1. What do you mean by cut set and cut vertex.

Explain with proper

example.
2. What do mean by bridge edge. Explain.
Let 'G' be a connected graph. A vertex V ∈ G is called a cut vertex of 'G', if 'G-V' (Delete 'V'
from 'G') results in a disconnected graph. Removing a cut vertex from a graph breaks it in to
two or more graphs.

Note − Removing a cut vertex may render a graph disconnected.

A connected graph 'G' may have at most (n–2) cut vertices.

Example

In the following graph, vertices 'e' and 'c' are the cut vertices.

By removing 'e' or 'c', the graph will become a disconnected graph.

Without 'g', there is no path between vertex 'c' and vertex 'h' and many other. Hence it is a
disconnected graph with cut vertex as 'e'. Similarly, 'c' is also a cut vertex for the above
graph.

Cut Edge (Bridge)

Let 'G' be a connected graph. An edge 'e' ∈ G is called a cut edge if 'G-e' results in a
disconnected graph.

If removing an edge in a graph results in to two or more graphs, then that edge is called a
Cut Edge.

Example

In the following graph, the cut edge is [(c, e)]

By removing the edge (c, e) from the graph, it becomes a disconnected graph.

In the above graph, removing the edge (c, e) breaks the graph into two which is nothing but
a disconnected graph. Hence, the edge (c, e) is a cut edge of the graph.

Cut Set of a Graph

Let 'G'= (V, E) be a connected graph. A subset E' of E is called a cut set of G if deletion of all
the edges of E' from G makes G disconnect.

If deleting a certain number of edges from a graph makes it disconnected, then those deleted
edges are called the cut set of the graph.

Example

Take a look at the following graph. Its cut set is E1 = {e1, e3, e5, e8}.

After removing the cut set E1 from the graph, it would appear as follows −
Similarly there are other cut sets that can disconnect the graph −

• E3 = {e9} – Smallest cut set of the graph.

• E4 = {e3, e4, e5}

3. A connected graph having a bridge edge must have a cut vertex.

Justify.

let us consider a connected graph G that has a bridge edge. We want to show that G
must have a cut vertex.

Since G is connected, it means that there is a path between any pair of vertices in the
graph. If we remove the bridge edge, the graph becomes disconnected, which
implies that the two endpoints of the bridge edge were previously connected
through that edge.

Let's denote the two endpoints of the bridge edge as u and v. Before the bridge
edge is removed, there must be at least one path between u and v. Removing the
bridge edge disconnects the graph into two separate components, one containing u
and the other containing v.

Now, let's consider the component that contains u after the bridge edge is removed.
Since u was previously connected to v through the bridge edge, there must be at
least one other path from u to v within this component. If we remove u from the
graph, this path will be broken, and u and v will no longer be connected.

Therefore, removing u as a cut vertex increases the number of connected

components in the graph, as u and v will be in separate components.

Hence, we have shown that in a connected graph G, if there exists a bridge edge,
there must also exist a cut vertex.

4. What is bipartite graph? Explain with example.

A bipartite graph is a special kind of graph with the following properties-
• It consists of two sets of vertices X and Y.
 • The vertices of set X join only with the vertices of set Y.
• The vertices within the same set do not join.

Bipartite Graph Example-

The following graph is an example of a bipartite graph-

5. Prove that a bipartite graph can’t have an odd cycle.

To prove that a bipartite graph cannot have an odd cycle, we will assume the
opposite and show that it leads to a contradiction.

Suppose there exists a bipartite graph G with an odd cycle. A bipartite graph is a
graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets such that every edge in
the graph connects a vertex from one set to a vertex from the other set.

Let's assume that G has an odd cycle C. Since C is an odd cycle, it must contain an
odd number of vertices. Without loss of generality, let's assume that the vertices in C
are alternately labeled as A and B, representing the two sets in the bipartite graph.

Now, consider any edge in the cycle C. This edge must connect a vertex labeled A to
a vertex labeled B, as per the definition of a bipartite graph. Since the vertices in C
alternate between A and B, the number of A-labeled vertices and B-labelled vertices
in C must be the same.

However, since C has an odd number of vertices, this implies that the number of A-
labeled and B-labeled vertices in C is also odd. This contradicts the definition of a
bipartite graph, where the vertices are divided into two sets, and the number of
vertices in each set should be equal or differ by at most one.
Therefore, we have reached a contradiction, which means our initial assumption that
a bipartite graph can have an odd cycle is false.

Hence, we can conclude that a bipartite graph cannot have an odd cycle.

6. What can be the maximum number of edges of a bipartite graph of n

vertices. When n is even then show that a bipartite graph with maximum
number of edges is regular.
In a bipartite graph with n vertices, the maximum number of edges can be achieved
when the bipartition sets have an equal number of vertices. Let's denote the number
of vertices in each set as n/2 since n is even.

To calculate the maximum number of edges, we need to consider that each vertex in
one set can be connected to every vertex in the other set. Therefore, the maximum
number of edges will be (n/2) * (n/2) = n^2/4.

Now, let's show that when n is even, a bipartite graph with the maximum number of
edges is regular.

In a bipartite graph with n vertices, when n is even, we have n/2 vertices in each set.
Let's denote the vertices in one set as A1, A2, ..., An/2, and the vertices in the other
set as B1, B2, ..., Bn/2.

To show that the graph is regular, we need to demonstrate that each vertex has the
same degree. Since each vertex in set Ai is connected to every vertex in set Bj (where
1 ≤ i ≤ n/2 and 1 ≤ j ≤ n/2), the degree of each vertex in set Ai will be n/2.

Let's consider a vertex Ai. It is connected to each vertex in set Bj, so its degree is n/2.
Similarly, for any vertex Bj, its degree will also be n/2.

Therefore, each vertex in the bipartite graph has the same degree of n/2. Hence,
when n is even, a bipartite graph with the maximum number of edges is regular.

7. Prove that the chromatic number of a bipartite graph is two.

To prove that the chromatic number of a bipartite graph is two, we need to show
that it is possible to color all vertices of a bipartite graph using only two colors.

Let's consider a bipartite graph G with two disjoint sets of vertices, A and B, such that
every edge connects a vertex from set A to a vertex from set B. We aim to color the
vertices of G using two colors, let's say red and blue.
We can start by arbitrarily selecting a vertex from set A and color it red. Then, we
proceed to color all its neighboring vertices in set B with the opposite color, blue. By
doing so, we ensure that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.

Next, we move on to the uncolored vertices in set A that have not been visited yet.
We choose any of these vertices and color it red. Again, we color all its neighboring
vertices in set B with the opposite color, blue. We continue this process, alternating
colors between red and blue, until all vertices are colored.

Since the bipartite graph G consists of two disjoint sets, all edges connect vertices
from different sets. As a result, at each step, we are guaranteed to have vertices of
different colors adjacent to each other. Therefore, it is always possible to assign
colors to the vertices of a bipartite graph in such a way that no two adjacent vertices
share the same color.

Thus, we have shown that the chromatic number of a bipartite graph is two, as we
can color all its vertices using only two colors, red and blue.

8. Find out the number of regular graphs of 12 vertices with degree

2.
To find the number of regular graphs with 12 vertices and degree 2, we can use the
concept of regular graphs and the degree-sum formula.

In a regular graph, each vertex has the same degree. In this case, we are looking for
regular graphs with a degree of 2.

Let's denote the number of vertices as n = 12 and the degree as d = 2.

To determine the number of regular graphs, we can consider the degree-sum

formula, which states that the sum of the degrees of all vertices in a graph is equal to
twice the number of edges.

In a regular graph, since each vertex has the same degree, the sum of the degrees of
all vertices is equal to n times the degree (n * d).

Using the degree-sum formula, we have: n * d = 2 * E, where E represents the

number of edges in the graph.

Since each edge connects two vertices, the number of edges can be found by
dividing the sum of the degrees by 2 (E = n * d / 2).

Substituting the given values: E = 12 * 2 / 2 = 12.

Therefore, we have determined that the number of edges in the regular graph is 12.

9. What do you mean by degree sequence of a graph. Explain with

proper example.
The degree sequence of a graph refers to the sequence of degrees of its vertices. The
degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges incident to that vertex. The
degree sequence provides a list of degrees of all vertices in a graph.

To illustrate this, let's consider an example. Suppose we have a graph G with five
vertices and the following set of edges:

Edges: {(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (C, D), (D, E)}

The graph can be visualized as follows:

In this example, we have five vertices: A, B, C, D, and E. To determine the degree

sequence, we need to find the degree of each vertex.

• Vertex A is incident to two edges: (A, B) and (A, C). Therefore, the degree of A
is 2.
• Vertex B is connected to three edges: (A, B), (B, C), and (B, D). Thus, the degree
of B is 3.
• Vertex C is also connected to three edges: (A, C), (B, C), and (C, D). Hence, the
degree of C is 3.
• Vertex D has a degree of 4 since it is connected to four edges: (B, D), (C, D), (D,
E), and (D, E).
• Vertex E is only connected to two edges: (D, E) and (D, E). Therefore, the
degree of E is 2.

Based on the degrees we calculated, the degree sequence of this graph is: (4, 3, 3, 2,
2).

So, in summary, the degree sequence of a graph represents the list of degrees of its
vertices, indicating how many edges are incident to each vertex.
10. Prove that, the sum of the degrees of a graph is twice the
number of edges in it.

Let's consider an undirected graph G with vertices v₁, v₂, ..., vₙ and edges e₁, e₂, ..., eₘ.

Each edge connects two vertices, contributing a degree of 1 to both of the vertices it
is incident upon. Therefore, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is the sum of the
degrees of each vertex in the graph.

Mathematically, we can express this as:

∑(degrees of all vertices) = 2 * (number of edges)

To prove this, let's examine the contribution of each edge to the sum of degrees.
Each edge contributes 1 to the degree of exactly two vertices. Thus, each edge
contributes a total of 2 to the sum of degrees.

Since every edge in the graph contributes 2 to the sum of degrees, the total
contribution from all the edges is twice the number of edges.

Therefore, the left-hand side of the equation, which represents the sum of the
degrees of all vertices, is equal to the right-hand side, which represents twice the
number of edges.

Hence, we have proven that the sum of the degrees of a graph is indeed twice the
number of edges.

11. Prove that every graph has an even number of odd vertices.

The Handshaking Lemma states that in any undirected graph, the sum of the degrees
of all vertices is equal to twice the number of edges.

Let's assume we have a graph G with n vertices. We want to prove that the number
of odd vertices in G is always even.

Let's denote the number of odd vertices in G as k. These odd vertices have odd
degrees. If we sum up the degrees of these odd vertices, we get k * 1 (since each odd
vertex has a degree of 1).

Thus, the sum of the degrees of the odd vertices is k.

According to the Handshaking Lemma, this sum of degrees must be twice the
number of edges in G. Therefore, we have:
k = 2 * (number of edges)

Since 2 is an even number, the right-hand side of the equation is even.

This means that the number of odd vertices (k) must also be even for the equation to
hold. In other words, every graph has an even number of odd vertices.

Hence, we have proven that every graph has an even number of odd vertices.

12. Show that two graphs need not be isomorphic even when they
both have the same order and same size.
To show that two graphs need not be isomorphic even when they have the same
order (number of vertices) and the same size (number of edges), we can provide a
counterexample.Consider the following two graphs:

Both Graph 1 and Graph 2 have the same order (6 vertices) and the same size (6
edges).

However, these graphs are not isomorphic. Isomorphism requires a bijection

between the vertices of the two graphs such that adjacency is preserved. In other
words, for two graphs to be isomorphic, there must exist a mapping between their
vertices that maintains the connections between vertices.

If we examine the two graphs, we can see that there is no way to find a bijection
between the vertices that preserves adjacency. Specifically, in Graph 1, vertex C is
adjacent to vertices A and D, whereas in Graph 2, vertex C is adjacent to vertices A
and F. Since the adjacency relationships differ, we cannot find an isomorphism
between these graphs.

Thus, we have shown that two graphs can have the same order and size, but still, be
non-isomorphic.
13. Show that two simple graphs are isomorphic if and only if their
complements are isomorphic.
14. What is weighted graph. Write down the steps of Kruskal’s
algorithm and Prim’s algorithm for finding out the minimal
spanning trees of a graph.
A weighted graph is a graph where each edge is assigned a weight or cost. These
weights can represent various properties such as distances, costs, or capacities
associated with the edges. In a weighted graph, the weight of an edge indicates the
"cost" or "length" of that edge.

Now, let's discuss the steps of Kruskal's algorithm and Prim's algorithm for finding
the minimum spanning tree (MST) of a weighted graph:

Kruskal's Algorithm:

1. Create a forest F, where each vertex of the graph is a separate component.

2. Sort all the edges of the graph in non-decreasing order of their weights.
3. Iterate through the sorted edges, starting from the smallest weight.
4. For each edge, check if adding it to the current forest F creates a cycle. If
adding the edge does not create a cycle, include it in the MST and merge the
components of the vertices connected by the edge into a single component.
5. Repeat step 4 until all edges have been considered or until the MST contains
n-1 edges, where n is the number of vertices in the original graph.

At the end of the algorithm, the forest F will form the minimum spanning tree of the
given graph.

Prim's Algorithm:

1. Start with an arbitrary vertex v and initialize an empty set MST (minimal
spanning tree) to store the final MST.
2. Create a priority queue Q to store the vertices with their respective key values,
initially set to infinity except for v, which is set to 0.
3. While the priority queue Q is not empty, do the following: a. Extract the vertex
u with the minimum key value from Q. b. Add u to the MST. c. Update the key
values of all adjacent vertices of u that are still in Q. If the weight of the edge
between u and a neighboring vertex v is smaller than the current key value of
v, update v's key value to the weight of the edge.
4. Repeat step 3 until the priority queue Q is empty.
5. The MST will be the set of vertices and edges accumulated in the MST set
during the algorithm's execution.
At the end of the algorithm, the set MST will represent the minimum spanning tree
of the given graph.

Both Kruskal's algorithm and Prim's algorithm provide efficient ways to find the
minimum spanning tree of a weighted graph, but they differ in their approach.
Kruskal's algorithm focuses on adding edges to form the MST, while Prim's algorithm
focuses on adding vertices to build the MST.

15. Write short notes on the following: Regular graph; Order, size,
and center of a graph; pendant vertex; path; cycle; circuit; degree
of a vertex; Fundamental CutSets;
1. Regular graph: A regular graph is a graph where every vertex has the same
degree. In other words, all vertices in a regular graph have an equal number of
edges connected to them. For example, a graph where every vertex has a
degree of 3 is a regular graph.
2. Order and size of a graph: The order of a graph refers to the number of
vertices it contains. It is denoted by |V|, where V represents the set of vertices.
The size of a graph refers to the number of edges it contains and is denoted
by |E|, where E represents the set of edges.
3. Center of a graph: The center of a graph is a vertex or a set of vertices that
minimizes the maximum distance to any other vertex in the graph. In other
words, it is the vertex or vertices that are closest to all other vertices. The
center of a graph can be useful in various applications, such as designing
efficient network routing algorithms.
4. Pendant vertex: A pendant vertex is a vertex in a graph that has a degree of 1,
meaning it is connected to only one other vertex. Pendant vertices are also
sometimes referred to as leaves. In a tree, all non-root vertices are pendant
vertices.
5. Path: A path in a graph is a sequence of vertices in which consecutive vertices
are connected by an edge. It is a simple graph traversal where no vertex is
repeated in the sequence. A path can be directed or undirected and can have
a specific length or be of arbitrary length.
6. Cycle: A cycle in a graph is a closed path that starts and ends at the same
vertex, with no repetitions of vertices except for the starting and ending
vertex. In other words, it is a path that forms a closed loop. A cycle can have
any length, including 3 (known as a triangle) or more.
7. Circuit: A circuit in a graph is a closed path that includes at least one edge and
does not repeat any edges except for the starting and ending edge, which are
the same. In contrast to a cycle, a circuit may visit vertices more than once.
8. Degree of a vertex: The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges
incident to that vertex. It represents the number of connections a vertex has in
the graph. For a directed graph, the degree is further classified into the
 indegree (number of incoming edges) and outdegree (number of outgoing
edges) of the vertex.
9. Fundamental CutSets: Fundamental CutSets, also known as fundamental cut
sets or minimal cut sets, are sets of edges in a graph that, when removed,
disconnect the graph into two or more separate components. Fundamental
CutSets play a significant role in graph theory, network analysis, and system
reliability studies. They can help identify critical edges or components in a
graph that, if disrupted, can cause the entire graph to become disconnected.

16. Every cut-set in a connected graph G must contain at least one

branch of every spanning tree of G – prove.
a. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at
least one branch of every spanning tree of G is a cut-set – prove.
b. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at
least one branch of every spanning tree of G is a cut-set – prove.

a. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch
of every spanning tree of G is a cut-set.

To prove this statement, we need to show that such a minimal set of edges is indeed
a cut-set.

Let's assume we have a connected graph G and a minimal set of edges S that
contains at least one branch of every spanning tree of G. We need to demonstrate
that S is a cut-set, which means removing the edges in S will disconnect the graph
into two or more separate components.

First, consider any spanning tree T of G. Since S contains at least one branch of every
spanning tree, there must exist an edge in S that is present in T. Let's denote this
edge as e.

Now, suppose we remove the edge e from G. Since e is part of the spanning tree T,
removing it will disconnect the tree into two or more separate components.
Additionally, since G is connected, there must be at least one edge other than e that
connects these components together.

Since we have removed the edge e, the remaining edges in S (if any) still contain at
least one branch of every spanning tree of G. Moreover, removing any of these
remaining edges will disconnect the graph G into two or more separate components.
Therefore, by removing the minimal set of edges S, which contains at least one
branch of every spanning tree of G, we have demonstrated that S is a cut-set.

b. In a connected graph G, any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch
of every spanning tree of G is a cut-set.

To prove this statement, we need to show that such a minimal set of edges is indeed
a cut-set.

Let's assume we have a connected graph G and a minimal set of edges S that
contains at least one branch of every spanning tree of G. We need to demonstrate
that S is a cut-set, which means removing the edges in S will disconnect the graph
into two or more separate components.

First, suppose S is not a cut-set. This implies that removing the edges in S does not
disconnect the graph G. In other words, there exists a path between any two vertices
in G even after removing the edges in S.

Now, consider any spanning tree T of G. Since S contains at least one branch of every
spanning tree, there must exist an edge in S that is present in T. Let's denote this
edge as e.

If removing the edge e from G does not disconnect the graph, it means that there
exists an alternative path between the two vertices that were connected by e in the
spanning tree T. However, this contradicts the fact that T is a spanning tree, as a tree
does not contain any cycles or redundant edges.

Therefore, our assumption that S is not a cut-set leads to a contradiction. Hence, the
minimal set of edges S, which contains at least one branch of every spanning tree of
G, must be a cut-set.

By proving both statements (a and b), we have shown that every cut-set in a
connected graph G must contain at least one branch of every spanning tree of G, and
any minimal set of edges containing at least one branch of every spanning tree of G
is a cut-set.

17. Every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any
cut-set – prove.

To prove that every circuit has an even number of edges in common with any cut-set,
we can use the concept of parity.
Let's assume we have a circuit C in a graph and a cut-set S. We need to show that the
number of edges that C shares with S is always even.

Consider any edge in the circuit C. This edge is part of the circuit, so by definition,
removing it would disconnect the circuit into two separate components. Since S is a
cut-set, removing any edge in S would also disconnect the graph into two or more
separate components.

Now, let's examine the relationship between the edges in C and S. Each time an edge
in C crosses the cut-set S, it connects two components on either side of the cut.
Removing that edge would disconnect the components, implying that the circuit C
cannot cross the cut-set S an odd number of times.

If we assume that there is an odd number of edges in C that intersect with S, it would
mean that there exists a portion of the circuit on one side of the cut that is not
connected to the rest of the circuit on the other side. However, this contradicts the
definition of a circuit, which is a closed loop that connects back to itself.

Hence, the assumption of an odd number of edges in C intersecting with S leads to a

contradiction. Therefore, it must be the case that every circuit has an even number of
edges in common with any cut-set.

By proving this statement, we have established that the number of edges shared
between a circuit and any cut-set is always even.

18. Prove that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6
colors. Can it be possible to color a planar graph with 5 colors.
Justify.
The statement that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors is a
consequence of the Four Color Theorem, which states that any planar graph can be
colored with at most four colors.

To prove that any planar graph can be properly colored with 6 colors, we can provide
a coloring algorithm that guarantees a proper coloring with at most 6 colors.

1. Start with an arbitrary vertex in the planar graph.

2. Assign it the color 1.
3. Move to the next uncolored vertex and assign it the smallest available color
that is not used by any of its neighboring vertices.
4. Repeat step 3 for all uncolored vertices until all vertices are colored.
This coloring algorithm ensures that each vertex is assigned a color that is different
from its neighboring vertices. Since a planar graph has a finite number of vertices,
the algorithm will terminate and provide a proper coloring using at most 6 colors.

Now, regarding the possibility of coloring a planar graph with 5 colors, it was a long-
standing open question known as the Four Color Conjecture until it was finally
proven by computer-assisted methods in 1976. The Four Color Theorem states that
any planar graph can be colored with at most four colors, which implies that five
colors are always sufficient for proper coloring.

Therefore, based on the Four Color Theorem, it is not possible to color a planar
graph with 5 colors. However, it is always possible to color any planar graph with 6
colors, as proven by the above algorithm.

Prove that if a connected planar graph of order n and size m has f

regions, then n – m + f = 2.
We prove the theorem by induction on m, the number of edges of G. If m=0, then
n=1 as G is connected. So, f=1.

Thus, n-m+f=1-0+1=2.

So, the theorem is true foe m=0. Assume that, the theorem is true for all connected
planar graphs with k or fewer edges. Let G be a connected planar graph with k+1
edges. If G has a vertex of degree 1, say x, then let G’=G-x. It is easy to see that G’ is a
connected planar graph with k edges. Again, number of vertices of G’ is one less than
the number of vertices of G and number of faces of G’ is equal to the number of
vertices of G. So, by induction hypothesis, (n-1)-k + f = 2, where n and f are the
number of vertices and faces of G, respectively.

So, n-(k+1)-f=2. So, the theorem is true for G in this case. Next assume that G has no
vertex of degree 1. Since, G is connected, (G)  2. So, by Theorem 1. 2.1, G has a
cycle. Let e be any edge in some cycle in G. Let G’=G-e. Now G’ is a connected planar
graph and has same number of vertices as G and one less edges than G. The cycle
containing the edge e determines a face in every planar embedding of G. Now, that
cycle will be missing in G’. So, G’ has f-1 faces and k edges. So, by induction
hypothesis, n-k+f-1=2.

This implies, n-(k+1)+f=2. So, the theorem is true for G in this case as well. So, by
induction principle, the theorem is true. To show that a graph is planar, one has to
produce a planar embedding of the graph. However, to show that a graph is non
planar one has to show that either the graph satisfies a property that is not satisfied
by any planar graph , or out of all possible diagrams of G, no one is a planar
embedding. For large graphs it is not feasible show that a graph to be non planar by
showing that none of the diagrams of the graph is a planar embedding. So, next we
will see some properties of planar graphs and use these to show some graphs to be
non planar. A planar graph G =(V,E) is said to be a maximal planar graph if G + uv is
non planar for every u,v V with uv E. So, every face is of length three in any planar
embedding of a maximal planar graph. K4 is a maximal planar graph which can be
seen easily. In fact, a planar graph G is a maximal planar graph if and only if each face
is of length three in any planar embedding of G.

19. Show that the number of edges in a simple planar graph of

order n is at most 3n – 6.
To prove that the number of edges in a simple planar graph of order n is at most 3n
- 6, we can use Euler's formula for planar graphs.

Euler's formula states that for a connected planar graph with n vertices, m edges, and
r regions (including the outer region):

n-m+r=2

Now, let's consider a simple planar graph with n vertices and m edges. We want to
show that m ≤ 3n - 6.

Since the graph is simple, each region (including the outer region) is bounded by at
least 3 edges (triangular regions). Let's denote the number of regions as r.

Each edge contributes to the boundary of exactly two regions. Therefore, the total
number of boundary edges is equal to 2r.

Since each edge is shared by two regions, the total number of edges in the graph is
m = 2r/2 = r.

Substituting n - m + r = 2 into the equation, we have: n - r + r = 2 n = 2

Now, we can rewrite m in terms of n: m = r = n - 2

To prove that m ≤ 3n - 6, we substitute m = n - 2 into the inequality: n - 2 ≤ 3n - 6 4

≤ 2n 2 ≤ n

Since we are considering a planar graph of order n, the inequality holds for all planar
graphs with at least 2 vertices.

Therefore, we have shown that the number of edges in a simple planar graph of
order n is at most 3n - 6.
20. Prove that both K5 and K3 ,3 are non-planar.
To prove that both K5 (the complete graph on 5 vertices) and K3,3 (the complete
bipartite graph with two sets of 3 vertices each) are non-planar, we can use Euler's
formula and the concept of edges and faces in a planar graph.Euler's formula for a
connected planar graph states: n - m + f = 2 where n is the number of vertices, m is
the number of edges, and f is the number of faces (including the outer face).

1. K5 (Complete graph on 5 vertices): K5 has 5 vertices and 10 edges. Suppose it

is planar. Since K5 is a complete graph, each vertex is connected to all other
vertices, resulting in a complete graph with no isolated vertices. Let's assume
it has f faces (including the outer face).

Using Euler's formula: n - m + f = 2

5 - 10 + f = 2

f = 7 – 10

f = -3

However, the number of faces cannot be negative, which contradicts the assumption
that K5 is planar. Therefore, K5 is non-planar.

2. K3,3 (Complete bipartite graph with 2 sets of 3 vertices each): K3,3 has 6
vertices and 9 edges. Suppose it is planar. Since K3,3 is a complete bipartite
graph, there are two sets of 3 vertices, and each vertex in one set is connected
to all vertices in the other set. Let's assume it has f faces (including the outer
face).

Using Euler's formula: n - m + f = 2

6-9+f=2

f=8–9

f = -1

Again, the number of faces cannot be negative, which contradicts the assumption
that K3,3 is planar. Therefore, K3,3 is non-planar.

By proving that both K5 and K3,3 lead to a contradiction when assuming they are
planar, we have demonstrated that both graphs are non-planar.
21. If a tree with n vertices, contains a vertex of degree 2 and other
vertices have either degree 1 or 3, then prove that, the number of
leaf nodes in the tree is (n + 1) / 2.
To prove that the number of leaf nodes in a tree with n vertices, where one vertex
has a degree of 2 and the other vertices have degrees of either 1 or 3, is (n + 1) / 2,
we can use induction.

First, let's consider the base case when n = 1. In this case, the tree consists of only
one vertex, which is also the leaf node. The formula (n + 1) / 2 evaluates to (1 + 1) / 2
= 2 / 2 = 1, which matches the number of leaf nodes in the tree. Therefore, the
formula holds for n = 1.

Next, let's assume that the formula holds for some value of n, and we will prove it for
n + 1.

Suppose we have a tree with n + 1 vertices, where one vertex has a degree of 2 and
the remaining vertices have degrees of either 1 or 3. Let's remove the vertex of
degree 2 and the edge connecting it to the rest of the tree.

We are left with a tree with n vertices. By the induction hypothesis, the number of
leaf nodes in this tree is (n + 1) / 2.

Now, when we add the vertex of degree 2 back to the tree, it becomes connected to
two vertices in the remaining tree. These two vertices are no longer leaf nodes since
they have a degree of 3. Therefore, the number of leaf nodes increases by 2.

So, in the tree with n + 1 vertices, the number of leaf nodes is equal to the number of
leaf nodes in the tree with n vertices (n + 1) / 2, plus 2.

Total number of leaf nodes in the tree with n + 1 vertices = (n + 1) / 2 + 2 = (n + 1 +

4) / 2 = (n + 5) / 2

This matches the formula (n + 1) / 2 for n + 1, which completes the induction step.

By proving the base case and the induction step, we have shown that the number of
leaf nodes in a tree with n vertices, where one vertex has a degree of 2 and the other
vertices have degrees of either 1 or 3, is indeed (n + 1) / 2.

22. Determine the minimum number of leaf nodes in a tree with n

vertices.
In a tree with n vertices, the minimum number of leaf nodes is 1.
A leaf node, also known as a terminal or external node, is a node in a tree that has no
children. In other words, it is a node with a degree of 1. In a tree, there must be at
least one leaf node because the tree structure requires at least one endpoint for each
branch or edge.

Therefore, the minimum number of leaf nodes in a tree with n vertices is 1.

23. Prove that every cut-set in a connected graph G must contain at

least one branch of every spanning tree.
To prove that every cut-set in a connected graph G must contain at least one branch
of every spanning tree, we can use the concept of cut-sets and the definition of
spanning trees.

Let's assume we have a connected graph G with a cut-set S. We want to show that S
contains at least one branch of every spanning tree of G.

First, let's define a cut-set. A cut-set is a set of edges in a graph that, when removed,
disconnects the graph into two or more separate components.

Now, let's consider a spanning tree T of G. A spanning tree is a subgraph of G that is

a tree (i.e., acyclic and connected) and includes all vertices of G. Since T is a tree, it
must have n-1 edges, where n is the number of vertices in G.

Suppose S does not contain any branch of the spanning tree T. This means that all
the edges of T are intact in G, and removing S does not disconnect any part of T.

Since T is a spanning tree, it includes all vertices of G. Removing the cut-set S should
disconnect G into two or more separate components. However, if S does not contain
any branch of T, removing S will not disconnect T, which contradicts the definition of
a cut-set.

Therefore, we can conclude that every cut-set in a connected graph G must contain
at least one branch of every spanning tree. Removing a cut-set will always disconnect
at least one branch of a spanning tree, ensuring that the graph remains connected.

By proving this statement, we have shown that every cut-set in a connected graph G
contains at least one branch of every spanning tree.

A graph has n vertices and 30 edges. It has five vertices of degree 4,

seven pendant vertices, and seven vertices of degree 2. All other
vertices have degree 3 or 4. How many vertices of degree 4 are there?
To find the number of vertices of degree 4 in the given graph, we can use the fact
that the sum of the degrees of all vertices in a graph is equal to twice the number of
edges.

Let's denote the number of vertices of degree 3 as x and the number of vertices of
degree 4 as y.

From the given information, we can construct the following equation:

5 (vertices of degree 4) + 7 (pendant vertices) + 7 (vertices of degree 2) + x (vertices

of degree 3) + y (vertices of degree 4) = 2 * 30 (edges)

Simplifying the equation: 5 + 7 + 7 + x + y = 60

19 + x + y = 60

Now, let's consider the number of edges connected to the vertices of degree 3 and
degree 4. Vertices of degree 3 contribute 3x edges, and vertices of degree 4
contribute 4y edges.

The total number of edges connected to these vertices is: 3x + 4y

We also know that the total number of edges in the graph is 30. Therefore, we have
another equation:

3x + 4y = 30

Now, we have a system of two equations:

19 + x + y = 60

3x + 4y = 30

By solving this system of equations, we can find the values of x and y, representing
the number of vertices of degree 3 and degree 4, respectively.

After solving the equations, we find that x = 12 and y = 11.

Therefore, there are 11 vertices of degree 4 in the given graph.

24. Define different graph operations (union, intersection,

complement) with proper examples.
Graph operations are used to combine or manipulate graphs in various ways. Here
are definitions and examples of three common graph operations: union, intersection,
and complement.

1. Union of Graphs: The union of two graphs, denoted by G₁ ∪ G₂, is a graph that
includes all the vertices and edges from both graphs. In the union, duplicate
edges or vertices are not added.

Example: Let's consider two graphs: G₁: A graph with vertices {A, B, C} and edges {(A,
B), (B, C)} G₂: A graph with vertices {C, D, E} and edges {(C, D), (D, E)}

The union of G₁ and G₂, denoted by G₁ ∪ G₂, would be: G₁ ∪ G₂: A graph with vertices
{A, B, C, D, E} and edges {(A, B), (B, C), (C, D), (D, E)}

2. Intersection of Graphs: The intersection of two graphs, denoted by G₁ ∩ G₂, is

a graph that includes only the vertices and edges that are present in both
graphs.

Example: Consider the same two graphs as above: G₁: A graph with vertices {A, B, C}
and edges {(A, B), (B, C)} G₂: A graph with vertices {C, D, E} and edges {(C, D), (D, E)}

The intersection of G₁ and G₂, denoted by G₁ ∩ G₂, would be: G₁ ∩ G₂: A graph with
vertex {C} and no edges, as the only common vertex between the two graphs is C.

3. Complement of a Graph: The complement of a graph, denoted by G', is a

graph that includes all the vertices from the original graph but contains edges
that are the complement of the original graph's edges. In other words, if two
vertices are not connected by an edge in the original graph, they will be
connected by an edge in the complement, and vice versa.

Example: Consider a simple graph G with vertices {A, B, C} and edges {(A, B), (B, C)}.

The complement of G, denoted by G', would be: G': A graph with vertices {A, B, C}
and edges {(A, C)}

In the original graph G, the vertices A and C are not directly connected by an edge. In
the complement graph G', an edge is added between A and C to make the
complement graph complete.

These are basic examples illustrating the union, intersection, and complement
operations on graphs. However, these operations can be applied to more complex
graphs with multiple vertices and edges.
25. What do you mean by Euler circuit. Explain. Justify the
conditions of a graph containing an Euler circuit
An Euler path, in a graph or multigraph, is a walk through the graph which uses
every edge exactly once. An Euler circuit is an Euler path which starts and stops at
the same vertex. Our goal is to find a quick way to check whether a graph (or
multigraph) has an Euler path or circuit.

Here,

• This graph is a connected graph and all its vertices are of even degree.
• Therefore, it is an Euler graph.

Alternatively, the above graph contains an Euler circuit BACEDCB, so it is an Euler

graph.

26. What is Hamiltonian graph? Explain with proper examples

The graph will be known as a Hamiltonian graph if there is a closed walk in a connected
graph, which passes each and every vertex of the graph exactly once except the root
vertex or starting vertex. The Hamiltonian walk must not repeat any edge. One more
definition of a Hamiltonian graph says a graph will be known as a Hamiltonian graph
if there is a connected graph, which contains a Hamiltonian circuit. The vertex of a
graph is a set of points, which are interconnected with the set of lines, and these lines
are known as edges. The example of a Hamiltonian graph is described as follows:
 o In the above graph, there is a closed walk ABCDEFA.
o Except for the starting vertex, it passed through every vertex of the graph
exactly once.
o At the time of walk, the edges are not repeating.
o Due to all the reasons, we can say that this graph is a Hamiltonian graph.

In other words, we can say that the above graph contains a Hamiltonian circuit. That's
why this graph is a Hamiltonian graph.

27. Find out the number of distinct permutations of the letters of

the word MISSISSIPPI using Multinomial theorem.
Using the Multinomial Theorem there are 9!/(4!4!) or 630 permutations.

28. Write down the binomial expansion for nonnegative fractional n

The binomial expansion for non-negative fractional n can be expressed using the
binomial coefficient notation. The formula is as follows:

(a + b)^n = C(n, 0) * a^n * b^0 + C(n, 1) * a^(n-1) * b^1 + C(n, 2) * a^(n-2) * b^2 +
... + C(n, k) * a^(n-k) * b^k + ... + C(n, n) * a^0 * b^n

Here, C(n, k) represents the binomial coefficient, which is given by the formula:

C(n, k) = n! / (k! * (n - k)!)

29. 9. What is the solution of the recurrence relation 𝑎𝑛 = 6𝑎(𝑛−1) −

9𝑎(𝑛−2) with initial conditions 𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎1 = 6?
30. Find the solution to the recurrence relation 𝑎𝑛 = 6𝑎(𝑛−1) −
11𝑎(𝑛−2) + 6𝑎(𝑛−3) with 𝑎0 = 2, 𝑎1 = 5, and 𝑎2 = 15. 31.
31. Solve the equation by Substitution Method. T(n) = T(n/2) + n 32
32. Solve the recurrence relation: T(n)=1 if n=1; when n>1,
T(n)=2T(n-1)