLE statement or after creating a table using the ALTER TABLE statement

6. What are the characteristics of Relations?

ANS. A relation in SQL is a collection of objects that share the same characteristics,
defined by a list of attributes with known data types

Each row in a relation represents an entity, and each column represents an attribute of
that entity

Relations are structured as tables in a relational database, where data is organized into
rows and columns

There are three main types of database relationships: one-to-one, one-to-many, and
many-to-many

One-to-one relationships involve one row in one table being related to one row in
another table, such as a person to passport relationship

One-to-many relationships involve one row in one table being related to many rows in
another table, like a class to student relationship
Many-to-many relationships involve many rows in one table being related to many rows
in another table, for example, a table storing university courses and students

Relations ensure data integrity by defining the type of data that can be stored in each
column, preventing the entry of unexpected or invalid data

SQL data types, such as string, numeric, and date and time, are used to define the type of
data that can be stored in a column of a database table

When creating a table in a database, specifying the column name and data type is
essential to define the structure of the table and the type of data it will hold

The properties of relational tables include atomic values, columns of the same kind,
unique rows, insignificant column sequence, and insignificant row sequence

Module-3

1. Explain the concept of views and joins in SQL with an example.?

ANS. In SQL, views and joins are essential concepts for data manipulation and retrieval.
Here's an explanation of views and joins with an example:
Views in SQL:
Definition: A view in SQL is a virtual table based on the result set of a SELECT query. It
allows users to query the data stored in the view as if it were a table.

Purpose: Views provide a way to simplify complex queries, restrict access to specific
columns, and present data in a more structured format.

Example: Suppose we have two views, view1 and view2, each representing a specific set
of data. We can create a new view, combined_view, by joining these two views to merge
their data.

Simplify Data Access: Views provide a simplified way to access and interact with data,
especially when dealing with complex queries involving multiple tables.

Enhance Security: Views can be used to grant access to specific users while restricting
direct access to underlying base tables, enhancing data security.

Improve Performance: By predefining complex queries in views, performance can be

improved as the results are stored and retrieved more efficiently.

Backward Compatibility: Views can emulate tables with changed schemas, providing a
backward-compatible interface for applications.

Joins in SQL:
The concept of joins in SQL involves combining columns from one or more tables based
on a related column to create a new table. Joins are fundamental in SQL as they allow for
the retrieval of data from multiple tables by establishing relationships between them.
Joins in SQL are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related
column between them.

Types of Joins:

INNER JOIN: Returns records with matching values in both tables.

LEFT JOIN (OUTER JOIN): Returns all records from the left table and matched records
from the right table.

RIGHT JOIN (OUTER JOIN): Returns all records from the right table and matched records
from the left table.

FULL JOIN (OUTER JOIN): Returns all records when there is a match in either the left or
right table.

Example: To combine data from view1 and view2, we can use an INNER JOIN on a
common column to create a new view, combined_view.

2. Draw and explain 3-tier Architecture and technology relevant to each tier. Mention its
advantages.?

ANS. 3-Tier Architecture Overview:

The 3-tier architecture consists of three layers: the Presentation Layer, the Application
Layer, and the Data Layer. Each layer serves a specific function and interacts with the
other layers to create a complete software application.
Presentation Layer:
Function: This layer is the user interface (UI) where users interact with the application.
Technologies: HTML, CSS, JavaScript, frameworks like React, Angular, etc.
Application Layer:
Function: The heart of the application where business logic is processed.
Technologies: C#, Java, C++, Python, Ruby, application servers.
Data Layer:
Function: Stores, manages, and retrieves application data.
Technologies: MSSQL, MySQL, PostgreSQL, etc., relational or NoSQL database
management systems.

Advantages of 3-Tier Architecture:

Improved Scalability:
Description: Application servers can be deployed on multiple machines, enhancing
scalability.
Enhanced Data Integrity:
Description: All updated information passes through the second tier, ensuring only crucial
data is permitted to be altered in the database.
Better Security:
Description: The client does not have direct access to the database, making it more
challenging for unauthorized data access.
Ease of Maintenance and Modification:
Description: Each tier is independent, allowing updates or changes without impacting the
entire application.
Improved Performance:
Description: The modular architecture enables easily scalable components, enhancing
availability and performance

3. What is SQLJ? How it is different from JDBC. Write a short note on Drivers in JDBC.?

ANS. What is SQLJ

SQLJ is a database programming tool that allows embedding static SQL statements in Java
programs, similar to ProC or ProC++. It provides translation-time syntax and semantics
checking of static SQL statements, making application programs more robust. SQLJ's syntax
is more compact than JDBC, resulting in shorter programs and increased productivity. The
SQLJ translator converts Java programs with static SQL statements into pure Java code for
execution through a JDBC driver against the databas
How it is different from JDBC.(Write a short note on Drivers in JDBC)

SQLJ differs from JDBC in that it allows embedding static SQL statements directly in Java
programs, providing translation-time syntax and semantics checking, which JDBC lacks.
SQLJ's syntax is more concise than JDBC, leading to shorter programs and enhanced user
productivity. Additionally, SQLJ programs are more robust due to the ability to perform
translation-time checks on static SQL statements

Regarding drivers in JDBC, there are four main types:

Type-1 driver or JDBC-ODBC bridge driver: Uses ODBC driver to connect to databases, but
it lacks security and portability.

Type-2 driver or Native-API driver: Utilizes client-side libraries of the DBMS, offering better
performance than the Type-1 driver.

Type-3 driver or Network Protocol driver: Fully written in Java, it uses middleware to
connect to databases, providing portability and flexibility.

Type-4 driver or Thin driver: Interacts directly with the database without requiring any native
library, making it highly portable

JDBC drivers offer several advantages for connecting Java applications to databases:

Platform Independence: JDBC drivers are completely implemented in Java, ensuring

platform independence and compatibility with various operating systems

Direct Connection: JDBC drivers allow the client application to connect directly to the
database server, bypassing translation or middleware layers, which improves performance

Debugging: The JVM manages all aspects of the application-to-database connection, and
facilitating debugging

Performance: JDBC drivers offer better performance than other drivers, as they don't require
additional software at the client or server side

Security: JDBC drivers provide secure data transfer, especially when using Type-2 or Type-3
drivers, which interact with local API or use middleware

Portability: Type-4 drivers are fully written in Java, making them highly portable

Flexibility: JDBC drivers support various databases, enabling developers to switch between
databases with ease

Compliance: JDBC drivers follow a standard specification for database-neutral

communications, ensuring compatibility with different databases

4.Explain Cursors in Embedded SQL.?

ANS. A cursor makes rows from the result table available to an application, by identifying
or pointing to a current row of this table. When a cursor is used, an application can
retrieve each row sequentially from the result table until an end of data condition, that is,
the NOT FOUND condition,
Cursors in Embedded SQL are used to process rows returned by a query one at a time.
They are useful for performing operations on each row of a result set, such as updating
or deleting rows based on specific conditions.

The steps involved in processing a cursor are as follows:

1. Specify the cursor using a DECLARE CURSOR statement.

2. Perform the query and build the result table using the OPEN statement.

3. Retrieve rows one at a time using the FETCH statement.

4. Process rows with the DELETE or UPDATE statements (if required).

 5. Terminate the cursor using the CLOSE statement.

4(A)Differentiate between Dynamic and Embedded SQL.?

ANS.

6. Write a note on Specifying Constraints as Assertions in SQL. Also explain

how assertions and triggers are defined with an example.?

ANS. In SQL, constraints are rules that the data in a database must follow. They are used
to enforce data integrity and consistency. Assertions and triggers are two mechanisms
provided by SQL for specifying constraints.

1> Assertions are used to define conditions that must hold true for the database at all
times. They are not tied to a specific table but can enforce constraints across multiple
tables. An assertion is created using the CREATE ASSERTION statement followed by a
condition that must always be true.

Here’s an example of an assertion:

(
CREATE ASSERTION SalaryCheck
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (
SELECT * FROM Employees e, Departments d
WHERE e.Salary > d.MaxSalary AND e.DepartmentID = d.ID
));

In this example, the assertion SalaryCheck ensures that no employee has a salary greater
than the maximum salary allowed in their department.

2> Triggers, on the other hand, are procedures that are automatically executed in
response to certain events on a table, such as insertions, updates, or deletions. Triggers
can be defined to execute before or after the event.

Here’s an example of a trigger:

CREATE TRIGGER AgeCheck

BEFORE INSERT ON Employees
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.Age < 18)
BEGIN
RAISE EXCEPTION 'Employee must be at least 18 years old.';
END;

This trigger, AgeCheck, will prevent the insertion of any employee who is under 18 years
old.

The main differences between assertions and triggers are:

Assertions:

Are checked after a transaction completes.

Cannot modify data.
Are used to enforce business rules and constraints.

Triggers:

Can be activated before or after a data modification event.

Can modify data.
Are used to execute actions in response to data changes.

6.What are stored procedures in SQL? Elaborate.?

ANS. Stored procedures in SQL are a powerful feature that allows you to save a set of
SQL statements so they can be reused multiple times. This is particularly useful for
complex operations that need to be performed repeatedly, ensuring consistency and
efficiency in database management.

stored procedures:

Definition: A stored procedure is a batch of pre-written SQL commands which can be

stored in the database. Once stored, this batch of commands can be executed with a
single call, making it a convenient way to perform database operations that are complex
or need to be repeated often.

Benefits:

Efficiency: Stored procedures are compiled once and stored in executable form, so the
database engine saves time by not having to recompile the SQL commands each time
they are executed.

Maintenance: Changes made to a stored procedure are automatically reflected wherever

it’s called, which simplifies maintenance.

Security: They can be used to enforce access controls to the data by restricting direct
access and only allowing data manipulation through the stored procedures.

Syntax: The basic syntax for creating a stored procedure is as follows:

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name

AS

BEGIN

-- SQL statements

END;

To execute a stored procedure, you use the EXEC command followed by the procedure
name:

EXEC procedure_name;

Parameters: Stored procedures can accept parameters, allowing you to pass values
into the SQL commands at runtime. This makes them even more flexible and
powerful.
Example: Here’s an example of a stored procedure that selects all customers from a
specific city in a Customers table:

CREATE PROCEDURE SelectCustomersByCity @City nvarchar(30)

AS
 BEGIN

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City;

END;

And you would call this stored procedure like this:

EXEC SelectCustomersByCity @City = 'New York';

7. Write notes on:

i) CGI (Common Gateway Interface)

ii) HTML forms

iii) Java Scripts

iv) Servlets

v) Application Servers

ANS.

i) CGI (Common Gateway Interface) : CGI is a standard protocol used to enable web
servers to execute external programs, known as CGI scripts, which can be written in
various programming languages such as Perl, Python, or C. These scripts generate
dynamic content on web pages or handle form submissions.

ii) HTML Forms : HTML forms are used to collect user input within a web page. They can
contain various types of input elements like text fields, checkboxes, radio buttons, and
submit buttons. The <form> element in HTML is a container for these input elements,
which can be sent to a server for processing.

iii) JavaScript : JavaScript is a lightweight, object-oriented scripting language used to

create interactive effects within web browsers. It allows for the dynamic modification of
HTML and CSS, updating the user interface without reloading the page. JavaScript is
widely used in web development for client-side scripting.

iv) Servlets : Servlets are Java programs that run on a Java-enabled web server or
application server. They handle requests, process them, produce responses, and send
those responses back to the web server. Servlets are used to create dynamic web content
and are a key component of Java web applications.

v) Application Servers : Application servers are server programs that provide business
logic for applications. They are part of a three-tier architecture, sitting between the web
server and the database server. Application servers handle requests from the web server,
process them by connecting to a database, and return the response back to the web
server.

Module-4

1. Explain insertion, deletion & modification anomalies. Why are they considered bad?
Illustrate with an example.?

ANS. Anomalies in Database Management Systems (DBMS)

Anomalies refer to deviations from what is considered normal, expected, or standard.
They represent irregularities or abnormalities that do not conform to the typical pattern
or behavior. Anomalies can manifest in various forms, such as unexpected occurrences,
unusual results, or discrepancies that stand out from the normal

Insertion Anomalies:
Insertion anomalies occur when it is not possible to insert data into a database because
the required fields are missing or incomplete For example, if a database requires that
every record has a primary key, but no value is provided for a particular record, it cannot
be inserted into the database

Example:

Consider a table named STUDENT with attributes STUD_NO, STUD_NAME,

STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE, STUD-COUNTRY, and STUD_AGE. If there is a
requirement that every record must have a primary key, but no value is provided for a
particular record, it cannot be inserted into the database

Deletion Anomalies:

Deletion anomalies occur when deleting a record from a database and can result in the
unintentional loss of data
For example, if a database contains information about customers and orders, deleting a
customer record may also delete all the orders associated with that customer

Example:
Consider a table named STUDENT_COURSE with attributes COURSE_NO,
COURSE_NAME, STUD_NO, and STUD_NAME. If a tuple is deleted from the STUDENT
table, and the referenced attribute value is used by the STUD_NO attribute in the
STUDENT_COURSE table, it will not allow deleting the tuple from the STUDENT table

Update Anomalies:

Update anomalies occur when modifying data in a database and can result in
inconsistencies or errors. For example, if a database contains information about
employees and their salaries, updating an employee’s salary in one record but not in all
related records could lead to incorrect calculations and reporting
Example:

Consider a table named EMPLOYEE with attributes EMP_NO, EMP_NAME,

EMP_SALARY, and EMP_DEPT. If an employee’s salary is updated in one record but not
in all related records, it could lead to incorrect calculations and reporting

Why are they considered bad?

Anomalies are considered bad because they can result in data inconsistencies, incomplete
data, and unintentional loss of data. They can also lead to errors in calculations and
reporting, making it difficult to maintain accurate and reliable data in a database

Normalization is a process used to organize data in a database, reducing redundancy and

dependency between tables. It helps to minimize data duplication and inconsistencies
and ensures data integrity

Normalization is used to prevent anomalies by organizing data into tables and applying
rules to ensure data is stored in a consistent and efficient manner

2. Write the algorithm to find the minimal cover for a set of FD’s.?
ANS.

Algorithm: Find Minimal Cover

Input: A set of functional dependencies F

Output: A minimal cover G for F

1. Initialize G to the empty set.

2. For each functional dependency f in F:

a. Break down f into smaller dependencies if it has multiple attributes on the

right-hand side.
b. Add each smaller dependency to G.

3. For each functional dependency g in G:

a. For each attribute A in the LHS of g:
i. Temporarily remove A from the LHS of g.
ii. If the closure of G without A includes g, permanently remove A from g.

4. For each functional dependency g in G:

a. Temporarily remove g from G.
b. If the closure of G without g still includes g, permanently remove g from G.

5. Return G.
3. Given below are two sets of FD’s for a relation R(A,B,C,D,E).Are they equivalent?

ANS. Based on the information provided in the sources, the two sets of functional
dependencies for a relation R(A, B, C, D, E) are as follows:
Set 1 (FD1): {AB->C, BC->AD, D->E, CF->B}

Set 2 (FD2): {A->B, B->C, A->C, A->D}

To determine if these two sets of functional dependencies are equivalent, we need to

check if each set can be derived from the other. Here is the analysis based on the given
FD sets:

Checking if FD1 is present in FD2:

AB->C: Not directly present in FD2, but can be derived as (AB)+ = {A, B, C, D} in FD2.

BC->AD: Not present in FD2.

D->E: Not present in FD2.

CF->B: Not present in FD2.

Checking if FD2 is present in FD1:

A->B: Directly present in FD1.

B->C: Directly present in FD1.
A->C: Not directly present in FD1, but can be derived as (A)+ = {A, B, C, D}.
A->D: Not directly present in FD1, but can be derived as (A)+ = {A, B, C, D}.

Conclusion:

Both FD sets have dependencies that can be derived from each other, indicating that
FD1 and FD2 are semantically equivalent.
Therefore, based on the analysis of the given functional dependency sets, FD1 and FD2
for relation R(A, B, C, D, E) are indeed equivalent.

3. Define non-additive join property of a decomposition and write an

algorithm for testing of non-additive join property.?

ANS. 1. Non-Additive Join Property:

o The non-additive join property is a crucial aspect of relational

decomposition. It ensures that no spurious tuples are generated when
a NATURAL JOIN operation is applied to the relations resulting from
the decomposition
o In simpler terms, when we decompose a relation into multiple smaller
relations, we want to ensure that combining these smaller relations
using a natural join does not introduce any extra or incorrect tuples.
 2. Algorithm for Testing Non-Additive Join Property:

o To verify whether a given decomposition possesses the non-additive

join property, follow these steps:

Input: A relation schema R and its decomposition D = {R1, R2, …,

Rn}. Output: Determine if the decomposition satisfies the non-additive
join property.

2. Compute the Natural Join:

▪ Form the natural join of all the relations in the
decomposition: JOIN(R1, R2, …, Rn).
3. Check for Spurious Tuples:
▪ Compare the result of the natural join with the original relation R.
▪ If any tuples appear in the natural join but are not present in R,
then the decomposition has introduced spurious tuples.
4. Conclusion:
▪ If no spurious tuples are found, the decomposition satisfies the
non-additive join property.
▪ Otherwise, it fails the non-additive join test.
3. Example:
o Consider a relation R with attributes (A, B, C) and functional
dependencies F = {A → B, B → C}.
o Suppose we decompose R into R1(A, B) and R2(B, C).
o Compute the natural join: JOIN(R1, R2) = R1 ⨝ R2.
o If R1 ⨝ R2 contains no spurious tuples (i.e., all tuples in R1 ⨝ R2 are
also in R), the decomposition satisfies the non-additive join property.

4. Explain 1NF,2NF,3NF & BCNF with examples. What is needed for normalization?

ANS. Normalization is a process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and

eliminate undesirable characteristics like insertion, deletion, and update anomalies. It is a
technique used in database design to ensure that the data is organized efficiently, flexibly, and
scalably. Normalization involves a series of guidelines, known as normal forms, that help to
ensure that the design of a database is efficient, organized, and free from data anomalies. The
normal forms include First Normal Form (1NF), Second Normal Form (2NF), Third Normal
Form (3NF), Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF), Fourth Normal Form (4NF), and Fifth
Normal Form (5NF) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF).

1. First Normal Form (1NF): This is the most basic level of normalization. In 1NF, each
table cell should contain only a single value, and each column should have a unique
name. The first normal form helps to eliminate duplicate data and simplify queries.
 2. Second Normal Form (2NF): 2NF eliminates redundant data by requiring that each
non-key attribute be dependent on the primary key. This means that each column
should be directly related to the primary key, and not to other columns.

3. Third Normal Form (3NF): 3NF builds on 2NF by requiring that all non-key attributes
are independent of each other. This means that each column should be directly related
to the primary key, and not to any other columns in the same table.

4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): BCNF is a stricter form of 3NF that ensures that
each determinant in a table is a candidate key. In other words, BCNF ensures that
each non-key attribute is dependent only on the candidate key.

5. Fourth Normal Form (4NF): 4NF is a further refinement of BCNF that ensures that a
table does not contain any multi-valued dependencies.

6. Fifth Normal Form (5NF) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF): 5NF is the highest
level of normalization and involves decomposing a table into smaller tables to remove
data redundancy and Updation anomaly.

Normal forms help to reduce data redundancy, increase data consistency, and improve
database performance. However, higher levels of normalization can lead to more
complex database designs and queries. Normalization is important in DBMS because it
helps in preventing database from anomalies, that ultimately ensures the consistency
of database and helps in easy maintenance of database.

6. What are the informal design guidelines for relational schema design?

ANS. When designing a relational schema, there are several informal guidelines that help
ensure the quality and clarity of your design.

1.>Imparting Clear Semantics to Attributes in Relations:

When grouping attributes to form a relation schema, ensure that each attribute has
a clear real-world meaning and a proper interpretation associated with it.

The semantics of a relation refer to the meaning derived from interpreting attribute
values in a tuple.

A well-designed relation schema should be easy to explain, making it simpler for users to
understand its purpose and content.

2.>Reducing Redundant Information in Tuples and Update Anomalies:

Avoid storing redundant data in tuples. Redundancy can lead to inconsistencies and
anomalies during updates.

Normalize your schema to eliminate redundancy and minimize data duplication.

By adhering to the principles of normalization (such as 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF), you can
reduce redundancy and improve data integrity.

3.>Handling NULL Values in Tuples:

NULL values represent missing or unknown information.

Minimize the use of NULLs by ensuring that attributes are relevant and necessary for all
tuples.

Consider using default values or alternative approaches (such as separate tables) to

handle missing data.

4.>Avoiding Spurious Tuples:

Spurious tuples are unintended results that appear when joining relations.

Ensure that your decomposition and join operations do not introduce extra or incorrect
tuples.

Follow normalization rules to prevent spurious tuples during natural joins.

7. Define functional dependency. Explain the various inference rules for functional
dependencies with proof.?

ANS. Functional dependency is a relationship between two sets of attributes in a

database table, where the values of one set of attributes uniquely determine the values
of the other set of attributes . if there is a functional dependency X → Y, then for any
given value of X, there can only be one corresponding value of Y

These rules are:

Reflexive Rule: If Y is a subset of X, then X determines Y
Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that t1[X]
= t2[X]. Since Y is a subset of X, it follows that t1[Y] = t2[Y]. Therefore, X determines Y.

Augmentation Rule: If X determines Y, then XZ determines YZ for any Z

Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that
t1[XZ] = t2[XZ]. Since X determines Y, it follows that t1[X] = t2[X]. Therefore, t1[YZ] =
t2[YZ]. Therefore, XZ determines YZ.

Transitive Rule: If X determines Y and Y determines Z, then X determines Z

Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that t1[X]
= t2[X]. Since X determines Y, it follows that t1[Y] = t2[Y]. Since Y determines Z, it
follows that t1[Z] = t2[Z]. Therefore, X determines Z.

Union Rule: If X determines Y and X determines Z, then X determines Y and Z

Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that t1[X]
= t2[X]. Since X determines Y, it follows that t1[Y] = t2[Y]. Since X determines Z, it
follows that t1[Z] = t2[Z]. Therefore, X determines Y and Z.

Decomposition Rule: If X determines YZ, then X determines Y and X determines Z

Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that t1[X]
= t2[X]. Since X determines YZ, it follows that t1[YZ] = t2[YZ]. Therefore, t1[Y] = t2[Y]
and t1[Z] = t2[Z]. Therefore, X determines Y and X determines Z.

Pseudo Transitive Rule: If X determines Y and YZ determines W, then XZ determines W

Proof: Let r be a relation instance of R, and let t1 and t2 be two tuples in r such that
t1[XZ] = t2[XZ]. Since X determines Y, it follows that t1[Y] = t2[Y]. Since YZ determines
W, it follows that t1[W] = t2[W]. Therefore, XZ determines W.

These inference rules can be used to derive new functional dependencies from a given
set of functional dependencies, which can help to optimize database design, eliminate
redundant functional dependencies, and verify whether a set of functional dependencies
is a minimal cover

For example, given the functional dependencies F = {AB → C, BC → AD, D → E, E → F,

CF → B, CD → F}, we can use the inference rules to derive the functional dependency

CD → B as follows
2
D → E (Given)
E → F (Given)
D → F (Using Transitivity)
CD → D (Using Augmentation)
CD → F (Using Transitivity)
CF → B (Given)
CD → B (Using Pseudo Transitivity)

Therefore, we can conclude that CD → B is logically implied by the given set of

functional dependencies F

Module-5

1.List and explain ACID Properties.?

ANS.
2.)Atomicity:
Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated as a single, indivisible unit of work.
Either all the operations within the transaction are completed successfully, or none of
them are.
It follows the “all or nothing” rule.
Example: Consider a money transfer from account X to account Y. If the transaction fails
after deducting from X but before adding to Y, the database would be inconsistent.
Therefore, atomicity ensures that the entire transaction runs to completion or is not
executed at all.

2.)Consistency:

Consistency guarantees that integrity constraints are maintained, ensuring the

correctness of the database.
The database must be consistent both before and after the transaction.

Example: If the total amount before and after a transaction remains the same (e.g., total
balance), the database is consistent.

3.)Isolation:

Isolation allows multiple transactions to occur concurrently without affecting the

consistency of the database state.
Transactions execute independently without interference.
Changes made by one transaction are not visible to others until committed.
Ensures that concurrent execution results in an equivalent state as if executed serially.

Example: Two transactions reading and updating the same data should not interfere with
each other.

4.)Durability:

Durability ensures that once a transaction completes execution, its updates are stored
and written to disk.
Even if a system failure occurs (e.g., power outage), the changes persist.
Data modifications are durable and survive crashes.

Example: After a successful transaction, the database remains consistent even if the
system crashes

2.With a neat state transition diagram, explain the states involved in transaction execution.?

ANS.

Active State:

A transaction enters the active state immediately after it starts.

In this state, the transaction can issue READ and WRITE operations on the database.
It executes its instructions and interacts with the data.
If all operations proceed without errors, the transaction transitions to the next state.
Partially Committed State:

After completing all READ and WRITE operations, the transaction enters the partially
committed state.

Changes made by the transaction are reflected in the main memory or local buffer.

If these changes are successfully made permanent in the database, the transaction
proceeds to the next state.

However, if any failure occurs during this phase, the transaction may move to the failed
state.

Failed State:

The failed state occurs when an instruction within the transaction fails.

It can also happen if there’s a failure in making a permanent change to the database.

In this state, the transaction is unable to proceed further.

Failed transactions need to be handled appropriately (e.g., rolled back or aborted).

Aborted State:

From the failed state, a transaction transitions to the aborted state.

In the previous states, changes were only made to the local buffer or main memory.

Now, these changes are discarded or rolled back.

The transaction is effectively canceled.

Committed State:

The committed state signifies that the changes made by the transaction are permanently
stored in the database.

The transaction is complete and terminated.

Once committed, the changes are durable and survive system crashes.

Terminated State:

If no rollback occurs (i.e., the transaction doesn’t come from the committed state), the
system remains consistent.

The terminated transaction releases any locks it held.

The system is now ready for new transactions, and the old transaction is fully terminated
3.Briefly explain Transaction Support in SQL.?

ANS. SQL transactions are a fundamental aspect of managing data in relational

databases. They ensure that data remains consistent and accurate, even when multiple
users are accessing and modifying the database concurrently. A transaction is a sequence
of one or more SQL statements that are executed as a single, atomic unit of work. This
means that either all the statements within the transaction are executed successfully, or
none of them are executed. This all-or-nothing approach ensures that the database
remains in a consistent state even if an error occurs during the execution of a transaction.
SQL transactions follow the ACID properties, which are a set of principles that ensure the
reliability and consistency of data in a database. These properties include Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. Atomicity ensures that a transaction is atomic,
meaning it is either fully completed or not executed at all. Consistency ensures that a
transaction ensures that the database transitions from one consistent state to another.
Isolation ensures that each transaction is isolated from others, preventing concurrent
transactions from interfering with each other. Durability ensures that once a transaction
is committed, its changes are permanent and will survive system failures.

To start a transaction in SQL, you use the BEGIN TRANSACTION statement. Once a
transaction is started, you can execute one or more SQL statements within the
transaction. If an error occurs during the execution of any of the SQL statements, you
can use the ROLLBACK statement to undo all the changes made within the transaction. If
all the SQL statements are executed successfully, you can use the COMMIT statement to
save all the changes made within the transaction to the database.

SQL transactions provide several benefits when working with relational databases,
including consistency, error handling, and concurrency control. They ensure that the
database remains in a consistent state by enforcing the ACID properties. They allow you
to gracefully handle errors that may occur during the execution of SQL statements. They
enable multiple users to access and modify the database concurrently without causing
conflicts or inconsistencies.

4.) With an example, explain basic Timestamp Ordering algorithm and two-
phase locking protocol used in concurrency control. How does it guarantee
serializability?
ANS. Basic Timestamp Ordering Algorithm

The Basic Timestamp Ordering algorithm is a concurrency control technique used in

databases to ensure serializability. It uses timestamps to order transactions based on
their submission time Each transaction is assigned a unique timestamp when it enters the
system, and the algorithm manages concurrent execution such that the timestamps
determine the serializability order.

Here's how the algorithm works:

Every transaction is issued a timestamp based on when it enters the system. Older
transactions have smaller timestamps, and newer transactions have larger timestamps.

Whenever a transaction T tries to issue a read or write operation on an item X, the

algorithm checks the following conditions:
1. If T tries to write to X and the write timestamp of X (W_TS(X)) is greater than the
timestamp of T (TS(T)), the operation is aborted, and the transaction is rolled back.

2. If T tries to read from X and the write timestamp of X (W_TS(X)) is greater than
the timestamp of T (TS(T)), the operation is aborted, and the transaction is rolled
back.

3. If T tries to read from X and the read timestamp of X (R_TS(X)) is greater than the
timestamp of T (TS(T)), the operation is rejected.

4. If T tries to write to X, the write timestamp of X (W_TS(X)) is set to the timestamp

of T (TS(T)).

5. If T tries to read from X, the read timestamp of X (R_TS(X)) is set to the larger of
TS(T) and the current R_TS(X).

6. The algorithm ensures that any conflicting read and write operations are executed
in timestamp order, which guarantees conflict serializability

Two-Phase Locking Protocol

The Two-Phase Locking (2PL) protocol is a concurrency control technique used in

databases to ensure serializability. It uses locks to manage the order between conflicting
pairs among transactions at the execution time

Here's how the algorithm works:

A transaction is said to follow the Two-Phase Locking protocol if Locking and Unlocking
can be done in two phases.

Growing Phase: New locks on data items may be acquired but none can be released.

Shrinking Phase: Existing locks may be released but no new locks can be acquired.

If lock conversion is allowed, then upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X(a)) is allowed in the
Growing Phase, and downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in the shrinking
phase.

The 2PL protocol ensures serializability by ensuring that all locks are held until the
transaction commits or aborts. It also ensures that no transaction ever waits, which
guarantees freedom from deadlock

Guaranteeing Serializability
Both the Basic Timestamp Ordering algorithm and the Two-Phase Locking protocol
guarantee serializability. The Timestamp Ordering algorithm guarantees serializability by
ensuring that any conflicting read and write operations are executed in timestamp order.
The Two-Phase Locking protocol guarantees serializability by ensuring that all locks are
held until the transaction commits or aborts.
In both cases, the algorithms ensure that the precedence graph will be of the form, which
guarantees that there will be no cycles in the precedence graph, ensuring serializability

it's important to note that while both algorithms guarantee serializability, they may not be
cascade-free or recoverable. The Basic Timestamp Ordering algorithm may still result in
cascading rollbacks, and the Two-Phase Locking protocol may still result in deadlocks and
starvation

5.Write short notes for the following:

i) transaction rollback and cascading rollback.
ii) transaction support in SQL
iii) shadow paging
iv) No UNDO/REDO recovery based on deferred
update.
v) Recovery based on Immediate Update .?
ANS. i) Transaction Rollback and Cascading Rollback:

Transaction Rollback is the process of undoing all the changes made by a transaction in
case of an error or a failure, so that the database can be restored to a consistent state.
Cascading Rollback is a situation where a transaction rollback causes other transactions
that were dependent on the rolled back transaction to also be rolled back. This can
happen if the rolled back transaction had already committed some updates, and those
updates are required by the dependent transactions.

ii) Transaction Support in SQL:

COMMIT: Commits the current transaction, making its changes permanent.

ROLLBACK: Rolls back the current transaction, undoing all its changes.

SAVEPOINT: Creates a savepoint within a transaction, allowing the transaction to be

partially rolled back to that point.

SQL also supports transaction isolation levels, which determine the degree of
concurrency control and isolation between transactions.

iii) Shadow Paging:

Shadow paging is a technique used in database recovery to ensure data consistency. It
involves maintaining a shadow copy of the database, which is updated with the changes
made by a transaction. If the transaction fails, the shadow copy can be used to restore
the database to its previous state.

Shadow paging is a non-logging technique, meaning that it does not require the
maintenance of a log of all the changes made by the transactions. This can improve the
performance of the database system, but at the cost of increased storage requirements.

iv) No UNDO/REDO recovery based on deferred update:

Deferred update is a technique used in database recovery to delay the actual update of
the database until the transaction is committed. This can improve the performance of the
database system, as it reduces the number of disk writes required.

In a no UNDO/REDO recovery based on deferred update, the database system does not
maintain a log of the changes made by the transactions. Instead, it relies on the shadow
copy of the database to restore the database to a consistent state in case of a failure.

This approach can simplify the recovery process, as there is no need to undo or redo the
changes made by the transactions. However, it may not be suitable for all types of
databases, as it does not provide the same level of concurrency control and isolation as
logging techniques.

v) Recovery based on Immediate Update:

Recovery based on Immediate Update is a technique used in database recovery to ensure

data consistency by immediately updating the database with the changes made by a
transaction. This approach is also known as "write-ahead logging" or "steal logging".

In this approach, the database system maintains a log of all the changes made by the
transactions. If a failure occurs, the log can be used to restore the database to a
consistent state by undoing the changes made by uncommitted transactions and redoing
the changes made by committed transactions.

This approach provides a high degree of concurrency control and isolation between
transactions, as it allows for the immediate update of the database while still maintaining
a log of the changes. However, it can be more complex and resource-intensive than other
recovery techniques

6.How does deadlock and starvation problems occur? Explain how these
problems can be resolved.?
ANS.
Deadlock and starvation are two common problems in concurrent systems where
multiple processes or transactions access shared resources. Deadlock occurs when two
or more processes are blocked, waiting for each other to release the resources they need.
This can lead to a system-wide stall, where no process can make progress. Deadlock can
be caused by mutual exclusion, where only one process can access a resource at a time,
and circular wait, where processes are waiting for resources in a circular chain.

Starvation, on the other hand, occurs when a process is unable to access a resource it
needs for an extended period of time, causing it to be blocked indefinitely. This can be
caused by priority inversion, where a low-priority process holds a resource needed by a
high-priority process, or by resource starvation, where there are not enough resources to
satisfy the needs of all processes.

To resolve deadlock, there are several techniques that can be used, including:

Deadlock prevention: This involves ensuring that the necessary conditions for deadlock
cannot occur, such as by enforcing a strict ordering of resource acquisition or by using
resource allocation algorithms that prevent circular wait.

Deadlock detection: This involves periodically checking the system for deadlocks and
resolving them when they are detected. This can be done using algorithms such as the
wait-for graph algorithm or the resource allocation graph algorithm.

Deadlock avoidance: This involves using algorithms that predict whether a deadlock will
occur and take steps to prevent it from happening. This can be done using techniques
such as the Banker's algorithm or the Resource Allocation Graph algorithm.

To resolve starvation, there are several techniques that can be used, including:

Priority scheduling: This involves giving higher priority to processes that have been
waiting for resources for an extended period of time.

Aging: This involves gradually increasing the priority of processes that have been waiting
for resources for an extended period of time.

Resource allocation: This involves ensuring that there are enough resources to satisfy the
needs of all processes.

7. Explain why concurrency control is required. Justify the need for recovery.?

ANS.
Concurrency control is required in a database management system (DBMS) to
ensure that multiple transactions can be executed at the same time without
interfering with each other. This is important because when multiple transactions
access the same data, they can cause inconsistencies, such as reading
uncommitted data, unrepeatable reads, or overwriting uncommitted data. These
inconsistencies can lead to incorrect results or even cause the system to crash.
To prevent these inconsistencies, concurrency control protocols are used to
manage the execution of transactions. These protocols ensure that transactions
are executed in a way that preserves the consistency of the data. For example, the
strict two-phase locking (Strict 2PL) protocol requires that each transaction
obtains a shared or exclusive lock on an object before reading or writing to it, and
that all locks held by a transaction are released when the transaction completes.
This ensures that only one transaction can modify an object at a time, preventing
conflicts and ensuring serializability.

However, concurrency control can also introduce overhead, deadlocks, reduced

concurrency, complexity, and inconsistency. To address these issues, various
concurrency control techniques, such as timestamp ordering, optimistic
concurrency control, and multiversion concurrency control, are used. These
techniques aim to balance the need for concurrency with the need for consistency
and efficiency.

Recovery is also an important function of a DBMS, as it ensures that the database

can be restored to a consistent state in case of a failure, such as a system crash or
a transaction abort. Recovery is typically achieved through the use of logs, which
record the actions of transactions and the state of the database. In the event of a
failure, the log can be used to undo the actions of aborted transactions and to
redo the actions of committed transactions that were not yet written to disk.

The need for recovery is especially important in a distributed DBMS environment,

where multiple copies of data items are stored at different sites. In this case,
recovery methods must ensure that the copies of data items are consistent with
each other, even in the event of site failures or communication link failures.

Techniques such as the two-phase commit protocol and distributed deadlock

detection are used to ensure the accuracy of distributed commits and to prevent
deadlocks among multiple sites.

In conclusion, concurrency control and recovery are essential functions of a

DBMS, as they ensure the consistency, reliability, and robustness of the database
in the face of concurrent transactions and failures. By implementing effective
concurrency control and recovery techniques, a DBMS can provide a reliable and
efficient solution for managing large amounts of data in a distributed
environment.