HUMAN ANATOMY

For Fitness and Personal Trainers

International Academy of Sports Science & Technology

WWW.IASST.ACADEMY
HUMAN ANATOMY
Human anatomy refers to the study of the
structure and organization of the human body.
It involves examining the various organs,
tissues, and systems that make up the human
body and understanding their functions.
Anatomical
directions
Anatomical directions are terms
used to describe the relative
positions and orientations of
structures within the human body.

These terms are essential for

accurately describing the location
of organs, tissues, bones, and
other anatomical structures
Anatomical
directions
Some commonly used anatomical directions

Anterior (Ventral)

Refers to the front or direction toward the front of the body.

For example, the nose is anterior to the ears.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Refers to the back or direction toward the back of the body.

For example, the shoulder blades are posterior to the chest.

Anatomical
directions
Some commonly used anatomical directions

Superior (cranial)

Describes a position above or higher than another structure.

For instance, the head is superior to the neck

Inferior (caudal)

Describes a position below or lower than another structure.

For example, the feet are inferior to the knees

Anatomical
directions
Some commonly used anatomical directions

Proximal

Refers to a position closer to the point of attachment or the trunk

of the body.

For example, the elbow is proximal to the wrist

Distal

Refers to a position farther away from the point of attachment or

the trunk of the body.

For instance, the fingers are distal to the wrist

Anatomical
directions
Some commonly used anatomical directions

Medial

Indicates a position closer to the midline of the body.

For example, the nose is medial to the eyes.

Lateral

Indicates a position farther away from the midline of the body.

For instance, the ears are lateral to the eyes

Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle anatomy refers to the study of

the structure and organization of
muscles in the human body. Muscles are
soft tissues that contract and relax,
allowing movement and providing
stability and support to the skeletal
system.
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Types

Skeletal Muscles These muscles are attached to bones and responsible for voluntary
movements.

Cardiac Muscles Found in the heart, these muscles are responsible for involuntary
contractions that pump blood.

Smooth Muscles Present in the walls of organs and blood vessels, these muscles
control involuntary movements.
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Fibers
Muscle fibers are the individual cells that make up muscles. They are long and cylindrical
in shape, and each fiber contains myofibrils.

Myofibrils Myofibrils are thread-like structures

within muscle fibers that contain
contractile units called sarcomeres.
They are composed of two types of
protein filaments: actin (thin filaments)
and myosin (thick filaments).
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Fibers
Muscle fibers are the individual cells that make up muscles. They are long and cylindrical
in shape, and each fiber contains myofibrils.

Sarcomere The sarcomere is the functional unit of

a muscle. It is the segment between
two Z-lines and is responsible for
muscle contraction. Actin and myosin
filaments slide past each other during
contraction, shortening the sarcomere.
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Fibers
Muscle fibers are the individual cells that make up muscles. They are long and cylindrical
in shape, and each fiber contains myofibrils.

Tendons Tendons are tough, fibrous

connective tissues that attach
muscles to bones.

They transmit the force generated

by muscle contractions to produce
movement.
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Attachments

Muscles can have different attachment points

on bones.

The origin is the attachment point that remains

relatively fixed during muscle contraction.

The insertion is the attachment point that

moves towards the origin during muscle
contraction.
Muscular
System
Muscle Anatomy

Muscle Innervation

Muscles receive nerve signals that stimulate

contraction.

Motor neurons carry signals from the brain and

spinal cord to the muscles, controlling their
movements. the structure and organization of
the human body.

It involves examining the various organs,

tissues, and systems that make up the human
body and understanding their functions.
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Movement
Skeletal muscles are responsible for
voluntary movements of the body. By
contracting and relaxing, they generate
forces that cause bones to move and
joints to articulate. Muscles work in
coordinated groups to produce a wide
range of movements, including walking,
running, lifting, grasping, and facial
expressions
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Posture and Stability

Skeletal muscles play a crucial role in
maintaining posture and stability of the
body. They provide support to the
skeleton and hold the body upright
against the force of gravity. Muscles
actively contract to stabilize joints and
maintain proper alignment of the body
during both static (standing) and
dynamic (moving) activities
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Joint Stability
Skeletal muscles contribute to joint
stability by providing dynamic support to
the joints. They help reinforce the joint
structures, prevent excessive movement
or dislocation, and protect the joint from
injury. Muscles surrounding the joints
work in coordination to maintain joint
integrity and control movement
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Heat Generation
Skeletal muscles generate heat during
muscle contractions. This process is
important for maintaining body
temperature and regulating heat
balance. When muscles contract, they
produce heat as a byproduct of energy
metabolism. This heat production helps
to keep the body warm and facilitates
optimal physiological functioning
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Metabolic Function
Skeletal muscles are metabolically active
tissues that have a significant impact on
the body's energy expenditure and
metabolism. They require energy in the
form of ATP for muscle contractions and
contribute to the body's overall energy
consumption. Additionally, skeletal
muscle tissue plays a role in glucose
metabolism and helps regulate blood
glucose levels.
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Protection and Support

Skeletal muscles provide protection and
support to vital organs and structures
within the body. For example, the
abdominal muscles help protect the
abdominal organs, while the muscles of
the back and torso provide support to the
spine and protect the spinal cord.
The Functional Rolls
of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles play several important functional
roles in the human body. These roles contribute to
various aspects of movement, posture, and overall
body function. Here are the primary functional roles
of skeletal muscles.

Respiratory Function
Skeletal muscles, such as the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles, are involved in
the process of respiration. These
muscles contract and relax to facilitate
inhalation and exhalation, enabling the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the lungs.
Agonist, synergist,
and antagonist
muscles Agonist, synergist, and antagonist muscles work together in coordinated patterns during movement to
produce smooth and controlled actions. Understanding these muscle roles is important for designing
effective exercise programs.
Here's an explanation of each role and some exercise examples

Agonist Muscles
Agonist muscles, also known as prime movers, are the primary muscles
responsible for producing a specific movement. They contract to create the
desired motion at a joint. For example:
• Quadriceps (agonist) during leg extension exercises like squats or lunges.
• Biceps brachii (agonist) during bicep curls.
• Gluteus maximus (agonist) during hip thrusts or squats.
Agonist, synergist,
and antagonist
muscles Agonist, synergist, and antagonist muscles work together in coordinated patterns during movement to
produce smooth and controlled actions. Understanding these muscle roles is important for designing
effective exercise programs.
Here's an explanation of each role and some exercise examples

Synergist Muscles
Synergist muscles assist the agonist muscles in producing a movement. They
work together with the agonist muscles to stabilize joints, provide additional
force, or assist in controlling the movement. Examples include
• Hamstrings (synergist) assisting the quadriceps during squats or leg presses.
• Deltoids (synergist) supporting the pectoralis major during chest presses.
• Trapezius (synergist) aiding the deltoids during overhead shoulder presses.
Agonist, synergist,
and antagonist
muscles Agonist, synergist, and antagonist muscles work together in coordinated patterns during movement to
produce smooth and controlled actions. Understanding these muscle roles is important for designing
effective exercise programs.
Here's an explanation of each role and some exercise examples

Antagonist Muscles
Antagonist muscles oppose or act in the opposite direction to the agonist
muscles. They relax and lengthen as the agonist contracts, providing control and
smoothness to the movement. Examples include:
• Hamstrings (antagonist) when the quadriceps contract during leg extension
exercises.
• Triceps brachii (antagonist) when the biceps contract during bicep curls.
• Rectus abdominis (antagonist) when the erector spinae contract during back
extensions.
Muscle Groups

Muscles in the body are organized into

groups that work together to perform
specific movements.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Deltoids
The deltoids, commonly referred to as the "delts", are
the rounded, triangular muscles located on the
uppermost part of the arm and the top of the
shoulder. The deltoid muscle is divided into three
distinct heads or parts, which all originate from
various parts of the clavicle and scapula and insert
into the humerus (upper arm bone).
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Deltoids
Anterior (Front) Deltoid: Originates from the
anterior border of the clavicle. It is mainly responsible
for shoulder flexion, and when working in conjunction
with the other deltoid parts, it aids in lifting the arm
forward. It also plays a role in shoulder internal
rotation.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Deltoids
Lateral (Middle) Deltoid: Originates from the
acromion of the scapula. It is the primary muscle
responsible for shoulder abduction, which is lifting
the arm to the side.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Deltoids
Posterior (Rear) Deltoid: Originates from the spine
of the scapula. It primarily takes charge of shoulder
extension and transverse abduction. It also plays a
role in external rotation of the shoulder.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Deltoids
Functions

They play a pivotal role in all kinds of arm

movements, especially those related to lifting and
rotating the arm.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Pectoralis Major
The pectoralis major is a large, fan-shaped muscle
situated at the chest (anterior) of the human body. It's
one of the major muscles of the thorax and plays a
significant role in the movement of the shoulder joint.
The pectoralis major has two primary parts based on
its points of origin:

Clavicular head (upper chest): Originates from the

medial half of the clavicle.

Sternal head (lower chest): Originates from the

sternum and the cartilage of the first six ribs.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Pectoralis Major
Functions

Flexion of the humerus: as in raising the arm from a

hanging position to frontwards, like in a front raise
exercise.

Adduction of the humerus: as in bringing the arm

down towards the side of the body.

Medial rotation of the humerus: as when you turn

your arm inwards.

The pectoralis major also plays a role in deep

inhalation, aiding in expanding the chest.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Biceps Brachii
The biceps brachii is one of the primary
muscles of the upper arm that stands out
prominently when flexed. The term "biceps" is
derived from the Latin word for "two-headed,"
which refers to the muscle's two distinct
origins.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Biceps Brachii
The biceps brachii has two heads:

Long Head: Originates from the supraglenoid

tubercle of the scapula.

Short Head: Originates from the coracoid

process of the scapula.

Both heads merge to form a single muscle belly

and insert onto the radial tuberosity of the radius
(one of the forearm bones) and the fascia of the
forearm via the bicipital aponeurosis.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Biceps Brachii
Functions

Flexion of the elbow: The primary function is to bend

the elbow.

Supination of the forearm: Turning the palm upward

or facing forward, such as when holding a bowl of
soup.

Weak flexor of the shoulder: Assisting in lifting the

arm forward.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Triceps Brachii
The triceps brachii is the large muscle located
on the back of the upper arm and is
responsible for the straightening (extension) of
the elbow. As the name suggests ("tri"
meaning three and "ceps" meaning head).
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Triceps Brachii
The triceps brachii has three distinct heads:

Long Head: Originates from the infraglenoid tubercle of

the scapula. This is the most medial and largest head of
the triceps.

Lateral Head: Originates from the posterior surface of

the humerus above the radial groove. This head provides
the horseshoe shape on the side of the triceps.

Medial Head: Originates from the posterior surface of

the humerus below the radial groove and is mostly
covered by the long and lateral heads.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Triceps Brachii
Functions

Extension of the elbow: Straightening the arm.

Long head assists in adduction and extension of the

arm: Due to its origin from the scapula.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Trapezius
The trapezius (often simply called the "traps")
is a large, flat, kite-shaped muscle that
extends longitudinally from the occipital bone
to the lower thoracic vertebrae and laterally to
the spine of the scapula (shoulder blade).
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Trapezius
The trapezius is commonly divided into three regions based on
the direction of its muscle fibers and their primary functions:

Upper (or Superior) Trapezius:

Originates from the occipital bone and the ligamentum nuchae.

Middle (or Intermediate) Trapezius:

Originates from the spinous processes of the first through fourth
thoracic vertebrae.

Lower (or Inferior) Trapezius:

Originates from the spinous processes of the fifth through
twelfth thoracic vertebrae.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Trapezius
Functions

Its primary function is to move the scapulae and

support the arm.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Latissimus Dorsi
The latissimus dorsi, often referred to as the "lats", is
one of the broadest muscles of the back. It spans a
large portion of the posterior thorax, and plays a key
role in various upper body movements. Here's a
breakdown of its characteristics and functions.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Latissimus Dorsi
This muscle has several origins including the spinous
processes of the thoracic T7-T12 vertebrae, the
thoracolumbar fascia, the iliac crest of the hip bone, and
the lower three or four ribs.

It inserts into the floor of the intertubercular groove of

the humerus (upper arm bone).
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Latissimus Dorsi
Functions

Shoulder Extension: Drawing the arm backward and downward.

Shoulder Adduction: Drawing the arm closer to the body's midline.

Shoulder Medial (internal) Rotation: Rotating the arm towards the body.

Assists in drawing the trunk up in activities such as climbing.

Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Abdominal Muscles
The abdominal muscles, commonly known
as the "abs," are a group of muscles that
primarily lie on the front and sides of the
lower torso..
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Abdominal Muscles
Here's a detailed overview of the main
abdominal muscles

Rectus Abdominis: This is the most superficial

abdominal muscle, running vertically down the
front of the abdomen.

External Oblique: These are situated on the

sides and front of the abdomen, originating from
the lower ribs and inserting into the iliac crest and
linea alba.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Abdominal Muscles
Here's a detailed overview of the main
abdominal muscles

Internal Oblique: These lie just beneath the

external obliques.

Transversus Abdominis: This is the deepest of

the abdominal muscles, running horizontally
across the abdomen.
Muscle Groups
Upper Body Muscle
Groups

Abdominal Muscles
Functions

They play vital roles in daily functions, such as

supporting the spine, aiding in posture, assisting
in breathing, and participating in movements like
bending and twisting
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Quadriceps
The quadriceps, often referred to as the "quads," is a
group of four major muscles located on the front of the
thigh.

The quadriceps are among the largest and strongest

muscles in the human body
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Quadriceps
Here are the four muscles that make up the quadriceps group:

Vastus Lateralis: This muscle is located on the outer side of the thigh
and is the largest of the quadriceps muscles.

Vastus Medialis: This muscle is located on the inner side of the thigh,
running down to the inner edge of the knee cap.

Vastus Intermedius: This muscle lies beneath the rectus femoris and is
positioned between the vastus lateralis and the vastus medialis.

Rectus Femoris: This is the only muscle of the four that crosses both
the hip and the knee joint. Thus, it plays a role in hip flexion as well as
knee extension.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Quadriceps
Functions

The primary function of the quadriceps muscle group is knee

extension. The rectus femoris also assists in flexing the hip
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Hamstrings
The hamstrings are a group of three muscles
located at the back of the thigh. These muscles play
a pivotal role in hip and knee movement. They work
in opposition to the quadriceps (the muscles on the
front of the thigh) to facilitate walking, running,
bending, and other movements
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Hamstrings
Here are the three muscles that make up the
hamstrings:

Biceps Femoris: This muscle has a long head and

a short head. It is the most lateral of the hamstrings,
located on the outside of the thigh.

Semitendinosus: This muscle is situated medially,

in between the other two hamstring muscles.

Semimembranosus: This is the most medial of the

hamstrings, lying deeper and to the inside of the
semitendinosus.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Hamstrings
Functions

The primary functions of the hamstrings are knee

flexion (bending the knee) and hip extension (moving
the thigh backward).

They also play a role in decelerating the lower leg

during running and in controlling the trunk during
forward bending.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Gluteal Muscles
The gluteal muscles, commonly referred to as the
"glutes," are a group of three major muscles located
in the buttocks
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Gluteal Muscles
Here's a brief overview of each of the three major
gluteal muscles:

Gluteus Maximus: This is the largest of the gluteal

muscles and covers a substantial portion of the
buttock area.

Gluteus Medius: It is located just beneath the

gluteus maximus, towards the outer surface of the
pelvis.

Gluteus Minimus: It's found beneath the gluteus

medius.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Gluteal Muscles
Functions

These muscles play a significant role in various

movements and functions, including walking, running,
rising from a seated position, and stabilizing the
pelvis.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Calves
The calf comprises two primary muscles: the
gastrocnemius and the soleus. Together, they merge
into the Achilles tendon, which inserts onto the
calcaneus (heel bone).
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Calves
Gastrocnemius: This muscle is the more superficial
of the two, giving the calf its distinctive bulging
appearance. It has two heads (medial and lateral)
that originate from just above the knee on the femur.

Soleus: Positioned beneath the gastrocnemius, the

soleus has a broader and flatter appearance. It
originates from the upper portions of the tibia and
fibula, the bones of the lower leg.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Calves
Functions

These muscles play a vital role in plantarflexion of the

foot (pointing the toes down) and provide necessary
power for activities like walking, running, and jumping.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Adductors
The adductors are a group of muscles in the inner
thigh.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Adductors
There are five primary adductor muscles:

Adductor Longus: Begins on the pubis and extends

down to the middle of the femur.

Adductor Brevis: Situated beneath the adductor

longus. It originates from the pubis and inserts into
the upper femur.

Adductor Magnus: The largest of the adductor

muscles. It originates from the ischial and pubic
regions and attaches to the entire length of the linea
aspera of the femur.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Adductors
Gracilis: This long, thin muscle runs from the pubic
bone to the upper part of the shin bone (tibia)
beneath the knee.

Obturator Externus: This muscle originates from the

outer surface of the obturator membrane and the
surrounding bones, and attaches to the femur's
greater trochanter.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Adductors
Functions

These muscles are crucial for stability, balance, and

lateral movements and are heavily engaged in
activities like running, cycling, horse riding, and many
sports.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Abductors
The abductors are muscles in the hip region

Here are the primary abductor muscles:

Gluteus Medius: Located on the outer surface of the ilium, just

below the iliac crest.

Gluteus Minimus: Lies beneath the gluteus medius,

originating from the outer surface of the ilium and inserting into
the anterior part of the greater trochanter of the femur.

Tensor Fasciae Latae (TFL): This muscle is found on the

outer hip and runs into the iliotibial band (IT band), which
extends down the lateral thigh to attach to the tibia.
Muscle Groups
Lower Body Muscle
Groups

Abductors
Functions

that function primarily to abduct the thigh, which

means to move it away from the midline of the body.
They also play a significant role in stabilizing the
pelvis, especially during single-leg activities like
walking or running.
 Skeletal anatomy is the study of the structure and
Skeletal System organization of the bones in the body. The skeletal system
provides support, protection, and movement for the body,
and it also plays a role in the production of blood cells and
the storage of minerals.
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Bones
The human body has 206 bones that
make up the skeleton. Bones come in
various shapes and sizes, ranging from
long bones like the femur and humerus
to flat bones like the scapula and ribs.
They are composed primarily of a hard,
dense outer layer called cortical bone
and a spongy inner layer called
cancellous bone.
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Joints
Joints are the points where two or more
bones meet. They allow for movement
and flexibility in the skeleton. Joints can
be classified into different types based
on their structure and function, such as
hinge joints (e.g., elbow joint), ball-and-
socket joints (e.g., hip joint), and pivot
joints (e.g., atlantoaxial joint in the
neck).
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton forms the central
axis of the body and includes the skull,
vertebral column, and rib cage. The
skull protects the brain, while the
vertebral column (spine) supports the
body and protects the spinal cord. The
rib cage encloses and protects the
heart and lungs.
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton consists of
the bones of the limbs (arms and legs)
and their attachments to the axial
skeleton. It includes the shoulder girdle
(scapula and clavicle), upper limbs
(humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges), pelvic
girdle (hip bones), and lower limbs
(femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals,
and phalanges).
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Bone Structure
Bones are composed of several
components. The outer layer is called
the periosteum, which is a tough
membrane that provides nourishment
and contains blood vessels. Beneath
the periosteum is compact bone, which
is dense and hard. Within the compact
bone are spaces called Haversian
canals that contain blood vessels and
nerves. The innermost part of the bone
is made up of cancellous bone, which
has a spongy appearance and is filled
with bone marrow.
Skeletal System
Here are some key points about
skeletal anatomy

Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is a soft, gelatinous tissue
found within the central cavities of
bones. It is responsible for the
production of red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets. There are two
types of bone marrow: red marrow,
which is involved in blood cell
production, and yellow marrow, which
consists mainly of fat cells.
Joints Types

Ball-and-Socket Joints
These joints provide the greatest range
of motion. The ball-shaped end of one
bone fits into the cup-shaped socket of
another bone. Examples include the
shoulder joint and the hip joint.
Joints Types

Hinge Joints
These joints allow movement in one
direction, similar to the opening and
closing of a door. They enable flexion
and extension. Examples include the
elbow joint and the knee joint.
Joints Types

Pivot Joints
These joints allow rotational movement
around a central axis. They enable you
to rotate one bone around another
bone. Examples include the joint
between the first and second vertebrae
of the neck (atlantoaxial joint) and the
joint between the radius and ulna bones
in the forearm
Joints Types

Gliding Joints
These joints allow bones to glide or
slide past one another. They provide
limited movement in multiple directions.
Examples include the joints between
the small bones of the wrist (carpal
bones) and the joints between the small
bones of the foot (tarsal bones).
Joints Types

Saddle Joints
These joints allow movement similar to
a rider sitting in a saddle. The ends of
both bones are shaped like a saddle,
fitting into each other. An example of a
saddle joint is the joint at the base of
the thumb
Joints Types

Condyloid Joints
These joints allow movement in two
planes, allowing flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, & circumduction.
They consist of an oval-shaped end of
one bone fitting into an elliptical cavity
of another bone. An example is the joint
at the base of the fingers.
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Axial motion is a motion of a

body part that occurs about or
around an axis.

This type of motion is also known as

circular motion because the body
part moves along a circular path
around the axis.

Nonaxial motion is motion of

a body part that does not occur
about or around an axis.

This type of motion is also known as

a gliding motion because the body
part glides along another body part. The scapula upwardly rotating, which is an example of axial/circular motion.
The scapula protracting, which is an example of nonaxial/gliding motion.
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Flexion is defined as a movement at a joint

so that the ventral (soft) surfaces of the two
body parts at that joint come closer together.

Extension is the opposite of flexion.

 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Abduction is defined as a movement at a

joint that brings a body part away from the
midline of the body. To abduct is to take away

Adduction is the opposite of abduction; in

other words, the body part moves closer toward
the midline (it is added to the midline).
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Right lateral flexion is defined as a movement

at a joint that bends a body part to the right side.

Left lateral flexion is the opposite of right

lateral flexion; in other words, the body part bends to
the left side
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Lateral rotation is defined as a

movement at a joint wherein the
anterior surface of the body part
rotates away from the midline of the
body

Medial rotation is the opposite

of lateral rotation; in other words, the
anterior surface of the body part
rotates toward the midline of the body
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Right rotation is defined as a

movement at a joint wherein the
anterior surface of the body part
rotates to the right.

Left rotation is the opposite of

right rotation; in other words, the
anterior surface of the body part
rotates to the left.
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Plantarflexion is defined as the movement at

the ankle joint wherein the foot moves inferiorly,
toward the plantar surface of the foot.

Dorsiflexion is the opposite of Plantarflexion, in

other words, the foot moves superiorly toward its
dorsal surface
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Eversion is defined as the movement between

tarsal bones wherein the plantar surface of the foot
turns away from the midline of the body.

Inversion is the opposite of eversion; in other

words, the plantar surface of the foot turns toward the
midline of the body.
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Pronation is defined as the movement of the

forearm wherein the radius crosses over the ulna

Supination is the opposite of pronation; in other

words, the radius uncrosses to return to a position
parallel to the ulna.
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Protraction is defined as a movement at a joint

that brings a body part anteriorly

Retraction is the opposite of protraction; in other

words, the body part moves posteriorly (retraction
literally means to take it back, hence a posterior
movement).
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Elevation is defined as a movement at a joint

that brings a body part superiorly (elevate literally
means to bring up).

Depression is the opposite of elevation; in

other words, the body part moves inferiorly
(depress literally means to bring down).
 Synovial joints are a type of joint in the body that allow for a wide range of movements. They
Synovial joints actions are characterized by the presence of a synovial fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the bones. Various synovial joints enable different types of movements. Here are
some common synovial joint actions:

Upward rotation is defined as a movement of the scapula wherein the scapula rotates in such a manner that the
glenoid fossa orients superiorly
Downward rotation is the opposite of upward rotation; in other words, the scapula rotates to orient the glenoid
fossa inferiorly
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