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Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook
Module 5:
Pests and Diseases

Lotte Suzanne Woittiez

Haryono Sadikin
Sri Turhina
Hidayat Dani
Tri Purba Dukan
Hans Smit
Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook
Module 5: Pests and Diseases
Lotte Suzanne Woittiez
Sadikin Haryono
Sri Turhina
Hidayat Dani
Tri Purba Dukan
Hans Smit

Photos and figures by Lotte Woittiez (unless otherwise indicated).

3rd Edition (English), June 2016

Published online by SNV International Development Organisation and

Wageningen University in 2016.

Correct citation: Woittiez, L.S., Haryono, S., Turhina, S., Dani, H., Dukan,
T.P., Smit, H. 2016. Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook Module 5: Pests and
Diseases. 3rd Edition. Wageningen University, Wageningen, and SNV
International Development Organisation, The Hague. 29 pages.

All content of this document, including the figures, is licensed under the
Creative Commons license BY-NC-SA 3.0.
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

1
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Module 5: Pests and Diseases

GOAL

To identify pests and diseases present in the plantation and deal with
them effectively

After this section, farmers should:

 Be able to recognise the pests and diseases found in their plantation;
 Be aware of the available control measures;
 Be able to implement the available control measures correctly when
necessary.

Contents

Sections
1. BACKGROUND
2. GENERAL NOTES ON PESTICIDES
3. CONDUCTING A PEST AND DISEASE CENSUS
4. RATS
5. RHINOCEROS BEETLE (ORYCTES)
6. LEAF-EATING PESTS
7. GANODERMA
8. SPEAR ROT, CROWN DISEASE, BUD ROT

List of figures

Figure 1: Rat
Figure 2: Fruit bunch damaged by rats
Figure 3: Barn owl
Figure 4: Rhinoceros beetle
Figure 5: Oryctes damage in base of palm
Figure 6: Oryctes damage in palm leaf
Figure 7: Larva of the rhinoceros beetle
Figure 8: Nettle caterpillar
Figure 9: Damage caused by leaf-eating insects
Figure 10: Bunga pukul delapan
Figure 11: Ganoderma infection
Figure 12: Ganoderma bracket
Figure 13: Spear rot

List of tables

Table 1: Beneficial plants

2
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

1. BACKGROUND

Oil palm pests are animals, usually insects (such as caterpillars), or

mammals (such as rats), which cause damage to the palms. Diseases on the
other hand, are caused by micro-organisms such as fungi, bacteria and
viruses. Pests and diseases can reduce oil palm yield, damage fruit bunches
or the palms, and sometimes even kill the palm.

It is important to monitor the plantation at least every two months, to find pest
and disease outbreaks as early as possible.

The most common pests and diseases of oil palm in Southeast Asia are:

 Rats (cause damage to fruit bunches)

 Leaf-eating insects (cause damage to palm leaves)
 Rhinoceros beetles (cause damage to the leaves and the growing
point of immature palms)
 Stem rot (a severe fungal infection of the trunk that can kill the palm)

Good maintenance of the plantation helps prevent the outbreak of pests and
diseases. There are several ways in which damage from pests and diseases
can be limited, such as:

 Ensuring a healthy cover of soft weeds or legume plants which attract

natural enemies of pests;
 Ensuring a clean plantation (e.g. no rotting palm trunks) helps prevent
Oryctes outbreaks;
 Leaving snakes and other predators alive helps keep rats under
control;
 Ensuring good access to the palms makes it easier to find outbreaks
of pests and diseases in an early stage.

Pesticides should be used as little as possible, because they will do damage

to the useful insects and animals living in and around the plantation. Farmers
applying pesticides should always wear full protective clothing (see Module
3).

To carry out pest and disease control efficiently and effectively, the following
sections can be used as a helpful guide.

3
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

2. GENERAL NOTES ON PESTICIDES

WARNING: Herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals are often toxic

to humans, animals and palms, and should be used sparingly and with
care

 Always follow the rules and regulations as set by the government

 Always read the label carefully before applying chemicals. If you don’t
understand entirely, ask the salesman or an extension worker
 When preparing chemicals, follow the instructions on the package
carefully
 Application of chemicals should always be carried out wearing full
protective clothing including rubber gloves, boots, mask, rubber
apron, and safety glasses
 Spraying or trunk injection should be done only by workers who have
followed a training course
 Spray equipment should be kept clean and in good shape
 All containers holding chemicals should be labelled according to their
content (e.g. “Herbicide: [Name], “Pesticide: [Name]”, etc.)
 Never store food in containers that were used for chemicals or
fertilisers

For notes on how to use a knapsack sprayer, see Module 3, Section 2.

4
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

3. CONDUCTING A PEST AND DISEASE CENSUS

In order to find pests and diseases in an early stage, it is necessary to do a

regular ‘check’ of the plantation. This check is called a ‘census’ [1].

Doing a census correctly requires extensive field training. An effective and

simple way to do census in smallholder plantations is not yet available.

To learn how to carry out a pest and disease census correctly, discuss with
local plantations or refer to: Rankine and Fairhurst, 1999, Oil Palm Field
Handbook Mature [1].

Census is generally performed on all the palms in every tenth row. The key
pests and diseases to check for when doing a census include:

 Rats: Damage to bunches in mature palms and young shoots in

immature palms (see Section 4).
 Rhinoceros beetle: Round holes in leaf bases, deformed leaves with
some leaflet tips missing (see Section 5).
 Leaf-eating caterpillars: Irregular holes in the leaflets and/or larvae on
the lower fronds or the fresh fronds on the stack (see Section 6).
 Ganoderma (see Section 7).
 Spear rot, crown disease, bud rot (see Section 8).

On a score sheet or notebook, write down what pests and diseases have
been observed and on which palms.

If signs of pests or diseases are observed, refer to the specific sections of

this chapter to decide what to do next.

Data recording

Every pest census should be recorded in a log book as shown in the example
below.

Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Pest census 1 2 20000

5
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

4. RATS

Background

Rats (Rattus spp.) are an important pest in oil palm plantations (see Figure
1). They eat the leaf bases of young palms, sometimes even killing the
palms. In older palms, rats eat from the ripening fruits in the bunches,
causing damage (see Figure 2). When these bunches are sold at the mill a
deduction will be given because some of the oil is lost. Rats reproduce very
fast, so a small population can become a large one in a short period of time.
Therefore, it is important to keep the rat population under control.

Figure 1: Rat [2]

Goal

 To keep rat damage to fresh fruit bunches at a minimum;

 To keep rat populations under control.

6
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Standard

 Rat damage to fruit bunches kept at less than 10 percent of the

bunches damaged.
 Note: In smallholder plantations, rat baiting is useful only when
neighbouring farmers also participate. Otherwise controlling rats by
baiting is not effective.

Timing and frequency

 Monitoring of rat damage: once per two months.

 Rat baiting: when more than 10 percent of the palms/bunches are
damaged, provided that neighbours are willing to participate.
 Installing barn owl boxes: Once, in the beginning of rehabilitation.

Labour time required

 Monitoring rat damage: As part of monitoring harvest quality.

 Rat baiting: 2 hours per hectare per round.
 Installing barn owl boxes: One day per five hectares.

Equipment and materials

 Barn owls, barn owl nesting boxes;

 Rat baits.

Who

Farmers and their families, in discussion with extension workers, cooperative

and/or local plantation companies

7
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 2: Fruit bunch damaged by rats

How

Monitoring of rat damage

Step 1. In immature plantings (less than 3 years after planting), the

plantation should be visited regularly (at least once per month)
to check for signs of rat damage and rhinoceros beetle damage.
Step 2. When harvesting productive palms, check bunches for rat
damage.
Step 3. If rat damage is observed in a harvested bunch (see Figure 2),
all the other bunches should also be checked, and the
percentage of damaged bunches noted.
Step 4. If more than 10 percent of the bunches or immature palms show
signs of fresh rat damage, it can be decided to take control
measures.

8
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Biological control of rats

The cheapest, safest and easiest way to control rats is by biological control.
Biological control of rat populations can be done by introducing barn owls
(Tyto alba) (see Figure 3) or by conserving other predators, such as snakes.
Such predators should not be killed unless they are a serious danger to
workers or their families.

When using barn owls to control rats, the following points should be kept in
mind:

 Discuss the best approach with an extension worker or with local

plantation companies before introducing barn owls.
 Barn owls can usually be purchased on the market (if not, ask a
nearby plantation where they bought their owls).
 Install nest boxes every five to ten hectares to get a good population
of owls.
 Work together with other farmers to buy and keep the barn owls,
especially if the plantations are small. You can also share costs.

Figure 3: Barn owl

Barn owls and other predators can help keep a rat population under control,
but from time to time that the number of rats may still grow fast (an

9
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

‘outbreak’). If an outbreak occurs and the farmer decides to take action, it

must be kept in mind that the poisons used to kill the rats can also harm
the barn owls and other predators when they eat the poisoned rats.
Farmers should think carefully before using poison, and make sure that they
have all the information they need.

Chemical control of rats

If rats are starting to cause much damage despite the presence of owls,
poisonous ‘baits’ can be used to kill the rats. Baits are, in fact, poisoned
pieces of rat food, which can be bought in local shops.
Note: These baits are poisonous also for humans, farm animals, and
predators that eat the poisoned rats. They should therefore be used with
care, and only if it is really necessary.

Baiting rats is only useful if the neighbours join in as well. Otherwise, rats
from adjacent plantations will just move into the baited area after the baiting
is done.

When using rat baits, the following should be kept in mind:

 Start with the mildest poison, the so-called ‘first generation

anticoagulants’ such as racumin, warfarin and chlorophacinone [3].
Such first generation anticoagulants are less damaging to the barn
owls and other predators, but it may happen that rats become
resistant to them.
 If rats show signs of being resistant (see below) and the infestation is
really severe, the farmer can try ‘second generation anticoagulants’.
Common brands of such anticoagulants include brodifacoum,
bromadioline and flocoumafen.
Note: Second generation anticoagulants are damaging to barn owls
and other predators and therefore should only be used as a last
option.
 Baits, once unpackaged, should be handled with care while wearing
gloves, because they are poisonous to humans also.
 If goats or cows are grazing freely in the plantation, they may eat the
baits and get poisoned. In this case, the baits should be placed in the
palms, out of reach of the animals.

Rat baiting can be carried out as follows:

Step 1. If placing the bait on the ground:

 Weed and rake the palm circle to ensure the bait will be
easily visible;
 In an area where rat infestation occurs, place one bait next
to every palm, about 1 m from the base.

10
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

If placing the bait on the palm:

 Place the bait behind a frond butt on the palm trunk;
 Mark the frond butt (e.g. with paint) so that it can easily be
checked if the bait has been eaten or not.
Step 2. Note exactly how many baits have been placed, and check every
4–5 days to see how many baits have been eaten.
Step 3. Replace any eaten baits with new ones until more than 80 percent
of the baits remain un-eaten, or until rat damage has declined to
less than 10 percent of the bunches [1].
Step 4. If many baits remain uneaten from the beginning, but rat damage
to the fruit bunches continues, then the rats don’t like the baits
and are not eating them. If this happens it might help to try
another type of bait, or to buy fresh baits (if they have been stored
for more than 6 months).
Step 5. If many baits are eaten but rat damage to the fruit bunches
continues, rats are likely to be resistant to the poison. Then, it
may be necessary to switch to second generation anticoagulants.

Note: It is best to place baits directly after harvesting, so that the rats don’t
have anything else to eat. Also, it is less likely that baits will be accidentally
‘collected’ with the loose fruits during harvesting. It is important to always tell
the harvesters when rat baits have been placed in a plantation.

Data recording

Every rat baiting activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in the
example below.

Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Rat baiting Warfarin 10 80000 1 2 20000
packs

11
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

5. RHINOCEROS BEETLE (ORYCTES)

Background

Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) is a pest which mostly infects

immature oil palms (see Figure 4). While several options are available for
chemical treatments to reduce rhinoceros beetle infestation, none of these is
currently ‘standard practice’ in plantations. Rhinoceros beetles breed in
rotting wood on the plantation floor, so good maintenance of the plantation is
essential because it can help to prevent outbreaks.

Figure 4: Rhinoceros beetle

The damage caused by rhinoceros beetle to immature palms can be

recognised as follows:

 Holes are present in the base of the frond (see Figure 5);
 Fronds bend or ‘break’ where they are damaged;
 New fronds are deformed;
 Death of the young palm may occur, if the growing point is eaten by
the beetle.

In mature palms infected with oryctes, the leaves have a typical shape with
chunks missing. Leaf tips may also appear triangular (see Figure 6).

Rhinoceros beetle is a common pest in coconut palms, so if there is a

coconut plantation nearby, attacks on oil palm plantations are more likely to
occur. Severe infestation by oryctes can kill large numbers of young palms,
so good plantation monitoring and maintenance are important.

12
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 5: Rhinoceros beetle damage in base of immature palm

Figure 6: Rhinoceros beetle damage in leaf of mature palm

13
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Goal

 Keep damage of rhinoceros beetle at a minimum;

 Control the population by removing breeding sites.

Standard

 All dead and rotting wood is removed from the plantation as soon as
possible;
 A good legume cover crop is established in immature plantations.

Timing and frequency

 Removal or shredding of dead wood and establishment of a good

cover crop should be done during plantation establishment;
 Maintenance is necessary at all times.

Labour time required

Depends on the amount of dead wood and the overall maintenance of the
plantation.

Equipment and materials

 Normal maintenance tools

 Wood chipper/shredder (during plantation establishment)

Who

Farmers and their families or hired labourers.

How

To control rhinoceros beetle follow these steps:

Step 1. If dead wood is present, remove it or cut it into small pieces and

14
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

spread throughout the plantation to increase the speed of

decomposition.
Step 2. Keep weeds in the inter-row at a 50 cm height, with a dense
canopy (see Module 3).
Step 3. After clearing a piece of land to plant oil palm, sow a legume
cover immediately. The leaves of the cover plant will stop the
mature beetles from finding the dead wood on the plantation floor
and also stop the young beetles from moving up into the palms.
Step 4. If signs of rhinoceros beetles are observed, the plantation (as well
as surrounding fields) should be checked immediately for the
presence of breeding sites, which need to be destroyed wherever
possible.

Note: Piles of empty fruit bunches can be perfect breeding sites for
rhinoceros beetle. If there are signs of beetle damage, check under empty
fruit bunch piles. If larvae (see: Figure 7) are seen:

 Kill the larvae;

 Turn the empty fruit bunches over and pull them apart as much as
possible (to make decomposition go faster).

See Module 4 for the correct ways to apply empty fruit bunches.

Figure 7: Larva of the Rhinoceros beetle

15
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Data recording

Every pest control activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in the
example below.

Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Plantation 3 2 days 480000
cleaning

16
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

6. LEAF-EATING PESTS

Background

There are several leaf-eating pests which sometimes infest oil palm
plantations. The most important ones in Southeast Asia are bagworms
(Pteroma pendula, Metisa plana, Mahasena corbetti), tussock moths
(Dasychira spp., Orgyia spp.), and nettle caterpillars (Darna trima, Setora
nitens, Setothosea asigna; see Figure 8).

Figure 8: Nettle caterpillar [4]

Each of these insects eats through the oil palm leaf, so their presence is
easily recognisable by the holes in the leaves (see Figure 9). In severely
infested palms, only the midribs of the leaflets are left, so the palm cannot
capture much sunlight and the yield will be strongly reduced. Prevention and
management of outbreaks is therefore important.

Natural enemies are insects which kill pests, for example by laying their eggs
in the pest larvae. The natural enemies of leaf-eating pests live in the weeds
in and around the plantation (see Module 3 for suggestions on how to
manage weeds). If all weeds are killed, the natural enemies will die or move

17
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

away, and outbreaks of leaf-eating pests will become more likely. But even in
well-maintained plantations, outbreaks can still occur.

Managing pests requires careful monitoring and the correct use of hazardous
chemicals. Both the monitoring and the application of chemicals should
be carried out by trained workers. If farmer groups want to establish
monitoring and spraying teams, it is necessary to ask for help from extension
workers or nearby plantation companies. In this handbook, we discuss only
preventive measures, because monitoring and spraying need to be taught in
the field by specialised professionals.

Goal

Keep leaf-eating insect damage to oil palms to a minimum.

Standard

Maintenance of the plantation is up to standard and promotes the biological

control of leaf-eating insect populations.

Equipment and materials

Seeds of beneficial plants (see Table 1).

Timing

 Planting beneficial weeds: at the start of plantation rehabilitation;

 Doing correct weed maintenance: continuously.

Labour time requirement

Depending on the number of beneficial weeds planted.

Who

Farmers and their family or hired labourers.

18
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

TABLE 1: BENEFICIAL PLANTS

Scientific name English name
Turnera subulata (white flower) White buttercup
Turnera ulmifolia (yellow flower) Yellow alder
Cassia tora, Cassia cobanensis Senna
Spermacoce alata Winged false buttonweed
Elephantopus tomentosus Common elephant’s foot
Antigonon leptopus Mexican creeper
Euphorbia heterophylla Lechosa

How

 Maintain a dense ground cover canopy (see Module 3);

 Plant weeds that are specifically attractive for natural enemies of pests
(e.g. Cassia cobanensis, Euphorbia heterophylla, Antigonon leptopus,
Turnera subulata) (see Figure 10).
Note: These weeds are usually not shade tolerant and should
therefore be planted at roadsides or in open spots where palms have
died.

Figure 9: Damage caused by leaf-eating insects

19
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 10: Bunga pukul delapan

Data recording

Every pest prevention activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in

the example below.

Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Planting Euphorbia 3 8 240000
Euphorbia heterophylla
heterophylla seed

20
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

7. GANODERMA

Background

Ganoderma, also known as basal or upper stem rot, is a fungal infection of

the oil palm. In severe cases of a Ganoderma infection, the oil palm dies.
Older plantations may have over 50 percent death rates in the event of a
severe infestation. While there is no cure for a Ganoderma infection, the
spreading of the infection can sometimes be limited through good
management.

Ganoderma is spread in two ways:

1. Through soil by threads of fungus;

2. Through air by spores which come from a mushroom (bracket) that
grows on the trunk of infected palms [5].

Not all infected palms have brackets on their trunk. When a palm is infected
with Ganoderma, different symptoms may be seen, such as a yellowing of
the young leaves, an accumulation of several young unopened leaves (spear
leaves) in the middle of the canopy, or a ring of dead fronds hanging down
along the trunk (see: Figure 11).
Sometimes palms will stay productive even though they show signs of
Ganoderma, but often they die within a year.

Goal

To minimise the spread of Ganoderma through a plantation

Standard

 Brackets (see: Figure 12) are taken from the infected palms and
destroyed;
 Soil is mounted around the base of infected palms;
 Dead palms are removed from the plantation and burned;
 Remediation: Field is left without palms for at least 12 months after
felling of old palms.

21
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 11: Ganoderma infection

Equipment and materials

 Bush knife (to cut off the brackets)

 Chain saw
 Spade or digging machine

Timing

 Removing brackets: As soon as they are observed;

 Soil mounting: As soon as signs of Ganoderma infection are observed;
 Remediation: After felling, before replanting.

22
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Frequency

Depends on the frequency and speed of new infections.

Labour time required

 Removal of brackets: A few minutes per palm;

 Soil piling: 30 minutes per palm;
 Cutting and removing palms: Several hours per palm, depending on
the available equipment.

Who

Farmers and their families or hired labourers.

How

To control Ganoderma follow these steps:

Step 1. During harvesting or other field activities look at the palms

carefully and note any yellowing or dying of leaves, or the
appearance of brackets on the trunks. In particular, look for the
following:
 Several unopened new leaves (spear leaves) in the top of
the crown;
 A ring of dead or dying leaves hanging around the trunk;
 General yellowing of the leaves;
 Small-looking canopy;
 Brackets forming on the trunk [1, 6].
Step 2. If there are signs which might indicate Ganoderma, then check
the trunk carefully at every harvesting round for signs of brackets.
If brackets do not appear within a few weeks, then it is likely that
they will not appear later on. If the palm has brackets, then these
should be cut off, taken out of the plantation, and destroyed
(burned).
Step 3. To slow the progress of the disease in the palm, it can help to
mount soil around the base of palms which show early signs of
infection. To do this make a heap of soil up to 75 cm high and 50
cm wide around the trunk. The disease progress should slow
down.
Note: this option is labour-intensive and will probably not stop the
disease in the end.

23
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Step 4. To prevent spreading of the disease from root to root, plantations

often remove sick palms entirely. For smallholders without chain
saws or heavy machines, removing the palms can be very labour-
intensive, so it is up to each farmer to decide if he wants to do this
or not.
If the decision has been made to remove infected palms then
follow these steps:
 Fell all the palms that are dead or have brackets;
 Cut the trunk into pieces;
 Remove all pieces that show disease symptoms
(blackening in the inside of the trunk) from the plantation
and burn them;
 Shred or cut the remaining pieces into smaller chips and
leave those in the plantation to decompose. Note: If they
are not cut into smaller pieces, they will become breeding
sites for rhinoceros beetles!
 Dig out the palm bole (i.e. the part of the roots directly
under the base) by making a hole at least 50 cm deep.
Spread the soil equally around the hole.
 Remove the bole from the plantation and burn it.
 Leave the hole open or fill it with clean soil from the inter-
row.

Note: When Ganoderma symptoms are observed, the palm has already
been infected for quite some time. Therefore, even when taking the
measures described above, the disease can still spread.
There is still much that is unclear about the best way to deal with
Ganoderma, even though it is a very common and destructive disease. The
best time to prevent Ganoderma is at the replanting stage. Currently, it is
recommended to remove all diseased palms and also the roots and the soil
from a two-by-two meter hole of one meter deep, and to wait at least one
year before planting any new oil palms. The new palms should be planted
where previously the frond piles and harvesting paths were located, as far
from the previous planting holes as possible.

24
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 12: Ganoderma bracket

Data recording

Every disease control activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in

the example below.

Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Removing 1 4 40000
Ganoderma
brackets

25
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

8. SPEAR ROT, CROWN DISEASE, BUD ROT

Spear rot

Spear rot is a fungus infection of the spear leaf or the palm growing point [1,
5]. Spear rot usually occurs when the palm is already damaged, for example
by insects. Preventing insect attacks by doing good maintenance in the
plantation is the best way to prevent spear rot.

The symptoms of spear rot are a dead or rotting spear leaf (see: Figure 13
and Figure 14). There is currently no cure for spear rot. If the whole growing
point is killed by the fungus then the palm will eventually die. In less severe
cases, the growing point can recover.

Figure 13: Spear rot, the spear has turned brown and collapsed

26
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

Figure 14: Spear rot, detail

Crown disease

Crown disease mainly attacks young palms (1-4 years after planting) but has
been known to persist for up to 10 years. It is still unclear what the cause of
crown disease is, but it is clear that some planting materials are more
susceptible than others. Buying good planting material and providing
sufficient potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and boron (B) are the best ways to
prevent crown disease [5].

Crown disease can be recognised by a typical bending of the leaves,

somewhere in the middle. At the point of bending, leaflets are absent or very
small. The palm looks very dense, like a pile of leaves. In very severe cases,
all the new leaves become affected and the palm growth and yield in the first
years is seriously reduced.

Bud rot (Pudrición de Cogollo)

Bud rot (Pudrición de Cogollo or PC in Spanish) is a devastating disease

which is found mostly in South and Central America, and sometimes in
Africa. The disease starts with the yellowing of the youngest fronds, and a
rotting of the spear leaf. In extreme cases, the rot moves down into the
growing point of the palm (the ‘heart’, hence the Spanish name which means

27
Module 5: Pests and Diseases

‘heart rot’) and the palm may die. If the palm survives, recovery can take
months or even years.

Bud rot can be extremely devastating. The disease has wiped out entire
plantations, with tens of thousands of hectares being lost within a few years.
Despite intensive research, the cause of bud rot remains unknown. Several
fungi as well as abiotic factors have been pointed at.

As a management option, it has been common practice to cut away diseased

tissue in the early stage of the disease, and to destroy palms that are more
severely affected [7]. However, these measures have not prevented the
destruction of entire plantations, and overly fast removal of palms might in
some cases even have contributed to the severity of the destruction.

Bud rot has not (yet) been found in Southeast Asia.

28
 Module 5: Pests and Diseases

References and further reading

[1] I.R. Rankine, T.H. Fairhurst, Field Handbook: Oil Palm Series, Volume 3 – Mature,
second ed., Potash & Phosphate Institute (PPI), Singapore, 1999.
[2] IRRI photos, 2002, Field rats infesting rice plants, Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Field_rats_infesting_rice_plants_%2811058917
815%29.jpg, Accessed 20 July 2015.
[3] K.H. Lim, S.S. Lim, F. Parish, R. Suharto, RSPO Manual on Best Management Practices
(BMPs) for Existing Oil Palm Cultivation on Peat., RSPO, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2012.
[4] L.P. Koh, 2006, Oil palm: pest, Nettle caterpillar, Flickr,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/drlianpinkoh/5391807353, Accessed 20 July 2015.
[5] R.H.V. Corley, P.B. Tinker, The Oil Palm, fourth ed., Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK,
2003.
[6] G.F. Chung, Management of Ganoderma diseases in oil palm plantations, The Planter,
87 (2011) 325-339.
[7] G.A. Torres, G.A. Sarria, S. Salcedo, F. Varón, H.A. Aya, J.G. Ariza, L. Morales, G.
Martínez, Opciones de manejo de la Pudrición del cogollo (PC) de la Palma de aceite en
áreas de baja incidencia de la enfermedad PALMAS, 29 (2008) 63-72.

29

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