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5256.32

VERI

TAS

HARVARD

COLLEGE

LIBRARY
!
4
 A COMPLETE

LATIN GRAMMAR .
 Cambridge :
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY M. A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
 A COMPLETE

LATIN GRAMMAR

FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS.

BY

JOHN WILLIAM DONALDSON, D.D.

CLASSICAL EXAMINER IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON ;

LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

SECOND EDITION, CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED.

CAMBRIDGE :

DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO.

LONDON : BELL AND DALDY .
M. DCCC. LX.
5256.32

1863.

gray sur
1119
14
 ΤΟ

HENRY ANNESLEY WOODHAM, Esq., LL.D. ,

LATE FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE.

MY DEAR WOODHAM,

AMONG my friends in the two sister Universities I do

not know any one whose mastery over the Latin language is greater

than yours ; and I have wished to inscribe this work with your

name, not only as a record of our long intimacy and as a mark of

my sincere regard, but also for the purpose of directing the young

student's attention to the encouraging fact , that we have still at

least one Englishman, who has written Latin with as much facility

and vigour, as those learned men in the 16th and 17th centuries,

who used no other medium of literary communication .

Yours very truly,

J. W. DONALDSON.

D. L. G.
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

THE motives, which have induced me to enlarge this work very

considerably, and thus to adapt it to the requirements of a
higher class of students than the learners for whose use it was ori-
ginally composed, are in the main identical with the considerations
which led me to bestow a similar labour on the second edition of
my Greek Grammar. But the present republication involved some
special peculiarities both in the starting-point which it presumed ,
and in the object which I proposed to myself.
In its original form this Grammar was a mere sketch intended
immediately, if not exclusively, to be used under my own eye in a
school of which I had the entire management ; and it was primarily
destined, as I mentioned in the preface, to assist my pupils in the
practice of Latin prose composition , which the late Bishop Blom-
field, an eminent pupil of the school, had wished to encourage by
the establishment of a Gold Medal. Circumstances obliged me to
bring out the book with as little delay as possible, and it was
printed under signal disadvantages. But in spite of its slight
texture and its many defects and inequalities, the sale of a large
impression has proved that it had some special recommendations in
the eyes of teachers and learners ; and I embrace with great satis-
faction the present opportunity of giving it an extension in size,
and, I hope, an exactness in detail, which will not only, as I ven-
ture to believe, satisfy the expectations of competent tutors, but
also supply classical students, and especially those who wish to
acquire the habit of writing Latin, with a sufficient hand-book of
b2
viii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Latin Grammar, adapted no less for continued perusal than for

reference in any case when the occasion may arise.
That such a book, as I have wished this to be, is still a deside-
ratum in this country, is a fact which has been impressed upon me
by my experience as a teacher and examiner at Cambridge and
elsewhere. It is true that Latin Grammar and Latin Composition
have been successfully handled in many works of first-rate merit,
and at the end of this preface I have given a list of books on those
subjects, which are worthy of all praise, and to which I have
been directly indebted in the course of the present volume. But
though a book such as I have undertaken must by the nature of
the case be little more than a compilation from existing works in
regard to all the ordinary details, though paradigms, lists of words,
and illustrative examples belong to the Edicta tralaticia of Latin
grammarians, which are transferred , sometimes in the mass, from
one grammar to another in an unbroken succession of literary in-
heritance *, and though in many particulars it would not be easy to
improve on the established method of presenting these facts to the
reader, still there is no one of these excellent books, which contains
all the information necessarily sought in such a manual as the
advanced student requires ; they are all defective in the statement
of some details of primary importance ; and the arrangement of the
materials, as well as the succession of topics, introduced for the
first time in the original edition of this Grammar, still seem to me
to possess some material advantages in comparison with other trea-
tises on Latin grammar
grammar.. Accordingly, whether this new edition is
regarded as a compilation from other sources, made by a person
who has enjoyed considerable experience in regard to the practical
exigencies of students ; or as a result of original research in many
points of detail ; or as an attempt to improve the method of gram-

* For example, Augustus Grotefend, from whom I have taken most of the exam-
ples of subordinate sentences, says distinctly in the preface to his second volume
(p. x) : "damit auch Niemand versucht werde, fremdes Verdienst mir beizumessen,
muss ich noch bemerken, dass die meisten Beispiele unter den Regeln aus Ramshorn's
grösserer Grammatik entlehnt sind. " I must however remark that these examples as
they appear in Grotefend, have required at my hands a good deal of sifting and
revision ; for in many cases the extracts were erroneously interpreted, or classified
wrongly.
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION . ix

matical exposition ; it will, I think, be found that, as a whole , it

attempts at least to occupy a vacant place in this department of
educational literature.
I will briefly explain some of the features of the book which I
now present to the reader, referring to the table of contents for a
more minute statement of the method which I have adopted.
From first to last my object has been strictly practical.
Whether the information collected in these pages is the result of
my own labours in the field of Latin philology, or is directly de-
rived from the works of other grammarians , I have wished to give
it in the most convenient order, with the most perspicuous exposi-
tion of the facts, and without any direct reference to speculations or
reasonings, which I have exhibited in another treatise ; and while
I have omitted what I thought would not be immediately instruc-
tive to the student, I have enforced by repetition from different
points of view those principles and facts which are most likely to
be misapprehended or overlooked by an imperfect scholar.
The grammar is divided into three parts- Accidence, Syntax,
and Prosody .
The Accidence, which has necessarily much in common with all
the best Latin grammars, is distinguished by an arrangement of
the declensions in accordance with the form of the genitive plural,
which is the only criterion of the characteristic ; a classification of
the pronouns according to their real differences in meaning and
usage ; and an avoidance of the usual error in the order of the con-
jugations. The Accidence has also a peculiar feature in the atten-
tion which is paid throughout to the discrimination of synonyms ,
to which the student cannot pay too much attention ; for without
this it is impossible to attain to accuracy and perspicuity in writing
Latin. In my arrangement of the declensions the greatest novelty
is that of placing the nouns in -es, or the fifth declension of the
older grammars, and the nouns in -s preceded by a long vowel or
two consonants, among the -i- nouns. With regard to the nouns in
I refer the reader to the arguments which I have adduced else-
where (Varronianus, ed. 3, p. 360) . And this arrangement of
nouns like urbs, Samnis, &c., does not depend on mere speculation,
or even on the form of the genitive plural, for we have positive
 X PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

evidence that in their original use these words were nouns in -is
(see the examples in Corssen, Ausspr. Vokal. u. Beton. 11. pp. 57 ,
58) , and the accent of the nouns in -as indicates a contraction no
less certainly than that of tantôn for tantône. In the arrangement
of the conjugations, I have, as in the declensions, classified to-
gether those forms which end in a vowel, as distinguished from
those of which the characteristic is a consonant or a semi-consonant.
The ordinary system, which places the -i- verb in the fourth conju-
gation, is not only contrary to the true theory, but is practically
very inconvenient. The fact, that the great majority of vowel
verbs in Latin are derivative or secondary formations, correspond-
ing to those of the Greek circumflexed verbs, which are properly
placed after the barytones, does not affect the propriety of the
arrangement which gives the precedence to the vowel verbs in
Latin ; for these verbs comprise not only the derivative formations,
but also the oldest verbs , which in Greek retain the primitive con-
jugation in -u (such as sto, do, and pleo) ; and it will be recol-
lected that the Greek verbs in -u are arranged according to the
vowels regarded as their characteristics. I need hardly say that
in this , as in the former edition, I adhere to Priscian's doctrine,
that the Latin verb has no futurum exactum; and I am really sur-
prised that good modern scholars can still maintain the paradox
that fuerit is both indicative and subjunctive, and both future and
perfect.
My Syntax is contained in four chapters. In the first of these
I have applied to Latin grammar the general principles on which
all syntax depends, and I have exhibited in a succinct form the
main rules of Latin construction . This preliminary discussion is
suggested by the same considerations as those which induce the
teacher of Geography to place before his pupils a map of Europe
before he introduces them to the examination of a particular coun-
try. Besides this, it is desirable that even the advanced student
should be able to recur to a summary view of the subject which he
has to pursue in such a variety of details .. The three remaining
chapters of the syntax are devoted to the separate and methodical
investigation of the rules for construing the noun, the verb, and the
sentence. In the first of these three chapters I have borrowed
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi

freely from Otto Schulz ; and I am also indebted to Ramshorn for

many of my examples. The chapter on the Syntax of verbs, as it
stood in my first edition, seemed to me to require very little alter-
ation. The concluding chapter of the Syntax is a supplementary
collection of illustrations, arranged in an order suggested by logical
considerations, and convenient for purposes of reference, as it will
supply the writer of Latin with classified examples of the most
usual forms of connected sentences.

The Prosody, which, in accordance with the usual practice in

Latin grammars, discusses both quantity and metre, has nothing
new to offer on the former subject, but the metres are explained, as
in the first edition, with reference to certain general principles,
which I investigated long ago, and which, as I conceive, are not
only more true in theory than the usual expositions, but also calcu-
lated to remove the principal difficulties of versification.
The Appendices at the end of the book will speak for them-
selves. Although the information, which they convey, does not
necessarily belong to an exposition of Latin grammar, it is conve-
nient to a student to have these details collected in the manual to
which he goes for the main facts of the language. With regard to
the selection of the most usual synonyms , the grammar itself has
necessarily noticed many distinctions of words and phrases, and it
seemed to be desirable that the different shades of meaning with
which certain common words are used, should be exhibited in a
form likely to impress them on the student's memory. The Anti-
barbarus, which is mainly an abridgment of Krebs ' well-known
work, is added, because the writer of modern Latin must not only
be cautious and discriminating in his use of good words , but
should learn as soon as possible to avoid the spurious phraseology
which is due to the influence of his own and other spoken lan-
guages.
Although this Grammar is designed for the use of students
rather than learners, it seemed to me necessary to state all the
details of the rudiments in the simplest and plainest manner, not
only for the sake of method and completeness , but also because the
readers, to whom I address myself, do not consist exclusively of
those who have received an accurate education at school . It is my
xii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

duty to examine in the course of the year some hundreds of young

men, who, though not generally deficient in application or abilities,
have been left by the faults of their early training in great per-
plexity and ignorance with regard to the most elementary princi-
ples of Latin grammar. Such persons are not likely to get what
they want from the imperfect outlines compiled for the use of
schools ; and they would justly complain, if, in taking up a more
detailed grammar, they did not find the knowledge which they
want presented in a form which might enable them both to under-
stand and recollect the general rules . It is for this reason that I
have retained or introduced so many artificial helps to the memory,
not shrinking from the use of the uncouth rhymes , which, when
once learned, are not easily forgotten .
Such then is the plan and scope of this second edition of my
Latin Grammar. And I shall willingly relinquish the claims of
more ambitious authorship, if those, who are desirous of acquiring
a sound and practical knowledge of the Latin language, find that I
have collected in a comparatively small compass a sufficient amount
of really useful and available information, so arranged as to facili-
tate their studies and render them permanently effectual.

J. W. D.

CAMBRIDGE, October 16th, 1860.

 WORKS

ON LATIN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

THE following is a list of all the books to which I am directly

indebted for suggestions or materials in the present edition.
But there is scarcely any well-known treatise on the subject
of the Latin language, with which I have not made some
acquaintance in the course of the last thirty years .

1. Ausführliche Grammatik der Lateinischen Sprache von

K. L. SCHNEIDER. Berlin, 1819-21 .

2. a. Grammar of the Latin Language, by C. G. ZUmpt ;

translated from the German with additions, by JOHN KENRICK,
second edition, corrected and enlarged. London, 1827.

2. b. The same, translated from the ninth edition of the

original, by Dr. LEONARD SCHMITZ. London, 1845.

3. Ausführliche Grammatik der Lateinischen Sprache zum

Schulgebrauche, von AUGUST. GROTEFEND, 2 vols . Hannover,
1829, 1830.

4. HAND, F.: Tursellinus seu de particulis Latinis Commen-

tarii, 4 vols. Lips. 1829-1845.

5. Lateinische Synonyme und Etymologieen von L. DÖDERLEIN ,

7 vols. Leipsig, 1826-1839 .

6. Lateinische Grammatik von LUDWIG RAMSHORN . Leipsig,

1830.

7. Lateinische Synonymik von L. RAMSHORN, 2 vols. Leipsig,

1831-1833.
xiv WORKS ON LATIN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION .

8. Professor K. REISIG's Vorlesungen über Lateinische Sprach-

wissenschaft, herausgegeben von Dr. F. HAASE. Leipsig, 1839 .

9 Schulgrammatik der Lateinischen Sprache von OTTO SCHULZ, •

11th edition. Halle , 1841 .

10. Lateinische Synonymik von D. FERDINAND SCHULZ.

Arnsberg, 1841 .

11. Antibarbarus der Lateinischen Sprache von I. P. KREBS ,

2nd edition. Frankfurt am Main, 1837.

12. Anleitung zum Lateinschreiben von I. P. KREBS , ninth

edition . Frankfurt am Main, 1842 .

13. a. Lateinische Sprachlehre für Schulen, von Dr. I. N.

MADVIG. Braunschweig, 1844.

13. b. The same, translated by G. WOODS . Oxford, 1849.

14 a. Latinae Grammaticae Curriculum , or a progressive

Grammar ofthe Latin Language for the use ofall classes in Schools,
by B. H. KENNEDY, D.D. London, 1844.

14. b. An Elementary Grammar of the Latin Language for

the use of Schools, by B. H. KENNEDY, D.D. 6th edition . Lon-
don, 1851 .

15. Ueber Aussprache, Vokalismus, und Betonung der Latein-

ischen Sprache, von W. CORSSEN, 2 vols. Leipsig, 1858, 1859.
 CONTENTS .

PART I.

ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

CHAPTER I.
SECT. PAGE
INTRODUCTION I
I THE Latin Language, and Latin Grammar I
2 The Latin Alphabet and the classification of the Letters 2
3 Syllables · 7
4 Parts of Speech 10

CHAPTER II.

NOUNS.
247

I Declension of Substantives
2 First or a Declension
3 Second or -0 Declension •
Third Declension 19
A. First class, or Consonantal Nouns . 22
B. Second class, or Semi-consonantal Nouns 27
5 Declension of Adjectives 4I
6 Degrees of Comparison . 46
7 Anomalous Nouns 51
8 Numerals 59

CHAPTER III.
ZsZ

PRONOUNS.

I Personal Pronouns and their Possessives

2 Indicative Pronouns
3 Distinctive Pronouns
4 Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite, and other connected Pronouns
5 Indefinite Relative Pronouns 79
xvi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

VERBS .
SECT. PAGE
I Regular Verbs 81
2 The Substantive Verb, or Verb of Being . 89
3 Vowel Verbs. First or a Conjugation 92
Second or -e Conjugation 98
Third or Conjugation 104
4 Consonant Verbs. Fourth or Consonant Conjugation 109

TABLES OF THE REGULAR VERBS.

Table I. Comparison of the Four Conjugations • 119
Table II. Formation of the Perfect 123
Table III. Formation of the Supines 130
Table IV. Verbs which have i or e before the ending 132
5 Irregular Verbs • · 133
A. Additions to the Present Tense ib.
B. Abbreviated Forms 137
6 Defective Verbs :
Impersonal Verbs 140
Deponent Verbs 142
Specially defective Verbs 152

CHAPTER V.

UNDECLINED WORDS.
I Adverbs 154
2 Prepositions 178
3 Conjunctions 188
4 Interjections 205

CHAPTER VI.

DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

IDerivation 207
(a) Derived Nouns ib.
(a) Derived Substantives ib.
(8) Derived Adjectives 214
(b) Derived Verbs • 219
2 Composition 222
I. Formation of Compounds 223
II. Classification of Compounds 225
(A) Compound Substantives ib.
(B) Compound Adjectives ib.
(C) Compound Verbs . 227
 CONTENTS. xvii

PART II .

SYNTAX, OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS .

CHAPTER I.
FIRST PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL RULES.
SECT. PAGE
I Subject and Predicate 229
2 Different kinds of Predicates . 230
3 Accessory parts of a Sentence 231
4 Epithets and Predicates 234
5 Cases and Prepositions 235
6 Main Rules of Latin Syntax · 237
7 Order of Words in a Latin Sentence, and their English Construction 247
I. The Latin Order · 248
II. The English Construction 254

CHAPTER II.

CASES OF NOUNS.

I The Nominative and its Adjuncts 256

(A) Agreement of the Nominative with its Verb 257
(B) Agreement of the Adjective with its Substantive 258
(C) Agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent 262
(D) Apposition of a Noun or Participle as secondary Predicate . · 264
(E) Case of the Primary Predicate, I. with the Finite Verb . 266
II. with the Infinitive 268
2 The Accusative ib.
(A) Accusative of the Immediate Object . 269
(B) of Reference 271
3 The Genitive • 273
(A) Genitive of Possession 274
(B) ofQuality · 275
(C) of the Object (1) with Substantives 277
(D). of the Object (2) with Adjectives • 278
(E) of the Object (3) with Verbs 279
of Partition . 282
(F) .
(G) ofQuantity 283
(H) of Number . 284
(I) of Price or Value 285
" (K) . .......... of Relation . 286
The Dative ib.
(A). Dative of Limitation 287
(B) .... of Destination 292
instead of a prepositional phrase ib.
(C)
xviii CONTENTS .
SECT. PAGE
5 The Ablative 294
(A) Ablative of Immediate Determination ib.
(B) ……………...... of Circumstance 299
(C) of the Object 300
6 The Vocative and its Substitutes 305
7 Differences of Case with the same Verb 306
8 Cases in definitions of Space and Time 311
(A) Definitions of Space ib.
(B) Definitions of Time • 315
9 The Cases when construed with Prepositions . 317
(A) Prepositions construed with the Accusative only 319
(B) Ablative only 329
(C) Accusative and Ablative 338

CHAPTER III.

TENSES AND MOODS OF VERBS.

I Construction of the Tenses in the Finite Verb • 342

(A) Indicative and Imperative 343
(B) Subjunctive • 346
2 Distinctive uses of the Indicative and Subjunctive 350
3 Construction of the Infinitive, Participles, and other Verbals 357
(1) Infinitive ib.
(2) Participles 362
(3) Gerunds and Gerundives 364
(4) Supines 367

CHAPTER IV .
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

I Definitions 369
(A) Co-ordinate Sentences 371
2 (a) Copulative Sentences ib.
3 (b) Disjunctive Sentences 373
4 (c) Adversative Sentences 374
5 (d) Distributive Sentences 375
6 (e) Distinctive Sentences 377
7 (f) Comparative Sentences • 390
(B) Subordinate Sentences 395-
8 (a) Conditional Sentences ib.
9 (b) Definitive Sentences 397
10 (c) Subjunctive Sentences 400
II (d) Temporal Sentences 409
12 (e) Objective Sentences 414
13 (f) Illative Sentences 416
14 (g) Final Sentences 418
 xix
CONTENTS .
PAGE
SECT. 421
15 (h) Causal Sentences 422
16 (i) Concessive Sentences
17 Figures of Speech : 423
(A) Figures of Syntax
424
(B) Figures of Style

PART III.

PROSODY, OR QUANTITY AND METRE .

CHAPTER I.
QUANTITY .
428
I General Rules of Quantity
2 Quantity of Middle Syllables 432
3 Quantity of Final Syllables 434
4 Quantity of the connecting Vowel in Compounds 438
5 Quantity of Syllables as affected by Metre 439

CHAPTER II.
METRE.

I Metrical Feet 441

2 Equal Rhythms . A. Dactylic Verse. (a) Hexameter or Heroic Verse . 444
(b) Elegiac Verse • 447
(c) Glyconic Verse 448
(d) Choriambic Verse 449
B. Anapæstic Verse ib.
3 Double Rhythms. A. Trochaic Verse . 450
(a) Ithyphallic Metre ib.
(b) Hipponactean Verse ib.
(c) Tetrameter Catalectic 451
B. Iambic Verse ib.
(a) Dimeter Acatalectic 452
(b) Trimeter Acatalectic ib.
(c) The Scazon ib.
(d) Tetrameter Catalectic 453
4 Asynartete Rhythms ib.
(a) Sapphic Verse ib.
(b) Alcaic Verse 454
(c) Archilochian Verse 456
(d) Elegiambus 457
ib.
(e) Iambelegus •
(f) Galliambic Verse ib.
5 Comic Metres · 458
(a) Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic ib.
(b) Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic . 459
 XX CONTENTS .
SECT. PAGE
(c) Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic .. 459
(d) Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic ib.
(e) Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic 460
(f) Bacchiac Verse ib.
6 Accentual and Rhyming Verses ib.
7 Poetic Style as connected with Metre 462

APPENDIX I.

CLASSIC AUTHORS 463

APPENDIX II.
ABBREVIATIONS 468

APPENDIX III.
GENERAL INFORMATION . 472

APPENDIX IV.
DISTINCTIONS OF WORDS IN MEMORIAL VERSES.

(a) Differences of Quantity 475

(b) Differences of Form or Gender 479
(c) Synonyms, or different' Words with similar meanings 480

APPENDIX V.
ANTIBARBARUS . 499

I. INDEX of Latin Words and Phrases 525

II. Index of Subjects 536

ERRATA.
p. 97, line 7, after datum add, “ We occasionally find in the comic poets and in
antiquated phrases the forms duim, &c. for dem, &c., and duitor for
dator (see p. 434). In the compounds we have creduam and creduis
for credam, credas, &c. , and perduint, for perdant, is used even by
Cicero (pro Deiot. VII. § 21 ) in an imprecation."
p. 118, add at the bottom of the page: " Obs. For the imperatives of dico, duco, facio,
• fero and scio, see below, p. 433."
p. 196, line 19, for Lybicis read Libycis.
p. 273, line 7, add, " See 145, Obs. 2."
 PART I.

ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION .

§ 1. The Latin Language, and Latin Grammar.

1 A COMPLETE Latin Grammar undertakes to supply the neces-

sary introduction to a critical study of the old Roman literature,
and to furnish the rules for writing the Latin language, both in
prose and verse, with elegance and correctness.
The Latin language, which was the vernacular speech of the
Romans during the long continuance of their empire in Italy,
derived its name from the district of Latium, lying to the south-
west of the city, rather than from the city itself, because, like
the right of citizenship, it received its primary development in
the adjacent provinces, which first recognized the supremacy of
Rome ; and as this right was called the jus Latinum, the lan-
guage obtained a corresponding designation, under which it spread
itself throughout Italy and became the language of government and
literature in the whole Empire. In this way it absorbed and
appropriated the various old Italian dialects , some of which, as
the Umbrian, the Oscan, and the Etruscan, are still preserved
partially in inscriptions and fragments. Its literary form was
directly affected by the Greek language, which was spoken by
numerous colonists in Italy, and had many affinities with the
Latin ; and the Roman writers who are called classic were
trained in the imitation of Greek models. These authors flourished
in the interval between 200 B. C. and 100 A.D. , and that period
is divided into the golden and silver ages of the Latin language.
D. L. G. 1
2 ACCIDENCE , OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

This best, or, as it is sometimes termed , golden period of the

Latin language may be regarded as extending from about the
death of Sulla (B. C. 78) to the death of Augustus (A.D. 14) .
Before this time we have only two writers, the Comedians, Plautus
and Terence, whose works have come down to us in complete
specimens, and these dramatists are regarded as classic, and are
ranked with the authors of the golden age. The prose writers
of the golden period were Varro, Cicero, Cæsar, Sallust, Cornelius
Nepos, and Livy, and the poets were Lucretius, Catullus, Tibullus ,
Propertius, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. The immediately succeeding
period from the death of Augustus to the accession of Hadrian
(A.D. 14-117) is sometimes called the silver age, and was one
of considerable literary activity ; its prose writers were Quintilian,
the two Pliny's, Velleius, Seneca, Tacitus, Valerius Maximus,
Curtius and Florus, and its poets Phædrus , Persius, Lucan ,
Martial, Silius Italicus, Statius, Juvenal, and Valerius Flaccus .
The period from A.D. 117 to A.D. 476 , which is called the iron
age, produced the prose writers Justin, Ammianus Marcellinus,
Gellius, Macrobius, Appuleius, and a number of ecclesiastical au-
thors, and the poets Ausonius and Claudian ; but their style, when
it was most correct, was merely an imitation of that of the classical
period '.
It is generally stated that Latin is a dead language, because it
is no longer the vernacular speech of any nation. But as a written
language it was used by learned men long after it ceased to be
spoken, and there is no reason why it should lose its functions in
this respect. Accordingly, it is still an important object with the
Latin grammarian to provide for the practical use of the language
as a vehicle of literary communication, and the present Grammar
in particular is composed with a special reference to this result.

§ 2. The Latin Alphabet, and the classification ofthe Letters.

2 The Latin Alphabet differs from the English only by the

omission of the letter W.
(1) It consists therefore of the following twenty-three letters
(littera):
ABCDEFGHI (J) KLMNOPQRST U (V) X Y Z.
abcdefghi (j) k l m n o p q r s t u (v) x y z.

1 A list of the best Latin Authors with their names in full is given in Appendix I.
 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS . 3

All these letters occur in the following line :

Gazifrequens Libycos duxit Karthago triumphos.

Obs. 1 Cicero (de natur. Deor. II. 37, § 93) speaks of only 21 let-
ters, but in his time the Greek letters Y and Z were imported under
the forms of Y and Z. The emperor Claudius introduced three addi-
tional characters : to give the sound of v in servus and vulgus ; the
antisigma or OC to represent the Greek or ps; and to express the
middle sound between u and i. But these characters did not remain
long in use.
Obs. 2 The Romans wrote C for both C and G until about B.C. 230,
when the latter was distinguished by the addition of a tail. And the
names Gārus, Gnaeus were to the last indicated by the initials C. and
Cn., though these words were always pronounced with a G.
Obs. 3 The letters I and U are written J and V to indicate the
change of pronunciation specified below ; but the Romans did not con-
sider that I or J and U or V were distinct pairs of letters, and they
are not placed separately in the best dictionaries.

Obs. 4 As in English, the letter Q is always followed by U.

Obs. 5 We pronounce the Latin alphabet as we do our own, taking

care, however, in reading words to articulate every syllable according
to the rules given below. It cannot be doubted, however, that our pro-
nunciation is very unlike that of the ancient Romans.

Obs. 6 While the true pronunciation of the Latin letters is for

the most part left to conjecture, their correct use in writing, which is
termed orthography or exact spelling, is also in many cases very vague
and uncertain. We have very few manuscripts, which are earlier than
A.D. 400, and even the inscriptions seem to have been left to ignorant
workmen, who are not always consistent in the spelling of the same
words in the same document. The most usual vacillations are found in
the vowels and diphthongs e, ae, oe ; i, u, y ; e, i ; u, o ; in the conso-
nants h at the beginning or in the middle of a word ; b and p before 8;
c and ch ; p and ph ; t and th ; ct and t ; mp and m ; ci and ti ; c and
qu ; d and t at the end of a word ; 8 after x ; and in the double con-
sonants ll, mm, nn, cc, tt, pp, ss.
The following table contains a list of the words, which are most
frequently given with an erroneous or inconvenient orthography. The
spelling here recommended either rests on the best manuscripts and in-
scriptions, or it is suggested by the derivation of the words and the
analogy of the Latin language.
Write rather than Write rather than
Agrus (Αἰγαῖος) Ægeus. cælare celare.
amænus amenus. cælum cœlum .
Camena Inser. Camœna . cementum (credo) cementum .
cæcus cœcus. cæspes cespes.
Cæcilia Cœcilia. сера (Сӕріо) сера.
1-2
4 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS .

Write rather than Write rather than

cærimonia ceremonia. satira satyra.
cæruleus cœruleus. lanx satura lanx satira.
Inscr.
cæsius } cœsius. silva sylva.
ceteri cæteri. Silvius Sylvius.
cœna cæna and cena. stilus stylus.
сері cepi. tiro tyro.
heres hæres. moriendum moriundum .
lēvis lævis. dicendum dicundum.
Lævinus (lævus) Levinus.
mæreo mæreo. benevolus benivolus.
mæstus }(marceo) mæstus . malevolus malivolus.
museum (povolov) musæum. deminutio diminutio.
fecundus fœcundus. deverto diverto.
fenus fœnus. valetudo valitudo.
felix fœlix. Vergiliæ Virgiliæ.
feo
femen fœmen. Vergilius Virgilius.
femina fœmina. Herculeus Herculius.
femur fœmur. Cæsareus Cæsarius.
fetialis fœtialis. vindico (vindex) vendico .
fœdus Inser. fedus. intelligo intellego.
fo fenum . comissari comessari.
pæne pene. protinus protenus.
penitus Inscr. pænitus . genitrix genetrix .
pænitet pœnitet. querimonia queremonia.
pœna pæna. Mauritania Mauretania.
pomoerium (murus) pomerium. omnes (Acc .) omnis.
prælium (proilium) prælium. urbes (Acc.) urbis.
prelum (premo) prælum . saltim saltem .
obscenus (from ob-Jobscænus .
scus = oscus) epistola epistula.
scæna scena. adolescens (oleo) adulescens .
sepes sæpes. suboles (sub) soboles.
septus sæptus. jucundus (juvo) jocundus.

Æmilius Emulius. alec (alex) halec .

Brundisium (Bpev- irpex (sirpex) hirpex.
Brundusium.
τέσιον) Etruria Hetruria.
clipeus clypeus. Ilerda Hilerda.
cupressus cypressus. Iber Hiber.
hiemps hyems. Ister Hister.
inclutus (cluo) inclytus. Istria Histria.
lacrima lacryma. Hadria Adria.
lubet libet. Hadrianus Adrianus.
manubiæ manibiæ. hariolus ariolus.
Inscr.
monumen- monimentum . haruspex aruspex .
tum hedera edera.
ocius ocyus. heluo eluo.
optimus optumus. hercisco ercisco.
Jupiter optumus Jup. optimus herctum erctum .
maxumus maximus. hibiscus ibiscus.
 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS . 5

Write rather than Write rather than

hordeum ord . Bosporus Bosphorus.
Hadrumetum Adr. sulfur sulphur.
Hamilcar Am . tropæum trophæum.
Hammon Amm . Rhipæus Riphæus.
Hannibal Ann. triumphus triumpus.
Hanno Anno.
Hasdrubal Asdr. letum lethum.
Hebræus Ebr. postumus posthumus.
Hiarba Jarb. Postumius Posthumius .
Hiempsal Jemps. Sulla Sylla.
Himilco Im. tensa thensa.
Hecate Ecate. Trasimenus Thrasim ,
Henna Enna. torus thorus.
halcedo alcedo. tus thus.
halcyon alcyon. Tuscia Thuscia.
have ave. Tusculum Thusculum ,
istæc (-oc, -ic) isthæc (-hoc, Cethegus Cetegus,
-hic). Matho Mato.
exedra exhedra. Otho Oto .
Panormus Panhormus. Spinther Spinter.
synodus synhodus. Thorius Torius.
aheneus aëneus. Viriathus Viriatus.
ahenus aënus. Karthago Cartago.
Ahenobarbus Aënob. Gothi Goti.
Polyhymnia Polymnia. Jugurtha Jugurta.
polyhistor polyistor.
Ræti Rhæti.
apsis absis. Ramnes Rhamnes.
apsinthium absinth. Remi Rhemi.
Apsyrtus Absyrt. Regium Lepidi Rheg. L.
opsonium (ovov) obsonium. (rex)
Rhegium in Brut Reg. in Br.
carus charus. tiis (ῥήγνυμι)
caritas charitas. Rhenus Renus.
corona chorona. Rhodanus Rodanus.
ancora anchora. rhetor retor.
lacrima lachrima.
sepulcrum sepulchrum. auctor autor.
fulcrum fulchrum. autumnus auctumnus.
coclea cochlea. conjux conjunx.
pulcherrimus pulcerrimus . Quintus Quinctus.
pulcher pulcer. Quintius Quinctius.
brace (bracca) bracchæ.
Chilo Cilo. Murtia Murcia.
Stilicho Stilico. nuntio nuncio.
charta carta. fetialis fecialis.
Inscr.
Chatti Catti. negotium negocium.
Chauci Cauci. solatium solacium.
Cherusci Cerusci. planities planicies.
1 But the h is dropt if the r immediately follows the c, as in pulcra, pulcrum, & c.
6 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

Write rather than Write rather than

Domitius Domicius. exsanguis exanguis.
Horatius Horacius. exsurgo exurgo.
Lucretius Lucrecius.
Vegetius Vegecius. Allia Alia.
Apicius Apitius. allium alium.
Cædicius
Inscr. Cæditius. Appulejus Apulejus.
Mæcius Mætius. Appulus Apulus.
Mauricius Mauritius. Attis Atis.
Minucius Minutius. bacca baca.
Mucius Mutius. bellua belua.
Sulpicius Sulpitius. buccina bucina.
Porcius Portius. Elissa Elisa.
ditio (do) dicio. Gracchus Grachus.
conditio (condo) condicio. idcirco iccirco.
convitium (-icit-) convicium. immo imo.
suspitio (-icit-) suspicio. ligurrio ligurio.
Martius ( Mars) Marcius. Messalla Messala.
Martialis Marcialis . paullum paulum.
Marcius (Marcus) Martius. Paullus Paulus.
Marcianus Martianus. querella querela.
infitias (fateor) inficias. relligio religio.
segnities segnicies. rettuli retuli.
justitia justicia. Sallustius Salustius.
servitium servicium . sollennis solemnis.
And the like. sollers solers.
sollicitus solicitus.
novitius (-itic- ) novicius. Sollitaurilia Solitaur.
patricius patritius. villicus vilicus.
tribunicius tribunitius. Atilius Attilius.
adventicius adventitius. bissextus bisextus.
And the like. bracæ braccæ
causa caussa.
quum or quom ' cum.
Cyběle Cybelle.
(cf. qui) dissyllabus disyll.
cum (cf. con) quum. Duilius Duillius.
secutus sequutus. flammeus flameus.
locutus loquutus.
relicuus Juppiter Jupiter.
reliquus littera litera.
coquus cocus.
litus littus.
quotidie cotidie.
sētius (sectius) pedisequus pedissequus.
sequius.
quattuor quatuor.
sed set. squaleo squalleo.
apud aput. squama squamma.
haud haut.
supellex suppellex.
exsisto existo. vicesimus vigesimus.

1 See Quintil. I. 7, § 5. Priscian, I. p. 45, Krehl .

2 In the comedians relicuus is a word of four syllables ; it never occurs in Virgil,
Horace, &c.; and first appears under the form reliquus in Martial ( IV. 42) and Juve-
nal (v. 153 ) : see Bentley ad Phaedr. pp. 20, 21.
 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS . 7

(2) The twenty-three letters of the Latin alphabet are divided

nto vowels and consonants .

(a) There are six letters called ' vowels , ' vocales, or producing
a sound:' A, E, I, O, U, Y. Of these, A, E, O, are pure vowels ;
but as I, U, in all original forms, represent the consonants J, V,
it is most convenient to designate them in these forms as semi-
consonants. Y is found only in words immediately derived from
the Greek.

(b) There are nineteen letters called ' consonants ,' consonantes,
or ' sounding with' (i.e. not without) a vowel. Of these, Z is found
only in words immediatly derived from the Greek ; J and V are
only the strongest forms of the semi-consonants , I and U ; K is
used only before a, in abbreviations of such words as Kalendae,
Kaeso ; the remaining fifteen are arranged as follows :
Labial. Guttural. Dental.
I. Nine mutes, which are-tenues P C, Q T
mediae B G D
aspiratae F H

II. Six semi-vowels, which are- (a) sibilants S, X (or KS) .

(b) liquids L, M, N, R.
Obs. The distinctions of the mutes, as Labial, Guttural, and Den-
tal, may be extended to the other letters ; thus M and V are labials, K
is a guttural, and is included in X ; L, N, R, are dental ; the latter seems
to have had a pronunciation like our th, and it was constantly substi-
tuted for D and S ; S at the end of a word is dental, as approximating
to Rth, but at the beginning it is guttural, as another form of H. We
may consider J as belonging to the gutturals, and we pronounce it as
we do G before E or I ; but it is properly termed a palatal sound.

§ 3. Syllables.
3 Syllables are parts of words, and words are parts of speech.
(1 ) A Syllable is a vowel, or a consonant and vowel, or two
vowels, pronounced in a breath.
(2) As one vowel makes a sound, two vowels joined in one syl-
lable are called a diphthong, or double sound, and there are five
diphthongs in Latin-AE, or Æ ; OE, or Œ¹ ; AU, EI, and EU.
Of these, Æ stands for AI, which is rarely used ; E for OI, which
scarcely ever occurs ; and EI, EU, are not often found. In longer
words Æ and E are turned into I , AU into Û, Ô, or Ê.
¹ To avoid confusion the diphthongs ae, oe are written with the letters separate
whenever they are printed in Italics in the present grammar ; but the united letters
are retained when the Roman type is used.
8 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

(3) Besides these diphthongs we have only a single syllable

when I stands before another vowel in the same syllable ; and
when U precedes a vowel at the beginning of a word , or follows
NG, L, R, and in some words an initial S ; but in these cases the
semi-consonants are pronounced as consonants , like our J and V
or W.
Obs. 1 It will be observed that in the two cases in which a con-
currence of vowels makes a single syllable, one of the vowels is always I
or U, and these are also used as consonants.
Obs. 2 The diphthong AE resumes its original form of AI only
when there is a diaeresis or division of the component vowels, as in the
poetic genitives aulāī, pictāī for aulae, pictae. In longer forms we have
in-iquus from aequus, ex-istimo from aestimo, &c.

Obs. 3 The diphthong OE is invariably substituted for OI when

both vowels are represented, except in the particles proin, proinde. In
the proper name Oileus there is no diphthong. We find OE for OI
even in a compound with a preposition, as in coetus for coïtus. And
this is generally the case in transcriptions from the Greek, even when
the ō is long, as in tragoedia for rpaywdía. Sometimes, however, the I is
omitted, and the O alone retained, as in poëma for roínua ; prosodia for
Tроowdía. In many Latin words a long U represents an original OI or
OE, as unus for oinus ; uti for oetier ; and we have both forms together
in poena and pūnio. But we have UI for OI in Cluilius by the side of
Cloelius. In a few cases OI becomes I, as in cimeterium for κotýlov.

Obs. 4 The diphthong AU is changed into long U in ex-cludo from

claudo; into O in codex by the side of caudex, and Clodius by the side
of Claudius; and into long E in ob-ēdio for ob-audio. We have AV
for AU in some Greek transcriptions, as Agave from 'Ayavý.
Obs. 5 The diphthong EI is found only in the interjection hei and
a few obsolete forms, as naveis for naves, heic for hic, &c. In Greek
words it is represented by I, as in Euclides, Epīrus for Evkdeídns,
Ήπειρος; or by E, as in Darius or Darius for Δάρειος.
Obs. 6 The diphthong EU is found only in Greek words like
Euclides, Orpheus, and in heu, eheu, heus, ceu, seu, neu, neuter, neuti-
quam. In some Greek names EV is written for EU, before A, as in
Evander, Evadne, Evangelium, from Evavdpos, Evádry, Evayyédiov.

Obs. 7 When I begins a Latin word, and is followed by another

vowel, it becomes consonantal and is written J. And the same is the
case when it stands between two vowels in the middle of a word. Thus
we have jejunus, major, &c. The only exception at the beginning of a
word is the participle iens, and of course we have ieram, &c. for iveram,
&c. This rule does not apply to Greek words like iambus, Iolaus, &c.
The I is not consonantal when it follows U, as in tenuia, tenuior; and
though we have Troja, we have Troius for Trojius. So also we have
Gātus for Gāvius . On the other hand I sometimes begins a syllable or
 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS . 9

becomes J after a consonant, as in abjete, consiljum, &c. which appear as

trisyllables in poetry.

Obs. 8 The consonantal use of U mentioned in the rule is shown

in the following examples : at the beginning of a word we have vado,
venio, video, volo, vilis, vultus ; in the middle of a word we have anguis,
solvo, arvum ; also suavis, suadeo, suesco, Suetonius. But in forms like
colui, volui, conserui, the U is a vowel, because these words, as we shall
see, involve fui. And there are some instances of a diaeresis or separa-
tion of vowels after S and L, as in sŭemus, silúa, dissolão.

Obs. 9 The Greek Y when followed by I makes one syllable, as in

Ilithyia, Harpyia, Thyios.

(4) In every syllable the vowel is considered short () or long ( ) ;

it is said to be short or long by nature when it is followed by a
single consonant ; but it may become long by position when fol-
lowed by two consonants. Diphthongs, contracted syllables, and
vowels before X and Z, are always long. The rules for the quan-
tity of syllables are given in Part III.

(5) In dividing a word at the end of a line it is most convenient

to adopt the following rules :

(a) A single consonant between two vowels belongs to the

second of them, as in pa-ter.

(b) Two or more consonants may be placed after the division

if they can begin a Latin word ; this applies to any mute followed
by lor v, to g followed by n, to s followed by a tenuis, and to s
followed by a tenuis and / or r; but if any other consonant pre-
cedes these combinations it must be placed before the division ;
thus we divide im-plico, pa-tris, i-gna-rus, ne-scio, a-spi-ro, a-sto,
re-splen-det, con-scri-bo, a-spre-tum, de-stric-tus ; but emp-tus, ef-
fluo, ax-is, ip-se, scrip-si.
(c) The final consonant of a preposition does not pass on to
the first syllable of the word with which it is compounded ; thus
we divide ab-eo , ad-eo, prod-eo, prod-est, abs-tineo, trans-eo,
praeter-eo.

(6) Although the tone or accent is not written in Latin, some

one syllable of every word, except a preposition before its case, has
either an acute (') or circumflex (^) , according to the following
rules :
10 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS.

(a) Monosyllables have the circumflex if the vowel is long

by nature ; otherwise the acute.

(b) Dissyllables have a circumflex on the first syllable if the

vowel be long by nature, and the last syllable short ; otherwise
the acute ; thus we have Rômă, Róma, homo, léctus.

(c) Words of more than two syllables have the circumflex on

the last syllable but one ( penultima) , if this is long by nature, and
the last syllable is short ; they have the acute on the penultima
if it is long by position and the last syllable is short ; they have
the acute on the last syllable but two (antepenultima) if the penul-
tima is short, whether the last syllable is short or long ; thus we
have Românus, Metellus, moribus, carminibus, hóminēs.

(d) If que, ne, ve are used as enclitics , the accent falls on the
last syllable of the main word ; but if que is a constituent part of
the word, the general rule is adopted ; thus we have itaque, ' there-
fore,' but itáque, ' and so ;' similarly we have Musáque, Musáque,
but úterque.

(e) If an enclitic loses its vowel or suffers apocope, as it is

called, the accent remains as before ; thus we have audîn, tantîn for
audîsne, tantîne. The same is the case with nouns in -âs for -âtis.

(f) Compounds of facio with other words than prepositions

retain the accent on the verb, as though it were uncompounded ;
thus we have calefácit, palamfécit.

§4. Parts of Speech.

4 There are eight parts of speech , or different kinds of words ;

four declined, or admitting of an inflexion or change of form ; and
four undeclined, or uninflected . The inflexions or changes of form
express the differences of case, number, and gender in the noun,
and the distinctions of person, number, tense, mood, and voice in
the verb. When the inflexions are removed, we say that the
declinable word is in its crude or uninflected form ; thus domino is
the crude or uninflected form of dominu-s = domino-s, dominō =
domino-i, and dominu-m = domino-m ; and mone- is the crude or
uninflected form of monē-s = mone-is , mone-at, and mon-ui = mone-
fui. The uninflected form may or may not admit of further reduc-
tion to a monosyllabic form called a root ; thus ped- is both the
 ACCIDENCE, OR THE FORMS OF WORDS. 11

root and the uninflected form of pes = ped-s, a foot ; ' but while
the same ped- is the root, tri-pud-io- is the uninflected form of
tri-pudiu-m = tri-pudio-m. An uninflected form is contained in
every inflected word, and the variable terminations are appended to
it ; but it may appear also without an inflexion, and even without
a characteristic vowel. Thus, tenero- is the uninflected form of
tener, which has lost its termination -us in the nom. sing. masc.

(1) The declined parts of speech are,

(a) The noun, which is called substantive when it is the name
6 horse , ' mensa , 6 a
of a person or thing, as puer, a horse,'
a boy,' equus, a
table ; ' and adjective when it is the name of a quality, as bonus,
' good,' celer, ' swift .'

(b) The pronoun, which indicates a position, and generally

6
refers to some noun expressed or understood ; as ille, that one
there' (e. g. either puer or equus).
(c) The verb, which denotes an act ; as discit, he learns,'
currit, it runs.'

(d) The participle, which combines the meaning of a verb

with the form of a noun ; as discens, ' learning, ' currens, ' running.'

(2) The undeclined parts of speech are,

(a) The adverb, which qualifies the verb ; as discit bene, ‘ he
learns well,' currit celeriter, ' it runs swiftly.'

(b) The preposition, which defines the relation of a noun ; as

cum puero , 'with a boy,' ex equo, ' from a horse.'

(c) The conjunction, which joins words and sentences ; as puer

et equus, ' the boy and horse.'

(d) The interjection, which expresses an exclamation ; as

bone puer! O good boy !'

(3) The rules for the change of form in declinable words are
arranged according to the division of letters into vowels and con-
sonants, and according to the division of consonants into labials,
gutturals, dentals, liquids, and semi-consonants, namely, according
to the nature of the letter which terminates the crude or uninflected
form of the declinable word.
 CHAPTER II .

NOUNS.

§ 1. Declension of Substantives.

5 RULES of declension are rules for the formation of cases in

particular nouns.

(1) There are six regular cases in the Latin noun , which are
6
called the nominative, or case of naming, ' the genitive, or case of
sonship ,' the dative, or case of ' giving, ' the accusative, or case of
' accusing,' the vocative, or case of ' calling, ' and the ablative, or
case of removing.'

Obs. These names seem to be derived from the proceedings in a

law-court ; thus, the nominative, or case of ' naming,' ' names ' the party,
as Gaius accusat, ' Gaius accuses ;' the genitive, or case of ' sonship, ' says
' of whom ' or ' what,' as accusatio furti, ' an accusation of theft,' filius
Marci, ' son of Marcus ; ' the dative, or case of ' giving,' states ' to orfor
whom, ' as mihi, ' to me ; the accusative, or case of ' accusing,' indicates
the person accused, or the object of the action, as Gaius accusat Lucium,
(
' Gaius accuses Lucius ; ' the vocative, or case of calling, ' addresses a
person, as judex, ' O judge ; ' and the ablative, or case of ' removal,'
states the place from which or the person from whom an action or thing
proceeds or is taken, as ablatum a me, ' taken from me ; ' factum a me,
'done by me.' But although the names of the cases admit of this
explanation, their distinctive value is best given with reference to the
English prepositions, which express their meaning. Thus omitting the
nominative, which is never indicated by a preposition, the other cases
· are defined as follows : the genitive is expressed by ' of,' and denotes
possession, as magistri liber, ' the book of the master,' or ' the master's
book,' i. e. possessed by him ; the dative is expressed by ' to ' or ' for,'
and denotes limitation, as datum magistro, ' given to or for the master,'
i.e. limited to him ; the accusative is expressed by ' unto ' or ' towards,'
or by this meaning contained in the verb on which it depends, and
denotes motion towards an object, as venit Romam, he comes unto
Rome ;' accusat Lucium, ' he brings an accusation unto, in the direction
of, against Lucius ; ' verberat servum, ' he beats, bestows a beating on,
directs his blows unto or towards the slave ;' the ablative is expressed
 NOUNS. 13

by 'from ' or ' by,' and denotes motion from an object or agent, as venit
Roma, he came from Rome ;' verberatur a me, he is beaten by me,'
i. e. ' receives a beating from me. ' Besides these cases, some nouns,
especially names of places, have a locative, or case of position, which in
form corresponds to the G. in the sing. of vowel nouns, and to the Ab.
in the sing. of consonant nouns, and in the plural of all nouns ; thus we
have Romae, at Rome ;' domi, at home ;' Carthagine, at Carthage ;'
Athenis, at Athens ; ' but, generally, this is superfluous, as the same
6
meaning is expressed by the ablative with in, as in domo, in the house.'
The nominative is called the direct case, and all the others are termed
oblique cases.

(2) There are three genders, -masculine, feminine, and neuter ;

and two numbers, singular and plural, in most nouns.

Obs. The gender of a noun is known either by its meaning or by

its form. The latter distinction depends upon the declension, and will
be treated in its proper place. According to the meaning (a) the follow-
ing nouns are generally masculine : names of Gods, men, male animals,
and the inhabitants of different countries, as Jupiter, consul, taurus,
Iberus ; of mountains, rivers, winds and months, as Olympus, Tiberis,
Boreas, September. (b) The following are generally feminine : names of
Goddesses, women, female animals, countries, islands, cities, and plants,
as Juno, virgo, vacca, Italia, Naxos, Pharsalia, salix. (c) The following
are neuter: all indeclinable substantives, as fas, ' right ;' nefas, ' wrong ;'
and all verbs, &c. used as substantives, as scire tuum nihil est, ' your
knowing or knowledge is nothing ;' because we supply in our thoughts
'the thing called right, wrong, knowing.' (d) The following are either
masculine or feminine, and are called common : nouns which may denote
indifferently either a male or female person or animal, as civis, ' a male
or female citizen ;' adolescens, ' a young man or woman ;' testis, ' a wit-
ness ;' parens, ' a parent ;' bos, ' an ox or cow ;' sus, ' a hog or sow,' &c.

(3) There are two great classes of Latin nouns,-vowel nouns in

-a or -o, and consonant nouns. The semi-consonant nouns in -i
and -u are properly appended to the latter class.

(4) The following rules apply to all declensions :

(a) The N. A. V. pl . end in -ă in all neuter nouns.

(b) The A. sing. ends in -m in all m. and f. nouns , and the

A. pl. ends in -s in all but neuter nouns.

(c) The G. pl. ends in -um in all nouns.

(5) The following rules distinguish vowel nouns from consonant

nouns of all kinds :
 14 NOUNS.

I. (a) Vowel nouns always form the G. pl. in -ā-rum or -ō-rum,

which is rarely contracted into -um.

(b) They form their D. Ab. pl . in -is, which is rarely uncon-

tracted in -bus.

(c) Their A. sing. is always -am or -um, and their A. pl. f.

and m. -ās or -os.

(d) Their Ab. sing. is always -á or -ô.

II. (a) Consonant nouns generally omit r before -um in the

G. pl .

(b) Conversely, they retain -bus in the D. Ab. pl.

(c) The A. sing. m. and f. is always -em or -im, the Ab.

sing. is always -e or -i, and the A. pl. always -es in m. and f. nouns,
except where the characteristic is u.

6 The characteristic letter of the declension may be always

seen in the G. pl.; but when a-i is contracted into -ê, the G. pl. is
ê-rum, thus forming a new characteristic. Accordingly , the follow-
ing formula overrules all exceptions, and furnishes the criterion of
the Latin declensions :
Declension-characters are those which come
In genitives before the -rum or -um.

§ 2. First or a Declension.

7 The first declension includes Latin nouns in -ă masculine

and feminine, and Greek words in -ās or -ēs = -eas masculine and -ē
feminine ; as agricola, a husbandman ;' musa, ' a muse ; ' Eneas
·
and Anchises, the names of men ; and crambe, a cabbage.' With
regard to the gender of this declension, it is to be observed that all
Latin -a nouns are feminine except (a) designations of men , as
agricola, a husbandman ; ' scriba, ' a secretary ; ' nauta, a sailor ; '
conviva, a guest ; ' auriga, ' a chariot-driver ; ' incola, ' an inha-
bitant ; ' collega, ' a colleague ; ' advěna, ' a stranger ;' &c.: (b)
some names of rivers, as Sequana, Garumna, Cremera ; but Allia,
Matrona, and Albula are feminine : (c) Hadria, the name of the
 NOUNS. 15

Adriatic sea : (d) dama, a deer ; ' talpa, ' a mole , ' which are of
both genders, the latter being most frequently masculine.

Singular.
8 N. agricola musa
G. agricolæ musæ
D. agricolæ musæ
A. agricolam musam
V. agricola musa
Ab. agricolâ musâ

Plural.
N. agricolæ musæ

G. agricolĀrum musĀrum
D. agricolis musis
A. agricolās musās
V. agricolæ musæ
Ab. agricolis musis

Obs. In committing to memory the declension of a Latin noun,

it may be advantageous to the learner that he should be taught to
repeat the English of every case. One of the two following methods
may be adopted, according as it is thought desirable or not to express
the gender as well as the number and case of the inflexion :

(a) Το express the number and case only.

Sing. Plur.
N. mensa, a table mensae, tables
G. mensae, of a table mensarum , of tables
D. mensae, to or for a table mensis, to or for tables
A. mensam, unto a table mensas, unto tables
V. mensa, O table mensae, O tables
Ab. mensa, by or from a table mensis, by or from tables

(b) To express gender, number and case.

Masc. Sing. Masc. Plur.
N. puer, he- the boy pueri, they-the boys
G. pueri, of him-the boy puerorum, ofthem-the boys
D. puero, to or for him-the boy pueris, to or for them-the boys
A. puerum, him- the boy pueros, them- the boys
V. puer, O thou- the boy pueri, O you the boys
Ab. puero, by or from him-the pueris, by or from them-the boys
boy
16 NOUNS.

Fem. Sing. Fem. Plur.

N. filia, she- the daughter filiae, they-the daughters
G. filiae, of her the daughter filiarum, of them-the daughters
D. filiae, to or for her-the filiabus, to or for them- the daugh-
daughter ters
A. filiam, her- the daughter filias, them-the daughters
V. filia, O thou- the daughter filiae, O you the daughters
Ab. filia, by or from her-the filiis, by or from them-the daugh-
daughter ters

Neut. Sing. Neut. Plur.

N. regnum, it - the kingdom regna, they-the kingdoms
G. regni, of it— the kingdom regnorum, of them-the kingdoms
D. regno, to or for it—the king- regnis, to or for them—the king-
dom doms
A. regnum, it-the kingdom regna, them-the kingdoms
V. regnum, O thou-the king- regna, O you— the kingdoms
dom ·
Ab. regno, by or from it-the regnis, by or from them-the king-
kingdom doms

9 Greek nouns of the first declension differ from the Latin only
in the singular number, as in the following examples :

N. Æneas Anchises crambē

G. Æneæ Anchise crambēs
D. Æneæ Anchisæ crambæ
A. Eneam or -ān Anchisem or -ēn crambēn
V. Ænea Anchisă crambē
Ab. Eneâ Anchise crambē

Obs. Some Greek nouns in as or es are occasionally written in -ă;

thus we have Midă, cometă, Scytha, Eeta, pycta, by the side of Midas,
cometes, Scythes, Eetes, pyctes, the latter, however, being the more usual
forms.
For variations between the first and third declension in the forms of
some of the cases of these Greek nouns, see below, 30 (b).

10 Some feminine nouns retain the original D. and Ab. pl . in

-ābus ; as deābus, filiābus, ambābus; and in the poets, the older form
of the G. sing. in a is still found, as in aulāī, pictāī : the original s
of the G. sing. is retained only in familias following pater, mater,
filius, as in paterfamilias, ' the father of a family.' The genitive
plural is sometimes shortened into -um , as in caelicolum, amphorum.
 NOUNS . 17

§ 3. Second or o- Declension.

11 The characteristic o is changed into u in the N. A. sing.,

but retained in the D. Ab. sing. and G. pl. The termination -ros
or -eros is shortened into -er, as we see in ager, compared with
ȧypós, Alexander compared with ' Axéfavôpos. Thus we have
masculine nouns in -us or -er (-ir, -ur) , and neuter nouns in -um ; as
dominus, ' a lord ; ' populus, ' a people ; ' magister, ' a master ; ' puer,
' a boy ;' liber, ' a
a book ; ' ager, ' a field ; ' vir, ' a man ;' regnum,
' a kingdom ; ' bellum, ' a war.'

Singular.
N. dominus magister puer regnum
G. domini magistri pueri regni
D. domino magistro puero regno
A. dominum magistrum puerum regnum
V. domine magister puer regnum
Ab. domino magistro puero regno

Plural.
N. domini magistri pueri regna
G. dominOrum magistrorum puerorum regnorum
D. dominis magistris pueris regnis
A. dominōs magistrōs pueros regna
V. domini magistri pueri regna
Ab. dominis magistris pueris regnis

Obs. 1 Liber, ' a book,' is declined like magister; but Liber, ' Bac-
chus,' and liberi, ' children,' like puer.
The only word which ends in -ir is vir, ' a man ;' and this, as well as
its compounds triumvir, &c. and the national name Trevir, will follow
the declension of puer, thus : vir, viri, viro, virum, viri, virorum, viris,
viros. The only word which ends in ur is the adjective satur, which
also follows the declension of puer, as is the case with most adjectives in
er, as asper, tener, miser ; with those in fer and ger, as signifer, armiger;
and with the substantives socer, gener, adulter, vesper. We have both dex-
teri and dextri from dexter ; both Mulciberi and Mulcibri from Mulciber.

Obs. 2 Although most Greek names in -pos preceded by a conso-

nant follow the declension of Alexander and magister, the Greek form
is occasionally retained, especially by the poets. Thus we have Melea-
gros in Ovid, Evandrus, and Codrus. And while we write hexameter,
we also write diametrus.
D. L. G. 2
18 NOUNS.

12 Deus, "God," makes O Deus in the vocative singular. The

plural is thus declined :
N. V. Dî (seldom Dei)
G. Deûm or Deorum
D. Dîs (seldom Deis)
A. Deos
Ab. Dîs (seldom Deis)

13 The genitive plural in -um for -orum, as in Deum for Deorum,

is particularly common in nouns denoting trades, as fabrum, ‘ of
carpenters,' from faber ; coins, as sestertium numum, ' of sesterces ;'
and in poetry in adjectives and national names, as magnanimum
Rutulum, ' of the courageous Rutuli .'

14 In Classical Latinity, substantives in -ius and -ium made

the G. sing. in -î, as Vergilius, G. Vergili ; ingenium, ' disposition ,'
or ' natural abilities, ' G. ingění. But this rule does not apply to
adjectives, for we have in the same line of Horace :
egregii altique silentî.

15 Roman proper names in -ius, together with filius, ' a son, '
and genius, a tutelary spirit, ' make the vocative in i; as Vergilius
V. Vergili; Mercurius V. Mercuri ; filius V. fili. So also we have
mi for mee from meus. This rule does not apply to Greek names
or adjectives, as Cynthius V. Cynthie, or to nouns in -ius Gr. -elos,
as Sperchius V. Sperchie. The vocative Gai exposes the common
error of pronouncing Gā-ĭus as a word of two syllables. The poets
use Pompei as a dissyllable.

16 Greek nouns in -os, -on retain the ŏ in the N. and A. as :

N. Delos colon
G. Deli coli
D. Delo colo
A. Delon or Delum colon
V. Dele colon
Ab. Delo colo

17 Those, which, in the original, end in -ws , sometimes retain

the ō throughout ; as :
N. V. Androgeōs
G. Androgeo or -i
D. Androgeo
A. Androgeon or -o or -ōna
Ab. Androgeo
 NOUNS. 19

18 Greek nouns in -eus (-es) sometimes follow the second

declension in Latin ; as :

N. Orpheus (dissyllable)
G. Orpheos, -eï, -ei
D. Orpheĩ, -ei, -eo
A. Orpheă, -eum
V. Orpheu
Ah. Orpheo
We have also Achillei and Ulixi in the G., though in other
cases Achilles and Ulixes follow the third declension.

19 Contracted Greek nouns are contracted also in Latin ; as :

N. Panthus
G. Panthi
D. Ab. Pantho
A. Panthum
V. Panthu

20 Nepter nouns corresponding to Greek words in -os follow

this declension ; as pelagus, ' the surface of the sea ; ' virus, ' poison.'
6
Vulgus, the multitude,' is generally neuter ; but sometimes also
masculine.

21 The following nouns in -us, -ŏs are feminine :

(1) Names of countries ; as Egyptus, Cyprus, Samos, &c.

(2) Alvus, ' belly ; ' colus, ' distaff, ' or ' spinning-rock ; ' humus,
' ground ;' vannus, ' winnowing fan.'

(3) Certain Greek words, as periodus, ' period ; ' dialectus,

' dialect ;' abyssus, ' a bottomless pit, ' &c.
(4) All names of trees, and some of shrubs ; as pôpulus, ‘ the
poplar' (distinguished by quantity also from populus, ' the people ;')
fagus, ' the beech ; ' pirus, ' the pear-tree ; ' mālus and põmus, ' the
apple-tree' (but pirum, ' the pear ; ' mālum and pōmum, ' the apple ; ')
buxus , ' the box-tree' (but buxum, ' box-wood ; ') &c.

§ 4. Third Declension, or consonantal and semi-consonantal

nouns.

22 Nouns of the third declension are arranged according to

the nature of the characteristic consonant which precedes the case-
2- -2
20 NOUNS .

ending ; and they fall into two great classes, according as they re-
tain the consonant or vocalize it into i or u. The characteristic of
the crude form is often lost in the nominative singular , but is always
seen in the genitive plural, as the following table will show :
No. of
Nom. Gen. Plural. Example. Crude-form. Rule.

a aTum poema poemaTum poemaT 25

e Ium mare marIum marI 28
-o (1) ōNum leo leoNum leoN 27
-o (2) nIum caro carnium carnI 28
-0 (3) iNum virgo virgiNum virgin 27
-0 (4) ŎNum Macedo MacedoNum MacedoN 27
C ctIum lac lactIum lactI 28
1 Lum pugil pugiLum pugil 27
n -an (1) āNum Titan TitaNum TitaN 27
-en (2) ēnIum ren renIum renI 28
-en (3) iNum carmen carmiNum carmeNT 25
-on (4) ŎNum sindon sindoNum sindoN 27
r -ar ( 1 ) arIum calcar calcarIum calcarI 28
-er (2) ĕRum carcer carceRum carceR 27
-ter (3) tRum pater patRum pateR 27
-or (4) ōRum honor honoRum honoR 27
-or (5) ŎRum arbor arboRum arboR 27
-ur (6) ǎRum fulguR 27
fulgur fulguRum
S -as (1) ātIum Arpinas ArpinatIum ArpinatI 28
-as (2) slum as assIum assI 28
-as (3) Dum
lampas lampaDum lampaD 25
-as (4) NTum 25
gigas gigaNTum gigaNT
-as (5) Tum aetas ætaTum¹ ætaT 25
-es (6) Ium nubes nublum nubI 28
-es (7) ĕDum pes 25
peDum peD
-es (8) ĕDum haeres hærēDum hæreD 25
-es (9) iDum obses obsiDum obsiD 25
-es (10) ĕTum seges segeTum segeT 25
-es (11) iTum comes comiTum comiT 25
-is (12) ĕRum cinis cineRum cineR 27
-is (13) iNum sanguiN 27
sanguis sanguiNum
-is (14) Ium 28
puppis pupplum puppl
-is (15) Dum lapis lapiDum 25
lapiD
1 The form aetatium is found in some MSS., but it is not the usual spelling.
 NOUNS. 21

Nom. Gen. Plural. No. of

Example. Crude-form .
Rule.

-is (16) Ium vis virlum virI 28

-is (17) itlum Quiris QuiritIum QuiriT 28
-os (18) ōtIum dos dotIum dotI 28
-os (19) ōRum mos moRum moR 27
-os (20) ōDum custos custoDum custoD 25
-os (21 ) slum 08 osslum ostI 28
-os (22) [V]um bos bo [V]um boV 29
-us (23) ūTum virtus virtuTum virtuT 25
-us (24) ūDum palus paluDum paluD 25
-us (25) ǎDum pecus pecuDum pecuD 25
-us (26) ūrlum mus murlum murI 28
-us (27) u[eR]um sus su[eR]um sueR 27
-us (28) ĕRum opus opeRum opuT 25
-us (29) ŎRum tempus tempoRum tempoT 25
-æs (30) æRum aes æRum æR 26
-ais ês (31 ) Erum dies diErum diaI 28
-aus (32) Dum laus lauDum lauD 25
-bs (33) Ium urbs urblum urbI 28
-bs (34) Bum caelebs cæliBum cæliB 23
Pum forceps forciPum forceP 23
-ps (35)
-mps (36) Mum hiemps hieMum hieM 26
-ns (37) Ium serpens serpentIum serpentI 28
t Tum caput capiTum capuT 25
X -ax (1) Cum fax făCum faC 24
-ex (2) Cum vervex vervēCum verveC 24
-ex (3) Cum judex judĬCum judic 24
-ex (4) Gum rex rēGum reG 24
-ex (5) Gum grex grĕGum greG 24
-ex (6) Gum remex remĭGum remiG 24
-ix (7) Cum cornix corniCum corniC 24
-ix (8) Gum strix striGum striG 24
-ox (9) Cum vox vōCum VOC 24
-ux (10) Cum dux duCum duC 24
-ux (11) Gum conjux conjuGum conjuG 24
-yx (12) Cum bombyx bombyCum bombyC 24
Gum Phryx PhryGum PhryG 24
-yx (13)
-nx (14) Cum lynx lynCum lynC 24
-rx ( 15) Ium arx arcIum arcI 28
22 NOUNS.

A. First class, or consonantal nouns.

23 (a) Labial nouns are m. or f.; as caelebs, c. ' an unmarried
person ; ' auceps, c. ' a fowler; ' forceps, c. ' a pair of tongs, ' which
change e into i in the oblique cases. If the characteristic is pre-
ceded by r, the noun really belongs to the i declension ; thus we
have urbs, G. pl. urb-I-um ; also in some other instances, as
trabs, G. pl. trab-I-um, &c.: see below, 28. Although hiemps is
written with an inserted p, it is properly a liquid noun ; below, 26.

Singular.
N. V. cælebs forceps
G. cælibis forcipis
D. cælibi forcipi
A. cælibem forcipem
Ab. cælibe forcipe
Plural.
N. A. V. cælibes forcipes
G. cæliBum forciPum
D. Ab. cælibibus forcipibus

24 (b) Guttural nouns are m. or f.; as dux, ducis, c. ' a

leader ;' judex, judicis, c. ‘ a judge ; ' conjux, conjugis, c. ‘ a consort. '
The following are irregular : senex, senis , c. ' an old man or woman ;'
supellex, supellectilis , f. ' household furniture .' Nix, nivis, f. ‘ snow,'
and merx, mercis, f. ' merchandise,' and some others in x, are really
nouns in i, like urbs and pars; see below, 28.

Singular.
N. V. dux judex conjux
G. ducis judicis conjugis
D. duci judici conjugi
A. ducem judicem conjugem
Ab. duce judice conjuge
Plural.
N. A. V. duces judices conjuges
G. duCum judiCum conjuGum
D. Ab. ducibus judicibus conjugibus

25 (c) Dental nouns are of all genders : (a) as lapis, lapidis,

"
m. a stone ;' cuspis, cuspidis, f. ' a point ;' comes, comitis , c. ' a
companion.' Vāt-ēs, ' a prophet,' inserts a long e in the N. sing.
 NOUNS. 23

only. Apparently dental nouns, in which the characteristic t is

preceded by n, r, or a long vowel, are really nouns in i. This is
the case with fons , pars, lis (līt-i-) , &c.; see below, 28. But femi-
nines in -tāt-, -tut-, as boni-tas, vir-tus, are dentals.

Singular.
N. V. lapis comes
G. lapidis comitis
D. lapidi comiti
A. lapidem comitem
Ab. lapide comite

Plural.
N. A. V. lapides comites
G. lapiDum * comiTum
D. Ab. lapidibus comitibus

(8) Dental nouns of the neuter gender properly end in t, but

caput, capitis, a head,' and its compounds, are the only words
which still retain the genuine characteristic in the nominative. It
is sometimes preserved in the oblique cases, as in poēma, poemătis,
' a poem ;' lac, lactis, ' milk ; ' or under the medial form d, as cor,
cordis, the heart.' But in most instances it is either omitted
altogether, as in carmen, carminis, ' a poem ' (cf. carmentis, ‘ a
poetess') ; agmen, agminis , ' a troop ' (cf. armentum, ' a herd') ; or
softened into s or r (2, (2) b . Obs.) , as in corpus, corporis, ' a
body;' tempus, temporis , ' time ; ' opus , operis, ' a work ; ' some ,—as
jecur (for jecinor) , jecinoris, ' the liver ; ' iter (for itiner) , itineris,
the journey ;' jubar, jubăris, ‘ a ray of light ; ' nectar, nectăris,
' nectar ; ' far, farris, ' corn ;' -probably had both 7 and t, and r
and t in the original form.

Singular.
N. A. V. caput carmen corpus opus
G. capitis carminis corporis operis
D. capiti carmini corpori operi
Ab. capite carmine corpore opere

Plural.
N. A. V. capita carmina corpora opera
G. capiTum carmin [T]um corpoRum opeRum
D. Ab. capitibus carminibus corporibus operibus
24 NOUNS.

26 (d) Liquid nouns are generally of dental origin, and very

much resemble some of the neuters , which have just been men-
tioned. Thus we have nouns in -an, as Titan, Titanis , m. a
Titan ;' in -ōn, as sermo, sermonis, m. ' a discourse ; ' ratio, ra-
tionis, f. ' an account,' ' a reason ; ' in -in , as ordo, ordinis, m. ' an
order; ' homo, hominis, m. ' a man ' (whence nemo = ne-homo) ; virgo,
virginis, f. ‘ a virgin ; ' in l, as sol, sōlis , m. ' the sun ; ' consul, con-
sulis, m. ' the consul ; ' mel, mellis, n. ' honey ; ' in r, as pater,
patris, m. ‘ a father ; ' ver, vēris, n. ' spring ; ' to which class belong
Ceres, Cereris, f. ' the goddess of corn ; ' os, ōris , n. ‘ a face ; ' rus,
rūris, n. ' the country ; ' flos, floris, m. ' a flower ;' mos, mōris, m.
'a custom ;' aes, aeris, n. ' copper ; ' and the exceptional nouns , cinis,
"
cinĕris, m. ashes ;' pulvis, pulveris, m. ' dust. ' Canis, ' a dog ;'
and juvenis, a young man, ' insert an articulation in the N. sing .
only.
Singular.
N. V. sermo virgo pater mos OS
G. sermonis virginis patris moris oris
D. sermoni virgini patri mori ori
A. sermonem virginem patrem morem OS
Ab. sermone virgine patre more ore

Plural.
N. A. V. sermones virgines patres mores ora
G. sermonum virgiNum patRum moRum oRum
D. Ab. sermonibus virginibus patribus moribus oribus

27 The genders of consonantal nouns , when not positively

determined by the meaning (above 5 (2) b. Obs.) , may be known
by the terminations as follows :

(1) Labial nouns are either feminine or common.

(2) Of guttural nouns (a) those in -ax are feminine, as

pax, pācis, ' peace ; ' fax, făcis, a torch :' (b) those in -ex, -icis
are masc., as codex, codicis, ' a trunk of a tree,' also a book ;'
apex, apicis, ' the extreme point ; ' but carex, ' sedge ;' forfex,
' a pair of shears ;' ilex, ' holm-oak ; ' pellex, ' a concubine ; ' and
vilex, ' a withy,' are feminine ; and imbrex, ' a tile, ' obex, ' a
bolt' (not used in the nom. sing. ) ; rumex, ' sorrel ; ' and , in
poetry, cortex, ' bark, ' and silex, ' flint, ' are common : (c) those in
 NOUNS. 25

-aex, -aecis ; -ex, -ecis ; -ex, -egis are fem. , as faex, faecis, ‘ lees ; ' nex,
něcis, ' death ; ' lex, lēgis, ' law ; ' but the following are masculine :
"
grex, gregis, a herd ; ' rex, rēgis, ' a king ;' aquilex, aquilegis and
-icis, a person skilled in discovering springs ; ' remex, remigis , ‘ a
rower ; ' vervex, vervēcis, ' a wether sheep ; ' faenisex, faenisècìs, ‘ a
haycutter :' (d) those in -ix, -icis, are feminine , as fulix, ' a coot ;' but
calix, ' a cup, ' and fornix, ‘ a vault, ' are masc. , and varix, ‘ a vari-
cose vein' is common : (e) those in -ix, -icis are feminine, as cervix,
' a neck ; ' and to this class belongs vibex, vibicis, ' the mark of a
blow or stripe,' i . e. ' a weal ; ' but spadix, a palm-branch, ' and
6
Phoenix, a fabulous bird, ' are masculine ; (f) bombyx, bombīcis, ‘ a
kind of wasp ,' also ' a silkworm , ' is masculine : (g) strix, strīgis,
‘ a screech-owl , ' is feminine : (h) vox, võcis , ‘ voice , ' and celox, celōcis ,
' a pinnace,' are feminine : (i) those in -ux, -ucis and -ūcis, -ŭgis
and -ūgis, are feminine , as nux, nucis, ' a nut ; ' lux, lūcis, ' light ; '
conjux, conjugis, ' a wife' (but com. when it denotes ' a consort') ;
frux, frugis, ' fruit' (not used in nom . sing.) ; faux, faucis,' throat'
(not used in nom. sing.) . But dux, ducis, ' a leader ; ' tradux,
6
traducis, the layer of a vine,' are masc.

(3) of dental nouns (a) those in -as , -ădis are fem. , as lampas,
6
a lamp ;' but vas, vădis, ' a surety in criminal cases, ' and its deri-
vatives praes, praedis, ' a surety in money matters ; ' custos, cus-
todis, ‘ a guardian , ' are common : (b) heres, herēdis , ' an heir, ' is
c., and merces, mercēdis, ' wages ' (derived from merx, ' merchan-
dise') , is fem.: (c) obses, obsidis, a hostage ;' praeses, praesidis,
' a protector ; ' pes, pedis, ' a foot,' are masc.: (d) those in -is, -idis
6
are fem., as cuspis , ' a point ; ' but lapis, ' a stone, ' is masc.: (e) those
"
in -es, -itis are masc ., as miles, a soldier ; ' but comes, ' a com-
panion,' and ales, ' a bird, ' are common ; and merges, ' a sheaf of
corn,' is feminine : (f) paries, parietis, ' a party-wall, ' is masc.;
but seges, segĕtis , ' a corn-field, ' is fem : (g) those in -as , -ātis, -es,
-ētis, -us, -ūtis are fem.; as aetas, ' an age ; ' quies , ‘ quiet ;' virtus ,
'virtue,' or 'manliness ;' so also anas, anătis , ' a duck ; ' but sacerdos,
gen. sacerdotis, a priest or priestess , ' is common : (h) laus, laudis,
' praise ; ' palus, palūdis , ' a marsh ; ' pecus, pecudis, ' a beast' (dis-
tinguished from pecus, pecoris, n. ' cattle') , and the Greek chlamys ,
chlamydis, ' a cloak, ' are feminine ; (i) those in -as , -antis are
masculine, as adamas, steel ;' elephas, ' an elephant ; ' gigas, ‘ a
giant. ' The neuter dentals are those mentioned in rule 25 (B) , and
26 NOUNS.

all others of the same class. Pecten, pectinis, a comb, ' and flamen,
flaminis, a priest,' are masculine.

(4) Of liquid nouns , (a) the Greek nouns in -an , -ānis , -en, -ēnis,
-in, -īnis, are masc. , as Titan, ' a Titan ; ' splen, 'the spleen ;' attagen,
6
'a heathcock ; ' delphin, ' a dolphin : ' (b) those in -o, -ōnis are masc., as
6
sermo, a discourse : ' (c) those in io, ionis are fem., as ratio,
' reason ; ' except papilio, a butterfly ;' pugio, ' a dagger ; ' scipio,
' a staff;' septentrio, ' the north ; ' vespertilio, ' a bat ; ' unio, ‘ a
pearl ;' senio, ' the number six ; ' ternio, ' the number three :' (d) those
in -do, -dinis, -go, -ginis, are fem., as hirundo, ' a swallow ; ' origo,
เ
' an origin ;' but cardo, a hinge ; ' ordo, ' an order ;' and gene-
rally margo, ' a margin, ' are masculine : (e) those in -or, -ōris are
masculine, as honor, or honos, ' honour ; ' but uxor, ' a wife ; ' soror, ‘ a
sister,' are necessarily feminine, and so is arbor, or arbos, arbõris, ‘ a
tree ; ' but aequor, -õris, ' a surface ; ' ador, -oris, and -ōris, ‘ spelt ; '
6
marmor, -oris, ' marble ; ' os, oris, a face,' are neuter : (f) those in
-er, -ĕris or -ris are masc. , as pater, patris, a father ; ' carcer, ' a
prison ; ' to this class belong cinis and pulvis, and the two Greek
words aër and aether ; but the following are neuter : cadaver, ‘ a
corpse ; ' tuber, ' a swelling or a truffle ; ' uber, ' an udder ; ' the plur.
verbera, ' blows , ' and botanical names , as papaver, ' poppy :' but tuber,
' an apple,' is masculine ; and mulier, a woman ;' mater, matris, ' a
mother,' and Ceres, are necessarily feminine : (g) those in -ur, -ŭris,
-ur, -oris are neuter, as fulgur, ' lightning ; ' robur, ' strength : ' (h )
fur, furis, ' a thief, ' is masc., but jus, jūris, ' right, ' and rus, rūris,
'the country,' are neuter ; and tellus, telluris, 6 the earth , ' is femi-
nine ; furfur, ' bran ; ' turtur, ' a turtle-dove ; ' vultur, ' a vulture ;'
and augur, ' a soothsayer,' which form the gen . in -ŭris , are mascu-
line : (i) aes, aeris , ' copper, ' and ver, veris, ' spring, ' are neuter :
(k) sol, sōlis, ' the sun, ' is masculine ; sal, sălis, ' salt, ' is masc. in the
plur. , and masc ., or rarely neuter, in the singular (when masc. it is`
for sal- is , when neuter for sal-t) ; fel, ' gall ;' mel, ' honey, ' are neuter :
(1) those in -il, -ilis, as pugil, ' a boxer ; ' and in ul, ulis, as consul, ‘ a
consul, ' are masculine : (m) sanguis, sanguinis is masculine : (n ) sus,
suis (for sueris, Fest. p. 330) , ' a sow ;' grus, gruis (for gur-is?) , ' a
crane, ' are more frequently fem. than masc.: (0) hiem-p-s, hiem-is,
which is fem., is the only noun of which the crude form ends in -m :
(p) the following Greek nouns in -on, -onis are feminine : Gorgon, ' a
Gorgon ; ' halcyon, ' a king-fisher ; ' sindon, ' muslin .'
 NOUNS. 27

B. Second class, or semi-consonantal nouns.

28 (a) Nouns ending in - ought properly to retain this

vocalized consonant throughout all the cases ; but in ordinary
Latin the characteristic is often omitted or changed into e in all
cases except the G. pl. , and this too exhibits e in the contracted
nouns in ê = ai. This declension must therefore be subdivided as
follows:

(a) Characteristic retained in the N. and A. sing.; as sitis, f.

thirst ;' Tiberis, m. ' the Tiber ;' febris, f. ' a fever ; ' puppis, f.
' the stern of a ship ; ' sinapis, f. and sinapi, n. ' mustard."

(b) Characteristic omitted or changed into e in the N. sing. , as

mare, n. 'the sea ; ' animal, n. ' an animal ; ' calcar, n. ' a spur ; ' lac,
also written lacte, n. ' milk ;' os, ossis , n. ' a bone, ' which has ossa
in the N. A. V. pl.

(c) Characteristic omitted or changed into e in the N. A. Ab.

sing., as urb-s, f. ' a city ; ' nubes, f. ' a cloud ; ' merx (merc-i-) , f.
' merchandise ; ' pars (part-i-) , f. ‘ a part ;' Quiris ( Quirīt-i-) , m. ‘ a
Roman citizen.'

Obs. 1 The nouns, in which the characteristic is thus disguised, are :

(a) The apparently liquid nouns, imber, ' a shower ;' linter, ‘ a bark ;'
uter, 'a leathern bottle ;' Insuber, an inhabitant of Gallia Transpadana ;
and caro, gen. carnis, ' flesh ; ' for which a nom. carnis also occurs (Liv.
XXXVII. 3).
(b) Monosyllables in s or x preceded by a consonant, as merx, ' mer-
chandise ;' mons, ' a mountain ;' arx, ' a citadel ;' stirps, ' a stock ;' trabs,
a beam ;' and the nouns, as, ' a pound,' asslum ; glis, ' a dormouse,'
glirIum; lis (for stlis), ' a law-suit,' litlum; dos, a free gift,' dotIum;
cos, a whet-stone,' cotIum ; mas, a male,' marIum ; os (for osti), ' a
bone,' osslum; mus, ' a mouse,' murIum; vis, ' force,' virIum; faux
(not used in sing. nom.), ' a throat,' fauclum; nix (for niquis, cf. ni-n-
guo), ' snow,' nivIum ; nox, ' night,' noctIum ; fraus, ' harm,' fraudIum;"
frons, a leaf,' frondlum ; frons, ' a brow,' frontIum; glans, ' an acorn,'
glandIum; urb-s, urblum; nubes, also nub-s, nublum.
(c) Words of more than one syllable in -ns and -rs, as cliens, ' a
client,' clientIum ; serpens, ' a serpent,' serpentlum ; cohors, ' a battalion ,'
cohortIum.
(d) Nouns in -as, -ātis, -es, -ētis, -is, -itis, as Arpinas, a man of Arpi-
num,' ArpinatIum ; locuples, ' a man of substance,' locupletIum ; Samnis,
' a man of Samnium, ' SamnitIum. In many of these cases the original
nouns in -tis are still extant.
28 NOUNS.

Obs. 2 The nouns in i which retain this characteristic in the

accusative singular are thus given in memorial lines :

The following will always give

I-M in the accusative :
Vis, ravis, pelvis, sitis, tussis,
Sinapis, cannabis, amussis,
Praesepis, tigris, and securis.
Together with charybdis, buris;
And rivers' names, which end in is,-
For instance, Albis, Tiberis.
In certain nouns the ending is
Both im and em; as strigilis,
Sementis, turris, puppis, navis,
Aqualis, febris, restis, clavis.

amussis, a rule puppis, the stem of a ship

aqualis, a water- pot ravis, hoarseness
buris, a plough-tail restis, a rope
cannabis, hemp securis, an axe
charybdis, a whirlpool sementis, sowing
clavis, a key sinapis, mustard
febris, a fever sitis, thirst
navis, a ship strigilis, a scraper
pelvis, a pan turris, a tower
praesepis, a stall tussis, a cough
vis, force, violence

Obs. 3 The abl. sing. ends in i in all nouns of an adjectival nature,

as Atheniensis, sodalis, natalis, September; but juvenis, Edilis, and
adjectives used as proper names, as Martialis, Pertinax, make the
abl. in e. Those which have the accusative in im have the abl. in i;
those which have the accus. in im or em have the abl. in i or e. The
abl. in i is found in certain usages of ignis, as aqua et igni interdicere
alicui; rure, from the country,' is distinguished from ruri, ' in the
country ;' and the abl. in -i is rare in amnis, civis, finis, fustis, imber,
orbis, supellex.

Obs. 4 The gen. plur. always retains its characteristic i, though

there are some cases in which the MSS. vary, and others in which the
exigences of metre require a contraction in um. The following rhymes
give most of the nouns in which the termination is regularly -um, and
which must therefore be excluded from this declension :

(a) Monosyllables.
Crux, dux and nux, Thrax, fax and grex,
Gryps, Phryx, vox, lynx, and rex and lex,
Fur, splen, and laus, and strix, and mos,
Crus, grus and sus, praes, pes and flos.
 NOUNS. 29

(b) Polysyllables.
Vates, senex, pater, panis,
With accipiter and canis,
Frater, mater, juvenis,
And often apis, volucris.
Certain plural nouns in -alia, as names of feasts, Floralia, &c. and the
word vectigalia, sometimes have a gen. plur. in aliorum, as from an
adjective in alius.

Obs. 5 The accusative plural of nouns in -i is written eis or is in

some editions of the best authors.

(d) Characteristic absorbed by contraction of a-i into ê, as res,

f. a thing ;' dies, c. a day ;' materies, f.mother-stuff,' or
' materials .'
Singular.
(a) (b) (c)

N. V. puppis mare animal urbs nubes

G. maris animālis urbis nubis
puppis
D. puppi mari animāli urbi nubi
A. puppim & -em mare animal urbem nubem
Ab. puppi mari animāli urbe nube

Plural.

N. A. V. puppes (is ) maria animalia urbes (is) nubes (is)

G. pupptum marlum animalIum urblum nublum
D. Ab. puppibus maribus animalibus urbibus nubibus

(d)
Singular.
N. V. dies res materies (materia)
G. diei rĕi materiei (materiāï)
D. diei rĕi materiei (materiæ)
A. diem rem materiem (materiam)
Ab. die rē materiē (materiâ)
Plural.
N. A. V. dies rēs *materies (materiæ)
G. diErum rErum *materiErum (materiArum )
D. Ab. diebus rēbus *materiēbus (materiābus)

Obs. The gen. of nouns in es exhibits occasional varieties. It was

originally in e-is, like that of other i nouns, and this was contracted into
 30 NOUNS.

es in Dies-piter for Diei-pater. Similarly ei was contracted into è, as in

die for diei (Virgil, Georg. 1. 208 ; Hor. 3 Carm. vII. 4 ; Ovid, Met . III .
341) ; in fide for fidei (Ovid, Met. VII. 728) ; in acie for aciei (Cæs. Bell.
Gall. II. 23) ; and we have a similar contraction of the dative, as infide
(Hor. 1 , Serm. III. 95) ; and pernicie (Liv. v. 13). Both gen. and dat. are
sometimes contracted into i, as in the gen. plebi for plebei (Liv. 11. 42),
and in the dative pernicii (Nep. Thrasyb. 2). Both in the gen. and dat.
the e is long before i, if it is preceded by another vowel, as in diei,
maciei; but short after a consonant, as fidei, rěi. Only dies, res, and
species have their plural complete, and Cicero does not allow even the
forms specierum and speciebus (Topic. 7). The words facies, effigies,
series and spes, are not found in any good authors except in the nom.
and accus. pl.; and others from their signification have no plural.

(1) All nouns in es are fem. , like the nouns of the a declension,
with which most of them are connected . But dies is always m..in
the plural ; and though almost always f. in the singular, when it
denotes a period, it is m. when it signifies a day in particular.
This distinction is carried so far, that while we have certa, consti-
tuta, præstituta, dicta, finita dies of definite periods of time, we
have always stato condicto die of a particular day legally fixed
(Fest. p . 314) . The compounds meridie, postrīdie, &c. are neces-
sarily masc., as they stand for medii die, &c., just as we have die
septimi (Plaut. Men. 1156) ; die crastini (Id. Mostell. 884) , &c.

(2) The gender of the other nouns in -i, so far as it can be

reduced to rule, may be defined as follows :

(a) Nouns in -e, -i, -al, and -ar are neuter, and to this class
belongs os for oste or osti, a bone .'

(b) Nouns in -er, -ris, as imber, ' a shower ; ' in -ns, -ntis, as
dens, a tooth ; ' mons, ' a mountain ; ' pons, ' a bridge ; ' fons, ' a
fountain ; ' in -as, -ātis , -īs, -ītis , as Arpinas, ' a man of Arpinum ; '
Quiris, a Roman citizen, ' are masculine. But although bidens, ' a
hoe ;' tridens, a three-pointed spear ; ' are masculine, bidens for
<
ambidens, ' a sheep fit for sacrifice, ' is feminine ; and frons, a brow,'
is hardly ever masculine.

(c) Nouns which omit the between s and any consonant

but n, or change it into e, are feminine ; to this class belong the
apparently labial nouns , trabs , ' a beam or rafter ; ' stirps, ' the root
6
of a tree; urbs, a city ; ' scobs or scobis, ' saw-dust ; ' scrobs or
scrobis, ' a ditch ' (sometimes also fem.) ; stips, anciently stipes, ‘ a
(
small piece of money ; ' plebs or plebes, the common people. ' The
 NOUNS. 31

apparently guttural nouns, merx for mercis, merchandise ; ' nix for
niquis, ' snow ; ' the apparently dental nouns, pars, partis, ‘ a part ; '
sors (also sortis) , ' a lot ; ' cos, cotis, ' a whetstone ; ' fraus, fraudis,
' a loss or damage, ' are feminine ; and we have also with the in-
serted e, nubes, nubis, ‘ a cloud ' (anciently written nubs) ; caedes , ‘ a
cutting ; ' and the like. Acinaces, ' a Persian dagger, ' is masc. ,
perhaps with reference to pugio or gladius.

(d) Nouns which retain the termination -is in the nominative

are generally feminine , as febris , a fever ; ' avis, ' a bird ; ' puppis,
' the stern of a ship ; ' some are common, as corbis, ' a basket ; '
clunis, ' the hinder part ; ' some more frequently masculine than
feminine, as anguis, ' a snake ; ' canis, ' a dog ; ' some essentially
masculine from the signification, as hostis, ' an enemy ; ' Lucretilis,
the name of a mountain ; Tiberis, the name of a river ; manes,
manIum, ' the spirits of the dead ; ' as for assis, properly an adjec-
tive agreeing with numus, and signifying ' a pound of coined cop-
per, ' with its derivatives, semissis, ' half a pound,' decussis, ' ten
pounds , ' &c. All nouns ending in -nis are masculine, as amnis,
crinis, canis, finis, funis, ignis, panis , together with a number of
words, as fustis, canalis, callis , torquis , torris, which cannot be
reduced to any common rule, but are given in the memorial lines
at the end of this section.
Even some of these, as canalis, are found in the feminine : this
is rarely the case with callis and torquis, also written torques ; and
finis is used as a feminine only in the singular and with the
meaning, ' an end, purpose, or termination ; ' in the sense ' a bound-
ary,' it is always masculine.

Obs. Ren for renis, also written rien, was generally used only in
the plural renes, for which the ancient Romans wrote nefrundines, from
the Greek veppoí. The Greek splen was used as well as its Latin
equivalent lienis.

29 (8) Nouns in u originally terminated in the consonant

v, and were declined like other consonant-nouns . Of this class
only two remain : bos, bovis, c. ' an ox, bull, or cow; ' and Jup-piter
(Juvs-pater) , Jovis, m. 'the king of the gods.' The others retain u
throughout the cases, as fructus, m. ' fruit ; ' but the dative and
ablative plural change this into i, except in the nouns : artus, m.
32 NOUNS.

' a joint ;' partus, m. ' a birth ; ' tribus, f. ' a tribe ; ' veru, n. ‘ a
spit ; ' and in those which have c before u, as arcus, m. ' a bow. '

Obs. The nouns which form the D. and Ab. pl. in ubus may be
recollected by the following rhymes :
Arcus, artus,
Portus, partus,
Quercus, veru, lacus,
Specus, tribus, acus.
Or by the hexameters :
Arcus, acus, portus, quercus, ficus, lacus, artus,
Et tribus, et partus, specus, adde veruque pecuque.
But of these quercus does not occur in the Dat. and Abl. pl. in the
best writers ; ficis is more common than ficubus ; and we have both por-
tubus and portibus.

Singular.
N. V. bos fructus cornu tribus
G. bovis fructus cornus tribūs
D. bovi fructui cornu (for cornui) tribui
A. bovem fructum cornu tribum
Ab. bove fructu cornu tribu

Plural.
N. A. V. boves fructus cornua tribūs
G. bo[V]um fructUum cornUum tribUum
D. Ab. bubus fructibus cornibus tribubus

Nouns in u are neuter, and those in us masculine, with the

exception of the following ten substantives, which are feminine :

Domus, ' a house ; ' acus, ' a needle ; ' porticus, ' a porch ; ' tribus,
' a tribe ; ' Idus, Iduum, ' the middle of the month ; ' Quinquatrus,
Quinquatruum, ' a feast of Minerva ; ' manus, ' a hand ; ' socrus, ' a
mother-in-law ; ' anus, an old woman ; ' nurus, ' a daughter-in-
law.'

Obs. 1 It used to be believed that nouns in -u were indeclinable in

the singular, but this opinion is now relinquished (see Freund's Append.
to the Pref. of his Lat. Dict. ). The dat. in -ui is recognized by Mar-
tian. Capella, III.; but Liv. XLII. 58, gives us only the contracted form
cornu.

Obs. 2 Certain nouns in -us are sometimes declined throughout like

the second declension, and sometimes take certain cases of the u de-
clension, as laurus, f. ' the laurel,' Ab. s. lauru, A. pl. laurus. Domus,
f. a house,' exhibits peculiar irregularity :
 NOUNS. 33

Singular. Plural.
N. V. domus domus
G. domûs domUum, domOrum
D. domui (rarely domo) domibus
A. domum domos (rarely domus)
Ab. domo (rarely domu) domibus

We have also the locative domi, ' at home.' These irregularities are
generally remembered by the line :
'Tolle me, mu, mi, mis si declinare domus vis.'

30. Greek nouns of the consonant declension sometimes retain

the Greek forms, as lampas, A. sing. lampăda, A. pl. lampadăs;
heros , A. sing, herōă, N. pl. herões . This, however, is more com-
mon in poetry than in prose, with the exception of proper names,
and the words aer, aether, which generally retain the Greek accu-
sative in -a, as Agamemnona, Babylōna, aëra, aethera.

The following are peculiarities of the declension of Greek nouns

of the third declension , when adopted by the Latin writers :

(a) The gen. sing. frequently ends in -i, as Achilli, Ulixi

(above, 19) , from nouns in -eus , and Aristoteli, Pericli, from nouns
in -es ; but this is not usually the case with nouns increasing in
the gen., as Laches, Lachētis ; for Thalis is less usual than Thalētis.

(b) Conversely, the genitive of nouns in -es of the first declen-

sion is frequently in -is, as Eschines, Eschinis ; Alcibiades, Alci-
biadis ; Xerxes, Xerxis ; but this does not take place in real patro-
nymics, as Atrides, Atridae ; and in the accus. these nouns have
-en as well as -em, which is also admitted in nouns in -es of the
third declension, as Xenocraten , where the Greek has both evo-
Kράтη and evокρáτην. Some nouns in -tes, as Orestes , follow
both the third and first declensions, preferring however the third ;
acinaces, a Persian dagger, ' follows the third declension ; satrapes,
' a Persian governor,' follows the first declension, but has satrapis in
the gen. sing.; sorites, ' a kind of fallacious argument, ' follows the
third declension in the sing. , and the first in the plural .

(c) The gen. sing. in -os is sometimes retained by the poets in

such words as Pallas, Pallados ; Tethys, Tethyos ; Peleus, Peleos; and
feminines in -o have gen. sing. in -ûs for the Greek -ovs, as Sapp ho,
Sapphus; the acc . dat. and abl . of these nouns generally end in -0,
the forms Sapphonem, Sapphoni, Sapphone being less common.
D. L. G. 3
34 NOUNS.

(d) Nouns in -is have in the accus. sing. either -im or -in, as
Charybdim, Charybdin; those which have - and -da in Greek
have im or -in, and rarely -idem or -ida, as Paris, Parim, Parin,
rarely Paridem ; but those in -tis have both forms, as Phthiotis,
Phthiotim or Phthiotin, Phthiotidem or Phthiotida ; and those which
have only -ida in Greek have only -idem or -ida in Latin, as
tyrannis, tyrannidem, tyrannida.

(e) Nouns in -is, -ys , -eus, as , -es, may drop the s in the
vocative sing.; as : Phyllis, Phylli; Cotys, Coty; Orpheus, Orpheu ;
Calchas (-antis), Calcha ; Carneades (-ae) , Carneade; Chremes
(-ētis) , Chreme.

(f ) We have sometimes -es, -ǎs, for -es, in the nom. and

accus. pl. of Greek words, and of certain barbarous names which
resemble the Greek, as Allobrogăs, Lingănăs, from Allobrox, Lingon.
But Sardis is written for Σάρδεις.

(g) The gen. pl. in -ôn is written only in the titles of books,
as Metamorphoseôn libri.

(h) The dat. pl . in -si (-sin) is occasionally used by the poets,

as in Troasin, Charisin.

(i) The nom. and acc. pl. in -é is used in a few Greek words,
as melê, Tempê.

(k) The final -n of proper names in -wv, -wvos, or -ovos, is

generally dropped, as in Plato ; but some others retain it, as
Conon ; and in the proper names of towns this is almost always
done, as in Babylon, Lacedaemon : so also in nouns in -wv, -ovTOS,
or -wvTos, as Xenophon, Laocoon ; though we sometimes find Anti-
pho, Antiphonis, and instead of Antiphon, Antiphontis, &c.

The following tables exhibit the most usual forms of the Greek
nouns of the third declension :

Singular. Plural.
N. poëma poëmata
G. poëmatis poëmatum also poëmatorum
D. poëmati poëmatis (-ibus)
A. poëma poëmata
Ab. poëmate poëmatis (-ibus)
 NOUNS. 35

Plural.
Singular.
N. poësis poëses
G. poësis (-čos) poëseôn
D. poësi poësibus , not found
A. poësim (-in) poëses
Ab. poësi poësibus , not found
Plural.
Singular.
N. Erinnys Erinnyes (-ys)
G. Erinnyis (-ÿs, -yos) Erinnyum
D. Erinnyi (-7)
A. Erinnyn (-ym) Erinnyas (-s)
Ab. Erinnye (-y)

Singular. Plural.
N. Nereis Nereides
V. Nerēt
G. Nereidis (-os) Nereidum
D. Nereidi. Nereidibus
A. Nereidem (-a) Nereides (-as)
Ab. Nereide Nereidibus

Plural.
Singular.
N. chlamys chlamydes
G. chlamydis (-os) chlamydum
D. chlamydi chlamydibus
A. chlamydem (-a) chlamydes (-as)
Ab. chlamyde chlamydibus

Singular. Plural.
N. tigris tigres and tigrides
V. tigris and tigri
G. tigridis (-os) tigridum (?)
D. tigridi tigribus (?)
A. tigridem (-a) tigrim (-in) tigres and tigrides
Ab. tigride tigribus (?)

Singular. Singular.
N. Echo Dido
G. Echus Didus and Didonis
D. Echo Dido and Didoni
A. Echo Dido and Didonem
Ab. Echo Dido and Didone
3.
36 NOUNS.

Singular. Singular.
N. (Achilleus) Achilles (Ulixeus) Ulysses, Ulixes
G. Achillis, Achilli (Achil- Ulyssis, Ulixei, Ulixi
leos , Achillei)
D. Achilli (Achilĕi ) Ulyssi, Ulyxi, Ulixěi
A. Achillem (Achillen, Achil- Ulyssem, Ulixen (Ulixea)
lea)
Ab. Achille, Achilli Ulysse ( ), Ulixe (i)
V. Achille Ulysse, Ulixe.

Singular. Singular.
N. Periclēs Chremēs
G. Periclis, -i Chremis, -i, Chremētis
D. Pericli Chremi, -ēti
A. Periclem , -ea Chremem, -en, -ētem, -ēta
Ab. Pericle Chreme
V. Pericles, -e Chremes and Chreme

Obs. It may be advisable to express the rules for the genders of

nouns of the third declension in memorial lines accompanied by alpha-
betical lists of the special exceptions.

I. First general rule :

Nouns in -0, -or, -os, -er, -es,
Increasing in the genitive
The number of their syllables,
Will masculinum genus give.

Exceptions : (1) Most of those in -go and -do

Are feminine ; save harpago,
And margo, ligo, udo,
With ordo, cardo, cudo.

Hence the following are masculine :

cardo, inis, hinge, main-post margo, -inis, rim
cudo, -ōnis, helmet ordo, -inis, order
harpago, -ōnis, hook údo, -ōnis, a sock made of goat-
ligo, -ōnis, mattock skin

(2) In -io masculines are such,

As eyes can see, or hands can touch.

Thus the following are masculine :

curculio, weavil scipio, staff
papilio, butterfly septentrio, one of the seven stars,
pugio, dagger the north.
 NOUNS. 37

stellio, lizard unio, pearl

struthio, ostrich vespertilio, bat
titio, fire-brand
Other nouns in -io, being chiefly verbal nouns, and denoting abstrac-
tions of the mind, are feminine, as ratio, ' reason,' & c.

(3) Four neuter nouns, which end in -or,

Are : aequor, ador, marmor, cor;
And only arbor, arbŏris,
Is feminini generis.
ador, -ŏris, spelt cor, cordis, the heart
aequor, -ŏris, surface, the sea marmor, -ŏris, marble
arbor, -oris, tree

(4) There are three feminines in os,

Cos, dos, in t ; the r- noun glos :
But os, a mouth,' and os, 'a bone,'
Are generis neutrius alone.
cos, cōtis, a whet-stone os, oris, a mouth
dos, dotis, a dowry 08, ossis, a bone
glos, glōris, a brother's wife

(5) Many neuters end in -er ;

For instance: laser, laver, tuber,
Siler, siser, spinther, uber;
Acer, cicer, et cadaver,
Iter, piper, et papaver;
Suber, et amænum ver,
Verber, atque zingiber.
ăcěr, ăcĕris, the maple-tree siler, a withy, or osier
cadaver, -ĕris, corpse siser, skirret, or parsnip
cicer, vetch spinther, armlet
iter, itineris, journey suber, cork-tree
laser, eris, the silphium and its tuber, swelling, truffle
juice uber, udder
laver, water-cress ver, the spring
papaver, poppy verber, blow
piper, pepper zingiber, ginger

(6) There are eight feminines in -es,

With lengthened genitives : requiês,
And quies, merges, merces, teges,
With compes, inquies, and seges.
compes, -ědis, fetter quiês, ētis, rest
inquiês, ētis, unrest requies, ētis, repose
merces, ēdis, wages seges, -ětis, sown-corn
merges, -itis, sheaf teges, ětis, a covering
But aes, aeris, bronze, copper, is neuter.
38 NOUNS.

II. Second general rule :

Nouns, in which a final -s
A consonant preceding has,
For instance, stirps, or ars, or frons,
With those in x, or ans, or as,
Increasing in the genitive,
Will femininum genus give.

Exceptions : (1) Sex masculina sunt in -as,

Vas, (vădis), gigas, elephas,
As, (assis), mas et adamas.
Sed neutra sunt artocreas,
Fas, nefas, erysipelas,
Vas, vasis atque buceras.

adamas, -antis, diamond, steel artocreas, -ălis, a pasty

as, assis, the Roman pound of buceras, a cabbage
copper erysipelas, -atis, a red eruption
elephas, -antis, the elephant fas, right
gigas, -antis, a giant nefas, wrong
mas, măris , a male vas, vāsis, a vessel
vas, vadis, a surety

(2) Most ofthe nouns which end in -ex,

Are masculines, as grex and rex ;
But feminine are carex, nex,
Supellex, forfex, forpex, lex,
With halex, ilex, vitex, faex.

carex, -icis, sedge lex, legis, law

faex, faecis, lees nex, něcis, death
forfex, -icis, scissors supellex, -ectilis, household fur-
forpex, -icis, curling tongs niture
halex, -ēcis, herring vitex, -icis, a shrub
ilex, -icis, holm-oak

(3) In -ix, -yx masculine are sorix,

And calix, fornix, phoenix, oryx,
With bombyx, coccyx, calyx, varix,
And sometimes onyx, natrix, larix.

bombyx, -ÿcis, silk-worm natrix, water-snake

calix, -icis, cup onyx, a precious stone
calyx, ycis, cup of a flower oryx, a gazelle
fornix, arch phoenix, a fabulous bird
larix, larch varix, a distended vein

(4) Among the masculines are mons,

With chalybs, hydrops, dens, and fons,
So also rudens, gryps, and pons.
 NOUNS. 39

chalybs, -ÿbis, steel hydrops, -õpis, dropsy

dens, -tis, a tooth mons, -tis, mountain
fons, tis, fountain pons, tis, bridge
gryps, -grīphis , a griffin rudens, -tis, cable
Adeps, fat, and scrobs, a ditch, are common.

III. Third general rule :

Nouns in -is or -es, as avis,
Nubes, ratis, puppis, navis,
With equal length of genitive
Willfemininum genus give.
Exceptions : Two and thirty nouns in is
Are masculini generis :
Callis, cassis, caulis, collis,
Fascis, fustis, funis,follis;
Anguis, unguis, cenchris, crinis,
Sentis, vectis, atque finis;
Piscis, postis, panis, ensis,
Torris, torquis, orbis, mensis ;
Ignis, amnis, et canalis,
Axis, cossis, et sodalis ;
Adde lienis, et si vis,
Penis atque mugilis.
amnis, a river fustis, a club
anguis, a snake ignis, fire
axis, an axle lienis, the spleen
callis, a path mensis, a month
canalis, a canal mugilis , a mullet
cassis, a hunter's net orbis, a circle
caulis, a stalk panis, bread
cenchris, a kind of snake penis, a tail
collis, a hill piscis, a fish
cossis, a wood-worm postis, a door-post
crinis, hair sentis, a bramble
ensis, a sword sodalis, a companion
fascis, a bundle torris, a fire-brand
finis, an end unguis, a finger-nail
follis, a leather- bag or bellows vectis, a lever
funis, a rope vermis, a worm

IV. Fourth general rule :

Nouns in u are neuters all ;
And nouns in us with genitive
In us for -uis or for -vis,
Will genus masculinum give.
Exceptions : Feminina sunt in us,
Domus, acus, porticus,
40 NOUNS.

Idus et Quinquatrus, manus,

Tribus, nurus, socrus, anus.
acus, a needle nurus, a daughter-in-law
anus, an old woman porticus, a porch
domus, a house Quinquatrus, a feast of Minerva
idus, the middle of the month (i.e. socrus, a mother-in-law
the 13th or 15th day) tribus, a tribe or division of the
manus, a hand Roman people

V. Fifth general rule :

Nouns in ar, ur, us, a, e,
In c and l, in n and t,
Will generally neuter be.

Exceptions : (1) Masculine in 7 are mugil,

Sol, consul, praesul, sal and pugil;
With five in ur, as furfur, fur,
With astur, vultur, and turtur;
And two of those which end in us,
As lepus, leporis, and mus.
consul, -ulis, a Roman consul astur, a buzzard
mugil, -ilis, a mullet (also mugilis) fur, a thief
pugil, -ilis, a boxer furfur, bran
Praesul, -ulis, chief of the Salii, or turtur, a turtle-dove
priests of Mars vultur, a vulture
sal, sălis, salt, sales, wit mus, mūris, a mouse
sol, solis, the sun lepus, leporis, a hare

(2) These are masculines in n :

Pecten, Hymen, attagen,
Lien, lichen, ren et splen ;
Daemon, horizon et canon
Python, gnomon, atque agon,
To which we add chamaeleon.
But feminine are aēdon,
Sindon, icon, halcyon.

aëdon, -ŏnis, a nightingale Hymen, -ěnis, the God of marriage

agon, -ōnis, a contest icon, onis, an image
attagen, -ēnis, a woodcock lichen, -enis, ringworm
canon, -ŏnis, a rule lien, enis, spleen (also lienis)
chamaeleon, -ōnis and -ontis, a kind pecten, -inis, a comb
of lizard python, -ōnis, a mythical serpent
daemon, -onis, a spirit ren, -rēnis, a kidney (generally used
gnomon, -onis, index of a sun-dial only in the plural, renes)
halcyon, -onis, kingfisher sindon, -onis, linen
horizon, -ontis, the limit ofthe splen, -enis, the spleen
view
 NOUNS. 41

(3) Nine substantives which end in ūs :

Juventus, virtus, servitus,
With incus, subscus, tellus, palus.
And also these : senectus, salus;
(To which add pecus, pecudis )
Are feminini generis.
incus, -udis, an anvil servitus, -ūtis, servitude
juventus, -ūtis, youth subscus, -ūdis, a dovetail in car-
palus, -ūdis, marsh pentry
pecus, -udis, a sheep tellus, -ūris, the earth
salus, utis, health, safety virtus, utis, virtue
senectus, -ūtis, old age

§ 5. Declension of Adjectives.

31 Adjectives have either distinct terminations for the three

genders, or only two sets of terminations, by which the neuter is
distinguished in the N. A. V. from the masculine and feminine.

(a) Adjectives of three terminations.

32 We have (a) masculines in -us or -er, like dominus and
puer or magister; feminines in -a, like musa ; and neuters in -um,
like regnum: or (B) masculines in -er, like pater ; feminines in
-is, like puppis; and neuters in -e, like mare. Thus, we have
(a) bonus, ' good ; ' tener, ' tender.'

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. bonus bona bonum
G. boni bonæ boni
D. bono bonæ bono
A. bonum bonam bonum
V. bone bona bonum
Ab. bono bonā bono

Plural.
ས. boni bonæ bona
G. bonorum bonArum bonorum
D. bonis bonis bonis
A. bonos bonas bona
V. boni bonæ bona
Ab. bonis bonis bonis
42 NOUNS.

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. V. tener tenera tenerum
G. teneri teneræ teneri
D. tenero teneræ tenero
A. tenerum teneram tenerum
Ab. tenero teneræ tenero

Plural.
N. V. teneri teneræ tenera
G. tenerOrum tenerArum tenerOrum
D. teneris teneris teneris
A. teneros teneras tenera
Ab. teneris teneris teneris

If the fem. has no e before r, the e is omitted in the oblique

cases, as in niger, nigra, nigrum, ‘ black ; ' pulcher, pulcra, pulcrum,
' beautiful.' The only adjective of this class, in which r is preceded
by u for ě is satur, satura, saturum, ' full,' ' sated, ' ' stuffed.'

33 (8) There are thirteen adjectives of this class , namely :

acer, ' keen ; ' alăcer, ' active ; ' campester, ' belonging to the field ;'
celeber, much frequented ; ' celer, ' swift ; ' equester, belonging to
horsemen ;' paluster, ' marshy ;' pedester, going on foot ; ' puter,
'rotten ;' saluber, ' wholesome ; ' silvester,
wooded ; ' terrester, ' be-
longing to the land ; ' volucer, ' winged. ' All of these, except
celer, drop the e of the termination in every case except the nom.
sing. masc. For example, acer, ' keen,' is thus declined by the
side of celer, ' swift.'
Singular.
M. F. N.
N. V. acer celer acris celeris acre celere
G. acris celeris acris celeris acris celeris
D. acri celeri acri celeri acri celeri
A. acrem celerem acrem celerem acre celere
Ab. acri celeri acri celeri acri celeri

Plural.
N. V. acres celeres acres celeres acria celeria
G. acrIum celerIum acrIum celerIum acrIum celerIum
D. Ab. acribus celeribus acribus celeribus acribus celeribus
A. acres celeres acres celeres acria celeria
 NOUNS. 43

But we have celerum in the gen. pl. , when celeres signifies the
old Roman knights.'

Some of these adjectives have -ris for -er in the nom. sing.
masc., as in annus salubris, collis silvestris ; but this is of rare occur-
rence, and mostly poetical.

Obs. 2 The names of months, as September, are masc. substantives

in the nom. sing. , but are used as adjectives agreeing with fem. nouns in
such phrases as Kalendae Septembres, libertate Decembri, &c.

(b) Adjectives of two terminations.

34 Some, as tristis, ' sad' (declined like puppis and mare) ,

mělior, ' better' (declined like flos and os, oris) , distinguish the
masculine from the neuter in the N. A. V. of both numbers ; but if
the N. sing. ends in -x, -rs, -as, or -ns, it serves for all three
genders, as in felix, ' happy ;' sollers , ' sagacious ; ' Larinas, ' of
Larinum ;' ingens, ' big' (declined like urbs and animal) . In the
comparative the neuter plural always ends in -ra , but although plus
makes plura, complures makes both compluria and complura. The
only adjective of this class, which has a for -ia in the neuter
plural of the positive, is vetus, for veter, ' old ,' which is declined
like opus, and has vetera in the plural. Of those adjectives , which
have a neuter plural, only vetus, bipes, quadrupes, versicolor, anceps,
and praeceps have the gen. pl. in -um for -ium. But this form is
regularly adopted for adjectives which have no neuter plural, and
thus we have caelebs, caelib-um ; dives, divit-um; inops, inop-um ;
pauper, paupĕr-um ; memor (immemor) , memor-um ; sospes, sospit-
um; uber, ubĕr-um; compos, compot-um ; supplex, supplic-um; anceps,
ancipit-um ; vigil, vigil-um ; degener, degener-um ; &c. Some nouns
in -ns and even is occasionally shorten the gen . pl . from -ium to
-um, in the poets, as parentum for parentium, sapientum for sapien-
tium, and caelestum for caelestium. The following are the rules for
the ablative singular of this class of adjectives :

(1) The regular form of the ablative in adjectives of classes

a, B, and b is the same as that of the dative ; but the. compara-
tives and adjectives of one ending in the nom. sing. have both e
and in the ablative ; thus we have celer, abl. celeri ; tristis, abl.
tristi; but melior, abl. meliore and meliori ; felix, abl. felice and
felici; though in the comparative the abl. in e is more usual.
44 NOUNS.

(2) The adjectives .par, memor, immemor have only in the

abl.; the compounds compar, impar, dispar have both e and i.

(3) The following adjectives have e only : compos , impos, abl.

compote, impote ; hospes, sospes, abl. hospite, sospite ; pauper, puber,
abl. paupĕre, pubère ; senex, superstes , abl. sẽne, superstite. So also
the compounds of corpus and pes, e. g. bicorpor, tricorpor, bipes,
tripes; but quadrupes has both quadrupede and quadrupědi.
(4) The present participle in -ns, when it is not used as a mere
adjective or epithet, but refers at once to the meaning of its verb,
has generally an abl. in e only ; thus, although we may write either
sapiente or sapienti from sapiens the participle of sapio, used as a
mere adjective signifying ' wise, ' we must write imperante Augusto,
' when Augustus was ruling.'

(5) Adjectives of one ending in the nom. sing. , which are

sometimes used as substantives , generally have an abl. in e in that
usage, but an abl. in i when they are construed with other substan-
tives ; such words are artifex, nutrix, victrix, vigil.
The adjectives, which have a gen. plur. in -ium, form their
accus. pl. m. and f. in -îs or -eis in some MSS. of the best
Latin authors, e. g. we have tris, omnis, fortis instead of tres,
omnes, fortes.
Singular.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. V. tristis triste melior melius
G. tristis meliōris
D. tristi meliōri
A. tristem triste meliōrem melius
Ab. tristi meliōre
(more rarely meliori)
Plural.
N. A. V. tristes tristia meliōres meliōra
G. tristIum meliōRum
D. Ab. tristibus melioribus

Singular.
N. V. felix ingens
G. felicis ingentis
D. felici ingenti
A. felicem felix ingentem ingens
Ab. felici ingente, or ingenti
 NOUNS. 45

Plural.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. A. V. felices felicia ingentes ingentia
G. felicIum ingentIum
D. Ab. felicibus ingentibus.

Obs. 1 Some adjectives in is have by-forms in us; as acclivis,

acclivus, rising,' ' sloping upwards ;' hilaris, hilarus, ' merry; ' bijugis,
bijugus, with two horses ' (similarly, quadrijugus or is); exanimis,
exanimus, lifeless ; ' imbecillis (rare), imbecillus, ' weak ; ' inermis, iner-
mus, ' unarmed ; ' unanimis, unanimus, ' of one mind,' &c.

Obs. 2 A few adjectives in -ns have by-forms in -ntus, as opulens,

opulentus, ' rich ; ' violens, violentus, ' violent.'

Obs. 3 Dives, ' rich, ' makes ditia in the neuter plural.

Obs. 4 Some adjectives, which have no neuter plural of the nom .

and accus., are construed with neuter-substantives in the dat. and
abl. pl.; thus we have discoloribus signis, supplicibus verbis, puberibus
foliis.

Obs. 5 Substantives are occasionally used as adjectives with various

degrees of irregularity ; thus artifex, which means ' one who makes by
art,' is used as an adjective in the sense ' artificial,' i. e. ' made by art ; '
as artifices motus, ' artificial motions ;' artifices boves, ' oxen made by art.'
By a curious apposition, we have incola turba, ' a crowd of inhabitants ;'
and even agricola aratrum, ' the plough which cultivates the fields.'

Obs. 6 Substantives in -tor have feminines in -trix, and both are

used as adjectives with corresponding masculine and feminine nouns ;
as victor exercitus, Mars ultor, victrix causa, ultrices deae. But the poets
treat the feminine as a regular adjective after the model offelix, and we
have neuter plurals, as victricia arma, ' the victorious arms ; ' ultricia
tela, ' the avenging weapons.' So also hospes, ' the guest,' gives a neuter
plural, as in hospita aequora, the hospitable seas.'

35 Certain distinctive adjectives, which might be termed

pronouns, follow the declension of the pronouns in the G. and
D. singular, which they form in -ius and -i; such as unus,
(
' one ; ' alius, ' another ; ' uter, which of two ;' alter, one of two ;'
6
ullus, any at all ; ' nullus, none at all ; ' solus , ' alone ;' totus,
' whole ; ' neuter, neither ; ' uterque, both ; ' utervis, uterlibet,
' whichever you please, ' &c. Alius (like ille , ' that other,' of
which it is a by-form ; see below, 62) makes the N. A. sing. neut.
in -ud,
46 NOUNS.

N. unus una unum

G. unius
D. uni
A. unum unam unum
Ab. uno unâ uno

N. alius alia aliud

G. alius
D. alii
A. alium aliam aliud
Ab. alio alia alio

N. uter utra utrum

G. utrius
D. utri
A. utrum utram utrum
Ab. utro utra utro

N. alter altera alterum

G. alterius
D. alteri
A. alterum alteram alterum
Ab. altero altera altero

Obs. Unus has of course no plural, except when it is combined with

a word which has no singular, as unae litterae, ' an epistle, ' or when it
signifies alone,' or ' the same,' as uni Ubii, ' the Ubians alone' (Cæs.
B. G. iv. 16), unis moribus, ' with the same manners' (Cic . Flacc . 26) .

§ 6. Degrees of Comparison.

36 In its simple form an adjective is said to be in the positive

degree ; when we wish to express that the quality denoted by the
adjective is possessed in a higher degree, we modify the form and
call it the comparative degree ; when we wish to express that the
quality is possessed in the highest degree, we introduce another
modification of the form, and call it the superlative degree. Regu-
larly the comparative and superlative are formed by substituting
-ior and -issimus for the -i or -is of the genitive singular of the
positive ; thus from dur-us, ' hard,' gen. sing. dur-i, we have
dur-ior, 'harder,' or ' more hard, ' dur-issimus, ' hardest, ' or ' most
hard ;' from moll-is, ' soft, ' gen. sing. moll-is, we have moll-ior,
' softer,' or ' more soft,' moll-issimus, ' softest, ' or ' most soft ; ' from
 NOUNS. 47

felix, ' happy,' gen. sing. felic-is , we have felic-ior, ' happier,' or
more happy,' felic- issimus, ' happiest, ' or ' most happy.'

37 Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but add

-rimus to the nom. sing. of the positive as a substitute for the
usual form of the superlative ; thus we have pulch-er, ‘ beautiful, '
gen. sing. pulcr-i, pulcr-ior, ' more beautiful,' pulcher-rimus, ' most
beautiful ; ' celer, ' swift,' gen. sing. celer-is, celer-ior, ' swifter,' or
'more swift,' celer-rimus, ' swiftest,' or ' most swift.' So also vetus,
' old,' gen. sing. veter-is, superlative veter-rimus, ' oldest,' or ' most
old.'

Obs. This rule sometimes applies to nouns in -rus; thus we have

prosper-rimus from prosper-us, and both matur-rimus (especially in the
adverb maturrime) and matur-issimus from matur-us.

38 Certain adjectives in -ilis form the comparative regularly,

but change -ilis into illimus for the superlative. Thus we have
facilis, ' easy,' facilior, ' easier,' facillimus, ' easiest.' The remain-
ing adjectives which follow this rule are difficilis, ' difficult ;'
gracilis, slender ; ' humilis, ' low ; ' similis, ' like ;' dissimilis, ' un-
like.' Other adjectives in -ilis, if they have a superlative, form
it in -issimus : as utilis, ' useful,' utilissimus, ' most useful . '

Obs. As imbecillis has a by-form imbecillus (34, Obs. 1), we have

both imbecillimus from the former, and imbecillissimus from the latter.

39 Verbal adjectives which end in -dicus, ficus, -võlus, form

their comparatives and superlatives from the participles of their
verbs ; thus maledicus, ' slanderous,' maledicent-ior, more slander-
ous, ' maledicent- issimus, ' most slanderous.' Similarly the verbal
adjectives egenus, ' needy,' and providus, ' exercising forethought,'
form their comparative and superlative from the participles egens,
and providens, or prudens ; as egentior, ' more needy, ' egentissimus,
'most needy.'

40 Some comparative adjectives have a diminutive form in

-culus, as grandiusculus, ' a little older.'

41 Philology shows ( Varron. p. 394) that the superlative ter-

mination -issimus, -errimus, -illimus is an assimilation of ed-timus,
er-timûs, il-timus , resulting from -timus affixed to the corresponding
48 NOUNS.

adverb in ed or the neuter of the adjective (below, 108) . But the

comparative and superlative adjective have adverbial forms, gene-
rally in -ius and -e, which are referred to positive adverbs ; thus we
have :
6
digne, worthily ; ' dignius, dignissime.
breviter, briefly ; ' brevius, brevissime.
certo, ' certainly ; ' certius, certissime.
saepe, often ; saepius, saepissime.
diu, ' long ;' diutius, diutissime.

The following have no positive :

magis, more ;' maxime, ' most.'
ocius, more swiftly ;' ocissime.
potius, rather ;' potissimum.
prius, ' sooner ; ' primum.
The following have no comparative :
belle, ' prettily ;' bellissime.
merito, ' deservedly ; ' meritissime.
ob, ' upon ;' optime, ' uppermost,' i . e. ' best.'
nuper, ‘ lately, ' nuperrime.

The following have no superlative :

satis, ' sufficiently ;' satius, ' better.'
6
secus, ' otherwise ; ' sequius, ' more otherwise, ' for which
sētius, originally sectius, is more frequently used.

42 Many adjectives have either no forms for the comparative

and superlative, or express one only of these degrees of comparison.

(1) The following have no degrees of comparison :

(a) Those which have a vowel before us in the positive, as
dubius, ' doubtful ;' idoneus, ' fitting or suitable . '

Obs. This rule does not always apply to the semi-consonants -u and
-i before a vowel, for we have antiquus, ' ancient ; ' antiquior, antiquis-
simus; egregius, ' remarkable ;' egregior, and more rarely egregiissimus;
also tenuis, ' thin ; ' tenuior, tenuissimus, and the superlatives assiduis-
simus, piissimus, strenuissimus.

(b) Verbal compounds , except those which use the participle

for the formation of their comparison (above, 39) , have no forms
for the comparative and superlative ; thus we do not compare such
compounds as furci-fer, armi-ger, igni- vomus, arti-fex.
 NOUNS. 49

(c) Compounds, of which the last part is a noun, have no forms

of comparison ; thus we do not compare in-ops, ' poor ; ' versi-color,
' of different colours ; ' de-gener, ' degenerate ;' magn-animus , ' high-
minded .' But, those which involve -ars, -cor, -mens, as in-ers,
' helpless ; con-cors, ' harmonious ; ' de-mens, ' frantic,' admit of
comparison.

(d) Derivatives from other nouns in -ālis, -ilis, -āris , -icus,

-īnus, -īvus, -ōrus, -ŭlus, -tĭmus, with those which have the form of
a passive participle in -ātus or -ītus, are not usually found in the
comparative or superlative ; such words are naturālis (but hospi-
tālis and liberālis have both degrees, and aequalis , capitālis , regālis
have the comparative) , hostīlis (but civilis has the comparative) ,
familiaris (but populāris and salutāris have the comparative) , civi-
cus (but rusticus has the comparative) , peregrinus (but divinus has
both degrees of comparison), furtivus (but tempestivus has the
comparative) , canōrus, querulus, finitimus, barbātus, crinītus.

(e) Certain adjectives, which imply a definite quality, do not

admit of comparison ; such are words denoting a material , as aureus,
' of gold ;' a nation, as Graecus, ' belonging to Greece ; ' a time, as
aestivus, ' belonging to the summer ; ' a special employment, as
equester, ' belonging to the cavalry ; ' an absolute state, as vivus,
' alive ;' incolumis, sospes, ' safe ; ' merus, ' absolute ; ' memor, ' mind-
ful; ' ferus, ' savage' (though ferox is compared) ; gnarus, ' knowing ; '
mirus, ' wonderful ; ' gnavus, ' active' (though we have ignavissi-
mus) ; rudis, ' unskilled ; ' trux, ' harsh' (though atrox is compared
regularly) . On the other hand verus, ' true ,' and dirus, ' dreadful ,'
are regularly compared ; and not only is this the case with clarus,
' illustrious,' but (although adjectives qualified by per and prae do
not generally admit of comparison) we have both the comparative
and superlative of praeclarus, ' exceedingly illustrious.'

(2) The following have a superlative, but not a comparative :

falsus, ' false ; inclitus, ' renowned ; ' novus , ' new' (novissimus means
'the last') ; sacer, ' sacred ; ' serus, ' late' (serissimus is of rare oc-
currence) ; vetus, ' old' (veterrimus , above, 37) . But vetustus is com-
pared regularly.

(3) The following have a comparative, but not a superlative :

agilis, active ; docilis, ' teachable ; ' credibilis, ' credible ; ' proba-
D. L. G. 4
50 NOUNS.

bilis , ' satisfactory ; ' ater, ' relatively black' (as distinguished from
niger, ' absolutely black' ) ; caecus, ' blind ; ' jejunus, ' fasting ;' lon-
ginquus, ' distant, ' and propinquus, ' near' (but we have propior ,
proximus, from prope; below, 45) ; proclivis, sloping downwards,'
' inclined ;' surdus, ' deaf ;' teres, ' rounded and tapering' (tere-
tior), &c.

Obs. When it is necessary in any of the excepted cases to express

the degree of comparison, we prefix the adverbs magis for the com-
parative, maxime or summe for the superlative, as idoneus, suitable,'
magis idoneus, (' more suitable,' maxime or summe idoneus, ' most suitable. '

43 The following adjectives, adverbs, and adverbs used as

adjectives, are compared irregularly :

bonus, ' good ; ' melior, ' better ; ' optimus, ' best' (from the preposi-
tion ob ; above 41) .
malus, ' bad ; ' pejor, ' worse ; ' pessimus , ' worst. '
magnus, ' great ; ' major, ' greater ;' maximus, ' greatest.'
multus, ' much ; ' sing. plus, G. pluris, ' more ; ' plurimus , ' most.'
plur. plures, plura,
plurium, pluribus , ' several .'
parvus, ' little ;' minor, ' less ; ' minimus , ' least.'
nēquam, ' worthless ; ' nequior, ' more worthless ;' nēquissimus, ' most
worthless.'
frugi, honest ;' frugalior, more honest ;' frugalissimus, ' most
honest.'

44 Senex, ' old,' juvenis, ' young, ' have the comparatives senior,
junior, which are used to express the relative age of two classes, as
juniores patrum, ' the younger' or ' more recently elevated patri-
cians.' Gradations of age are properly expressed by the phrases
major natu, minor natu, maximus natu, minimus natu, or with natu
omitted, as Fabius Maximus.

45 Some adjectives expressing relations of space, time, or

degree, have either no regular positive, or have it only in some
prepositional form , or with some limitation of inflexion or meaning ;
thus we have the comparative and superlative citerior, citimus,
' more ' or ' most on this side,' but only the preposition citra for the
positive. Though we might imagine a form de-ter, detra (cf. dexter,
dextra, dexterior) from the preposition de, we have only the com-
 NOUNS. 51

parative and superlative deterior, worse, ' i . e. ' more downward,'

deterrimus, ' worst ' (cf. optimus from ob) . The poetic ocior,
' swifter,' ocissimus, have no positive except the unusual adverb
ociter (41) ; and potior, ' preferable, ' potissimus, are used in a some-
what different sense from their positive potis, ' able.' Exterior,
‘ outer,' extrēmus, ' last' or ' utmost, ' have in the plural of the posi-
tive exteri, ' foreigners,' and exterae nationes, extera regna, and also
the prep. extra, ' out.' Similarly, superior, ' higher,' suprēmus, ' ex-
treme, ' ' last in time, ' or summus, ' highest ; and inferior, ' lower,'
infimus or imus, ' lowest, ' have for the positive the prepositions
supra and infra, or the adjectives found in the phrases superum
mare, ' the Adriatic or upper sea, ' and inferum mare, ' the Etrus-
can or lower sea ;' superi, ' the gods above, ' supera, ' the upper parts
of the world ;' inferi, ' the dead as inhabitants of the lower world, '
"
infera flumina, the rivers of the infernal regions, ' inferae partes,
'the subterraneous regions . ' In the same way, posterior, ' later' or
' hinder,' postremus, ' last, ' are referred immediately to the preposi-
tion post, ' after : ' but we have posterum diem, posterá nocte, postera
6
aetas, where the following' or ' subsequent' in order of time is
referred to : posteri are descendants, ' and postumus, ' last-born ,'
means ' a child born after its father's death .' The following also
have only adverbial or prepositional positives :
ante, ' before, ' prior, ' former,' primus, ' first.'
intra, ' within,' interior, ' inner, ' intimus, ' most inward.'
prope, ' near,' propior, ' nearer,' proximus, ' nearest' (propinquus) .
ultra, 'beyond,' ulterior, further, ' ultimus, ' last.'

§ 7. Anomalous Nouns.
46 Anomalous nouns may be divided into four classes : (1. )
those which are used in the plural or singular only ; (II.) those
which vary, or have more than one form, in the plural or singular,
or both ; (III.) those which employ the plural in a special or sepa-
rate sense ; (IV.) those which appear in one case or in some only of
their cases .

Obs. In the older grammars anomalous nouns are divided into two
main classes : the (A) defectiva, and the (B) abundantia. (A) The
defectiva are (a) undeclined, when they do not admit of case-endings,
although they occur in all cases ; such are the names of Greek letters,
alpha , beta, &c.; foreign proper names, as Adam, Elizabeth ; some few
words, as cepe, ' an onion,' gausape, ' a napkin,' and the cardinal num-
4-2
 52 NOUNS.

bers from quattuor to centum ; (b) they are defectiva numero in the
following classes I. and III.; and they are defectiva casibus in class IV.,
when the old grammarians call them monoptota, diptota, triptota, tetra-
ptota, pentaptota, according as they occur in one only, or in two, three,
four, or five cases. (B) The abundantia have either two forms in the
same declension, as baculus and baculum, ' a stick ; ' or two forms in
different declensions, as elephantus, elephanti, and elephas, elephantis , ' an
elephant.' If the difference of form appears in the plural only, the
nouns which exhibit this variety are called heteroclita; as vas, vasis, ' a
vessel ; ' plur. vasa, vasorum : if the gender varies in the plural, they
are termed heterogenea, as carbasus, carbasi, fem. ' flax,' carbasa, carba-
sorum, ' a sail.' In some cases the heteroclita are also heterogenea, as
epulum, ' a public entertainment, ' epulae, ' a feast.'

I. (1) The following have no singular :

47 (a) First Declension.
angustiae , straits . inferiae, funereal offerings.
argutiae, refinements . inimicitiae, enmity .
balneae, the public bath-house¹. insidiae, an ambuscade.
bigae, a carriage, with two lapicidinae , a quarry.
quadrigae, or four horses respec- manubiae, booty.
tively. minae, threats.
calendae or kalendae, the first of minutiae, details .
the month. nonae, the fifth or seventh of
clitellae, panniers. the month (56, (b), Obs. 5) .
cunae, a cradle. nugae, trifles .
deliciae, an object of delight ". nundinae, the market-day.
dirae, a curse.
nuptiae, nuptials.
divitiae, riches. phalerae, trappings (of a horse) .
epulae, a feasts. prestigiae, tricks .
excubiae, the watch. primitiae, first-fruits.
exsequiae, funeral solemnities. quisquiliae, rubbish.
exuviae, spoils (lit. strippings). relliquiae, relics.
fucetiae, pleasantries. scalae, the stairs.
feriae, a holiday. scopae, a broom.
habēnae, reins .
salebrae, unpolished diction.
induciae, an armistice . salinae, a salt-work.
ineptiae, silliness. tenebrae, darkness.
1 balneum , pl. balnea , is a private bath.'
2 delicium occurs very rarely in the same sense, e. g. Phædr. IV. 1. 8. Mart.
VII. 50.
3 epulum is a public entertainment.'
 NOUNS. 53

thermae , a warm-bath . valvae, folding- doors.

tricae', trifles, minor annoyances. vindiciae, a defence.

48 (b) Second Declension.

bellaria , dainties . inferi (45).

cancelli, a lattice . justa, funereal offerings.
cani, white hairs . lamenta, lamentations.
castra , a camp. liberi, children.
clathri, a trellis or grate. loculi, a closet, a coffer.
crepundia, toys. lustra, a thicket.
codicilli³, writing tablets . munia, duties.
cunabula, posteri (45).
a cradle.
incunabula, praecordia, the diaphragm.
exta, entrails. sata, corn-fields .
fasti, annals. superi (45).
fori, benches or seats (in a ship tesqua , wild-places.
or in the circus) .

49 (c) Third Declension.

ambāges , a circuit (Ab . s .) of a month (56, (b) , Obs. 5) .

antes, rows or ranks (of vines, lemures, goblins.
soldiers, &c .) majores, ancestors .
artus, limbs, joints. moenia, the collective buildings
brevia, shoals. of a city.
caelites , the gods above . minores, posterity.
cervices, the hinder part of the obices, a bolt (Ab. s.)
neck4. preces, supplications (Ab . s .)
compedes, fetters (Ab. s .) procères, nobles.
fauces, the throat (Ab. s.) sentes, a thorn-bush .
fides, a lute. sordes , dirt.
fores, a door. vepres, a bramble.

lactes, the chitterlings. verbera, stripes .

idus, the thirteenth or fifteenth viscera, the intestines.

1 Apina and Trica were two small towns in Apulia : hence apinae (once) and
tricae are used to signify the contemptible but annoying vulgarity of a country place.
2 castrum is used in the names of places, as Castrum Novum.
3 codicillus, which occurs only once, and in Cato, denotes the trunk of a little tree.
4 cervix occurs in poetry in this sense ; in prose, it means the neck of a vessel, &c.
54 NOUNS.

The following proper names also have no singular : cities, as

Arbela, Athenae, Gades, Hierosolyma, Leuctra, Syracusae, Thebae,
Argi, Gabii, Veii, Philippi, Treviri ; feasts , as Bacchanalia, Flora-
lia, Olympia, Palilia, Quinquatrus, Saturnalia, Suovetaurilia, &c.

50 I. (2) The following have no plural :

(a) Words denoting substances ; as aurum, ' gold ; ' lignum,

' wood ;' aes, ' bronze ; ' oleum, ' oil ; ' sanguis, ' blood : ' plurals are
sometimes used to denote pieces of the material, as aera, ' bronze
statues ; ' cerae, ' wax tablets ;' ligna, billets of wood .'

(b) Abstract nouns ; as senectus, ' old age ;' pietas, ' affection'
or ' duty;' quies, ' rest ; ' fames, ' hunger ; ' indoles, ' disposition .'

(c) Words denoting objects, which are necessarily collective or

undistributable ; as vulgus, ' a crowd ; ' tellus, ' the earth ;' supellex,
' furniture ; ' aevum, ' time ; ' ver, ' the spring ; ' vesper , ' the even-
ing, ' & c.

(d) Names of towns and countries ; as Roma, Italia.

51 II. (1 ) The following vary or have more than one form

in the plural :

jocus, a jest, pl . joci, joca.

locus, a place, pl . loca , places, but loci, passages in books, objects ,
and topics of argument .
frenum, a bit or bridle, pl. freni and frena.
caelum, heaven, pl. caeli.
ostrea, an oyster, pl . ostrea, ostreae.
porrum, a leek or chive, pl. porri.
rastrum, a mattock, pl . rastri and rastra.
siser, n. skirret, plur. siseres, m.
sertertius, 24 ases or pounds, pl. sestertii and sestertia.
sibilus, a hissing, pl . sibili, poet. sibila.
vas, vasis, a vessel , also vasum, vasi, pl. vasa, vasorum, vasis,
and rarely vasibus.

Several proper names have a sing. in -us, and a plur. in -a, as

Dindymus, Ismarus, Gargărus , Maenalus , Pangaeus, Pergamus,
Taenarus, Tartarus, Taigetus.
 NOUNS. 55

(2) The following vary or have more than one form in both
numbers :
alimonia, alimonium, nourishment.
buccina, buccinum, a trumpet.
cingula, cingulum (-us) , a girdle.
essěda, essědum, a war-chariot.
menda, mendum, a fault.
mulctra, mulctrum, a milk-pail.
terricula, terriculum, a scarecrow.

hebdomas, -ădis, hebdomada, -ae, a week.

juventus, -tūtis, poet. juventa, youth.
senectus, -tūtis, poet. senecta , old age.

capus, -i, and capo, -ōnis, a capon.

lanius, -i, and lanio, -onis, a butcher.
ludius, -i, and ludio, -onis, a stage-player.
pavus, -i, and pavo , -onis , a peacock .
palumbus, -i, and palumbes, -is, a wood-pigeon.
scorpius, -i, and scorpio, -ōnis, a scorpion.
architectus, -i, and architecton , -ŏnis , an architect.
baptismus, -i, and baptisma, -ătis, baptism .
delphinus, -i, and delphin, -inis, a dolphin.
elephantus, -i, and elephas , -antis , an elephant.
spasmus, -i, and spasma, -ătis , cramp .
consortium, -i, and consortio, -onis, fellowship .
contagium, -i, and contagio, -onis, infection .
occipitium, -i, and occiput, occipitis, back of the head.
praesepium, -i, and praesepe, -is, a stall.
tapētum, -i, and tapes, -ētis, a carpet.

angiportum, -i, and angiportus, -us, a lane.

incestum, -i, and incestus, -us , incest.
praetextum, -i, and praetextus, -us, a pretence.
sinum, -i, and sinus, -us, a pail .
suggestum, -i, and suggestus, -us, a platform.

gibbus, -i, and gibbus, -ĕris, a hump.

glomus, -i, and glomus, -ĕris, a clue.
pecus, -oris, and pecu, n. cattle.
penus, -õris, n. and penus, peni, m. provision.
specus, -õris, n. and specus, g. specus, m. a den.
 56 NOUNS.

The noun jugerum, an acre, is declined fully according to the

second declension, but has also some forms from the third, as gen.
jugeris, abl. jugere ; dat. and abl. plur. jugeribus. The gen. plur.
jugerum may be regarded as belonging to either declension.

52 III. The following employ the plural in a separate or

special sense :

Singular. Plural.
aedes, a temple . aedes, a. temples . b. a house.
aqua, water. aquae, a. waters. b. mineral
spring.
auxilium, help. auxilia, auxiliary troops .
bonum, a good or blessing. bona, goods, property.
carcer, a prison. carceres, starting-post.
cera, wax. cerae, a waxen tablet. 3
comitium, a place in the forum at comitia, the election-meeting.
Rome .
copia, abundance. copiae, a. stores. b. troops.
facultas, a power or faculty. facultates, means or resources.
finis, an end. fines, boundaries.
fortuna, fortune (in the abstract) . fortunae, the gifts of fortune.
gratia, favour or gratitude. gratiae, thanks .
hortus, a garden. horti, a. gardens . b. a pleasure-
garden, or country- house.
impedimentum, a hindrance. impedimenta, a. hindrances. b.
baggage.
littera, a letter of the alphabet.
litterae, an epistle, or literature.
ludus, play, or a fencing-school. ludi, a public spectacle , or
games.
lustrum, a term of five years. lustra, haunts of wild beasts,
a brothel.
mors, death . mortes, fatal attacks or kinds of
death.
naris, the nostril. nares, the nose.
natalis, a birth-day. natales , pedigree.
opera, exertion. operae, workmen .
ops (not used in the nominative) , opes, power, riches .
help.
 NOUNS. 57

Singular. Plural.

pars, a part. partes, a. parts. b. the part ofan

actor in a play, side, party.
rostrum, a beak, the beak of a rostra, the pulpit for speaking
ship. in the Roman forum , adorned
with the beaks of captured
ships.
sal, salt. sales, wit (cf. facetiae) .
tabula, a board. tabulae, a. boards . b. an account-
book, a document.

53 IV. Certain nouns appear only in one case or in some

only of their cases .

(1) Those found only in one case are the following :

(a) Some are indeclinable ; as fas, ' right ; ' nefas, ' wrong ;'
nihil, ' nothing ;' instar, ' equality ' or ' likeness ; ' necesse, ' neces-
sity;' opus, ' need ; ' caepe, ' an onion ; ' mane, ' the morning' (also
in the abl.) ; gummi, ' gum. '

(b) Greek neuters in -os have only the N. A. sing. and plur. ;
as melos, mele , ' songs.' The same is the case with the plur. of
the following words, which however are fully declined in the sin-
gular : farra, ' corn ; ' mella , ' honey ;' mětus, ' fears ; ' murmura,
"
murmurs ;' rura, ' countries ; ' situs, ' abodes ;' spes, ' hopes ; ' tura,
'frankincense,' &c.

(c) Some are used only in the ablative, as pondo, which is

employed either to denote a single pound in weight, as coronam
auream, libram pondo, a crown of gold, a pound in weight,' or to
signify a number of pounds, as quinquagena pondo data consulibus,
'50 lbs, of copper were given to each of the consuls .' From the
same root we have sponte, signifying an impulse or inclination ,
which is used with possessives ; as mea sponte, ' by my own free
inclination,' of my own accord.'

(d) Similarly, we have many verbal substantives or supines

with a genitive or possessive pronoun, as jussu populi, ' by order of
the people ; ' meo rogatu, ' at my request. ' To the same class belong
'
natu, ' in respect of birth ;' as grandis natu, advanced in years ;'
maximus natu, ' oldest.'
58 NOUNS.

(e) Some of these verbals are used in the dat. only, and in
particular combinations, as derisui esse, ' to be a laughing-stock ;'
ostentui esse, ' to be shown .'

(f) In promptu, ' ready to be drawn upon,' in procinctu, ' pre-

pared for fighting, ' are used only in these prepositional phrases.

(g) The dative frugi, and the locative nequam, are used as
regular adjectives , equivalent to frugālis and vilis , thus homo frugi,
' an honest man ; ' homo nequam, ' a worthless fellow' (see 43) .

(h) Others are used only in the accus. , as suppetias ferre, ‘ to

bring assistance ;' infitias ire, to deny ;' ad incitas redigere, to
reduce to extremity ; ' venum īre, dăre, ' to be sold, ' ' to sell ;'
others only in the G., as non nauci facere, ' to estimate at less than
a nutshell, ' i . e. ' to hold cheap ; ' dicis causâ, ' for form's sake.'

(i) Secus is either a synonym of sexus, and used only in the

nom. and accus. with virile or muliebre, or it is an adverb signifying
' otherwise.'

(k) The following words are used in the ablatives only of the
singular, though, as has been mentioned above, they are inflected
throughout in the plural : ambage, compede, fauce, vice, prece, ver-
bere, and with the exception of the last two the abl . sing. is limited
to the poets .

(2) The following are found in some only of their cases :

(a) fors, ' chance, ' only in the nom. abl. sing. (forte, as an
adverb, ' by chance') .

(b) fides, ' a lyre,' only in the gen. acc. abl. sing. fidis, fidem,
fide, and then only by the poets ; otherwise in the pl. fides,
fidium, fidibus.
(c) impes, violence,' only in the gen. and abl. sing. , impětis ,
impěte ; no plural.

(d) lues, ' a disease,' only in the nom. accus. and abl.; no
plural.

(e) ops, ' help,' only in the gen. accus. abl. opis, opem, ope, but
opes, ' riches, ' regularly inflected in the plural.
·
(f) sordes, dirt,' only in the acc. and abl. sordem, sorde, both
rare ; the plural regularly inflected.
 NOUNS. 59

(g) vepres, ' a bramble, ' only in the acc. and abl. veprem, vepre,
both rare ; plural regularly inflected.

(h) vix or vicis, ' change,' only in the gen. acc. abl. vicis,
vicem, vice ; in the plur. only nom. acc. vices, dat. abl . vicibus.

(i) vis, ' force, ' only nom., and the accus. and abl. vim, vi ;
but complete in the plural vires, virium, viribus.

(3) The following want only the nom. singular : (daps) dapis,
' food ; ' (ditio) ditionis , ' dominion ; ' (frux) frugis, ' fruit ; ' (inter-
6
destruction ;'; ' (pollis or pollen) pollinis ,
necio) internecionis, utter destruction
'fine flour.'

Obs. The old grammarians (e.g. Priscian, vi. 15, p. 273, Krehl) give
(
the neuter nom. accus. tonitru, thunder ; ' but there is no authority for
any cases except the abl. sing. tonitru, the nom. acc. pl. tonitrua, gen.
tonitruum, dat. abl. tonitribus. The form tonitrua might also be referred
to tonitruum, which occurs in Plin. N. H. xxxvI. 13 ; and tonitribus
might come from a form tonitrus, of which we seem to have the acc. pl.
in Statius, Theb. 1. 258.

§ 8. Numerals.

54 Numerals are partly adjectives and partly adverbs, and

are divided into six classes : (a) Cardinals, which answer to the
question, how many ? (b) Ordinals, which combine the idea of
number with that of order or arrangement ; (c) Distributives , which
indicate the number of things to be taken together ; (d) Multipli-
catives, which state out of how many parts a whole is composed ;
(e) Proportionals, which state the rate of increase ; and (f) Numeral
Adverbs, which indicate how often a thing is repeated in time.

55 (a) Cardinals.
1. I. unus.
2. II. duo.
3. III. tres.
4. IV. quattuor.
5. V.. quinque.
6. VI. sex.
7. VII. septem .
8. VIII. octo.
9. IX or VIIII . novem.
60 NOUNS.

10. X. decem .
11. XI. undecim.
12. XII. duodecim.
13. XIII. tredecim .
14. XIV . quatuordecim .
15. XV. quindecim.
16. XVI . sedecim .
17. XVII. septendecim.
18. XVIII . duodeviginti.
19. XIX . undeviginti.
20. XX. viginti.
30. XXX . triginta.
40. XL.
quadraginta.
50. L. quinquaginta.
60. LX . sexaginta.
70. LXX . septuaginta.
80. LXXX . octoginta.
90. XC. nonaginta.
99. XCIX or IC . Snonaginta novem, novem et
nonaginta, undecentum.
100. C. centum .
200. CC. ducenti, -ae, -a.
300. CCC. trecenti.
400. CCCC. quadringenti.
500. D or IO. quingenti.
600. DC or IOC. sexcenti¹.
700. DCC or IOCC .
septingenti.
800. DCCC or IDCCC . octingenti.
900. DCCCC. nongenti.
1000. M or CIO. mille or mile.
2000. MM or CIOCIƆ. duo millia.
5000. 100. quinque millia .
7000. IOCIOCIO or IOOMM. septem millia.
10000. ССІЗО. decem millia.
100000. CCCIO . centum millia.

Obs. 1 The declension of unus has been already given (35). Duo
and its correlative ambo, ' both,' are thus declined :

1 sexcenti is used to denote an indefinite but large number, as when we say ' hun-
dreds,' thousands. '
 NOUNS. 61

N. V. duo duæ duo

G. duorum duarum duorum
D. Ab. duobus duabus duobus
Acc. duos or duo duas duo

N. V. ambo ambæ ambo

G. amborum ambarum amborum
D. Ab. ambobus ambabus ambobus
Acc. ambos or ambo ambas ambo

Tres is declined like the plural of tristis (34), thus :

M. F. N.
N. A. V. tres tria
G. trium
D. Abl. tribus

The other cardinals up to ducenti are undeclined . Mille is unde-

clined in the singular, but the plural millia is declined as a substantive,
like maria.

Obs. 2 For 13, 16, 17 , 18, 19 we may also write decem et tres, d. et
sex, d. et septem, d. et octo, d. et novem.
Obs. 3 The number added to 20, 30, &c. , is either prefixed with, or
affixed without, et; thus 21 is either unus (-a, -um) et viginti, or viginti
unus (-a, -um), and 25 is either quinque et viginti, or viginti quinque.
For the last two numbers in the decad, we may subtract, as in the case
of duodeviginti and undeviginti ; thus 28 and 29 are generally duode-
triginta and undetriginta. But although 99 may be undecentum, 98 is
either nonaginta octo, or octo et nonaginta.

Obs. 4 In combinations with numbers above 100 the smaller num-

ber follows with or without et ; thus 304 is trecenti et quatuor, or trecen-
tiquatuor.
Obs. 5 In order to express numbers exceeding 1000, we either
prefix the digits to the declinable plural millia, as duo millia, or couple
it with the distributives, as bina millia. In this case millia is regarded as
a neuter substantive. The poets sometimes prefix the numeral adverb,
as bis mille, quinquies mille. When smaller numerals follow millia in a
detailed enumeration, the objects specified are put in the same case, if
the numerals precede ; as caesi sunt tria millia trecenti milites ; Caesar
cepit duo millia trecentos sex Gallos. But if the objects specified pre-
cede the numerals, they are generally put in the genitive, as Caesar
Gallorum duo millia quingentos sex cepit. The same case, however, is
sometimes used even when the object of the enumeration precedes, as
omnes equites, quindecim millia numero, convenire jussit ; or Gallos cepit
duo millia quingentos sex.

Obs. 6 The numeral adverbs are always used to denote millions,

which are expressed as so many times a hundred thousand ; thus decies
centena millia, or decies centum millia, is ' a million ; ' vicies centena
millia is ' two millions ; ' bis millies centena millia is ' two hundred mil-
62 NOUNS.

lions,' and so forth. To these the single thousands and smaller numbers
are added in order, as decies centena millia triginta sex millia centum
nonaginta sex, " one million, thirty-six thousand, one hundred and
ninety-six,' i. e. 1,036,196. In reckoning with sesterces (below, 56, Obs. 4),
the rule is to omit centena millia, and to prefix the numeral adverb
alone to the genitive sestertium , i. e. numûm (13). Thus decies sestertiûm
is ' one million of sesterces ; ' vicies sestertium is ' two millions of ses-
terces ; ' centies sestertium is ' ten millions of sesterces,' &c. These
phrases are regarded as equivalent to singular nouns of the neuter
gender, which are even declined in the different cases ; thus we have in
the nom., sestertium quadragies relinquitur, ' six millions of sesterces are
left ; ' in the gen., argentum ad summam sestertii decies in aerarium
rettulit, ' he transferred to the treasury a sum of silver to the amount
of a million of sesterces ; ' in the accus., sestertium ducenties accepi, ' I
received twenty millions of sesterces ; ' in the abl ., senatorum censum
duodecies sestertio taxavit, ' he fixed the senatorial census at 1,200,000
sesterces.' The adverb alone is sometimes put without sestertium. And
in combining greater and smaller numbers, the word nummos may be
used without sestertium, as in Cic. Verr. 1. 14 : accepi vicies ducenta
triginta quinque millia quadringentos decem et septem nummos, ' I re-
ceived two millions, two hundred and thirty-five thousand, four hundred
and seventeen sesterces.'

Obs . 7 Cardinal numbers are sometimes expressed by compound

nouns ; thus ' two,' ' three,' ' four days, ' are expressed by biduum, tri-
duum, quadriduum ; ' two,' ' three,' ' four,' ' six,' ' seven years,' are
expressed by biennium, triennium, quadriennium, sexennium, septuen-
nium (which is more correct than septennium) ; commissions or bodies
consisting of ' two,' ' three,' ' four,' ' five,' ' six,' ' seven,' ' ten,' ' fifteen
men,' are expressed by duoviri, tresviri, quattuorviri, quinqueviri, seviri
or sexviri, septemviri, decemviri, quindecimviri. A single member of a
commission of two or three functionaries was called duumvir, a man of
two ; ' triumvir, ' a man of three.' The plural forms duumviri, trium-
viri, are in themselves ungrammatical ; and though duomviri occurs
once in an inscription, there is no authority for triumviri, and both
forms should be avoided in writing Latin.

56 (b) Ordinals.
1st, primus.
2nd, secundus, or alter of two only.
3rd, tertius.
4th, quartus.
5th , quintus.
6th, sextus.
7th, septimus.
8th, octavus.
9th , nonus.
10th , decimus.
 NOUNS. 63

11th, undecimus.
12th, duodecimus.
13th, 14th, &c. tertius, quartus decimus, &c.
20th, vicesimus or vigesimus.
30th , tricesimus or trigesimus.
40th , quadragesimus.
50th, quinquagesimus.
60th, sexagesimus.
70th, septuagesimus .
80th, octogesimus.
90th, nonagesimus.
100th, centesimus.
200th, ducentesimus.
300th, 400th, &c. trecentesimus, quadringentesimus, &c .
1000th , millesimus or milesimus.

Obs. 1 The numbers between 13 and 20 may also be expressed by

prefixing decimus with or without et, as decimus et tertius, or decimus
tertius, the thirteenth ; ' and for ' 18th,' and ' 19th, ' we may say not
only octavus decimus, nonus decimus, but also, with the usual subtrac-
tion, duodevicesimus, undevicesimus.

Obs. 2 In adding digits to the tens after 20, we either prefix the
smaller number with et or affix it without et. Thus the 21st' is either
primus et vicesimus, or vicesimus primus. When alter is used for
secundus it is generally connected by et, whether it precedes or follows ;
thus for ' the 22nd' we may write either alter et vicesimus, or vicesimus
et alter. The cardinals are often used in combination with the tens of
the ordinal numbers ; thus ' the 21st' may be expressed by unus et
vicesimus. The usual subtraction may take place in the last numbers
of the decad ; thus ' the 28th,' ' the 39th,' may be written duodetricesi-
mus, undequadragesimus.

Obs. 3 The numeral adverbs must be used for numbers above 1000,
as bis millesimus, ' the two-thousandth ; ' decies millesimus, ' the ten-
thousandth .'

Obs. 4 Fractional parts are expressed by an addition of pars to the

ordinal ; as tertia pars, the third part.' But pars is often omitted, and
tertia, quarta, &c., are used alone, as in English, to signify a third,' ' a
fourth, &c. With dimidia, however, pars is always added to signify ' a
half; ' otherwise we have dimidium with a genitive, as dimidium facti,
'half the thing done ; ' or dimidius agrees with the noun denoting the
integer, as dimidius modius, ' half a bushel ; ' dimidia hora, ' a half-
hour. ' We may express ' a sixth,' either by sexta or by dimidia tertia ;
' an eighth,' either by octava or dimidia quarta. The numerator of a
fraction is expressed, as in English ; thus we have duae septimae, i.e.
64 NOUNS.

partes, 'two sevenths .' But ,, may be expressed by duae partes, tres
partes, i.e. ' of a whole consisting of four parts. ' The addition of two
fractions is stated at length ; thus Capito is heir to five-sixths of the
estate' (to + ) is given heres ex parte dimidia et tertia est Capito
(Cic. ad Div. XIII. 29) ; and '14 hours and 38 = 14+ ' is given horae
quattuordecim atque dimidia cum trigesima parte unius horae. When a
fraction is added to one or more integers, the ordinal of the divided
number or measure is merely appended to ses or sesque, where ses is a
contracted form of semis, Gr. pov, ' a half; ' thus sesquialter is ' one and a
half,' i. e. ' one and the second a half; ' sesquipes is a foot and a half,' i.e. ‘ a
foot and half a foot ;' sestertius scil. numus is ' two ases or librae and the
third halved,' which is accordingly written IIS or HS, i. e. duae librae et
semis. The as or libra (pondo) , which weighed originally nearly a pound
(Troy) of copper, was reduced in B. C. 217 to one-twelfth, and ultimately,
by the Lex Papiria, to one twenty-fourth of its original weight, i. e. to
half an ounce, which continued to be the standard ever after. It has
the following special designations for the 12 unciae, or ounces, into
which it was subdivided , and the same nomenclature is used with refer-
ence to every thing, which admits of the same number of fractional
parts (e.g. heres ex dodrante, ' heir to three-fourths of the property ') :
1. Uncia. 8. Bes or bessis (from bis) = 3.
2. Sextans = . 9. Dodrans - de-quadrans .
3. Quadrans = 1. .10. Dextans - de-sextans ; also dec-
4. Triens = . unx (Priscian, de pond. II.
5. Quincunx. p. 391 Krehl).
6. Semis, -issis . 11. Deunx.
7. Septunx. 12. As.

Since the word as signified essentially a copper coin, the word aes
was used as its equivalent ; thus we find such phrases as (Liv. XXIV. 11) :
qui millibus aeris quinquaginta census fuisset, who had been rated at
50,000 ases .' But in order to distinguish between as meaning a pound
of copper, and as denoting a coin ultimately weighing only half an
ounce, the phrase aes grave was introduced to denote the full pound of
copper, as ( Liv. XXII. 33) : indici data libertas et aeris gravis viginti
millia, his liberty and 20,000 actual pounds of copper were given to
the informer.' Silver money was first coined at Rome, B.C. 269, five
years before the first Punic war, in three different pieces, numi, called
from the number of ases which they contained, namely :
The Denarius i. e. numus =- 10 ases .
The Quinarius = 5 ases.
The Sestertius = 2ases.

When the as was reduced in B.C. 217 to one ounce, the denarius,
though retaining its name, was made equivalent to 16 ases, the quina-
rius being 8, and the sestertius of course 4 ases ; and this continued to be
the relation between these silver coins and the as. The computation of
money was regularly by sestertii, and nummus always meant ' a sesterce,'
unless some epithet was prefixed, as when we read (Liv. XXII. 52) :
nummis quadrigatis, where the adjective shows that denarii are meant,
from the figure of a chariot with four horses (quadrigae) which sometimes
 NOUNS. 65

took the place of the Dioscuri on the denarius. The value of the
sestertius may be reckoned at twopence sterling, and in estimating the
value in English money in large sums, it may be convenient to the
student to recollect that 600 sestertii = £5, consequently that any large
sum may be reduced to English money by striking off one cypher and
dividing by 12, e. g. 100,000 HS = £833. 68. 8d. In counting by thousands
of sesterces it was equally correct to say mille sestertii and mille sester-
tium (gen. plur.). It was perhaps from some mistaken analogy suggested
by this genitive that sestertia in the neuter plural was used to denote
sums of one thousand sesterces. It cannot be shown that the neuter
sestertium was ever used in the singular, but we have septem sestertia
in Horace ( 1 Epist. VII. 80), and Juvenal says (IV. 15) : mullum sex
millibus emit, aequantem sane paribus sestertia libris, he bought a
mullet for 6000 sesterces, equalling, it must be confessed, the thousands
of sesterces by a corresponding number of pounds. ' The method of
counting very high numbers by using the numeral adverb has been
already, mentioned (above, 55, Obs. 6). As interest was paid monthly
the part of the as or number of unciae paid for every hundred ases gave
the rate per cent. per annum ; thus sextantes usurae would be six per
cent., quadrantes usurae, four per cent. , asses usurae, twelve per cent.;
the last rate was also called centesimae usurae, or one hundredth per
month, whence we have binae centesimae = 24 per cent. , quinae cen-
tesimae = 60 per cent. The unciarium fenus, or one-twelfth of the
capital, being 8 per cent. of the old year of 10 months, was 10 per cent.
for the year of 12 months.

Obs. 5 The ordinals are used in a peculiar manner in stating the

day of the month, which was reckoned backwards according to the
following subdivisions. The first of every month was designated Ka-
lendae, the Calends,' from the old verb calare, ' to call ; ' the 5th or 7th
was named Nonae, 'the Nones,' i. e. the 9th before the Ides ; and
"
the 13th or 15th was known as Idus, the Ides,' i . e. the division or
middle of the month (Hor. 1 Carm. iv. 11-14). All other days were
calculated backwards from the Nones or Ides of the month in question,
or from the Calends of the following month, the day from which, and
the day to which they reckoned, being both included in the sum.
The days on which the Nones and Ides fall in particular months may
be remembered by the following rhymes :
' The 5th or 13th day divides
A Roman month at the Nones or Ides ;
But in March, October, July, May,
Count back from the 7th or 15th day.'
Thus, ' on the 2d Jan.' is ' on the 4th day before the Nones,' that
is, in strict grammatical propriety, die quarto ante Nonas Januarias, or,
omitting die and ante, quarto Nonas, or, in figures, IV. Nonas. In Cicero,
however, and Livy, a curious attraction takes place, and this date is
written a. d. IV. Non. Jan., i. e. ante (diem quartum) Nonas Janu-
arias, where die quarto is inserted between the preposition ante and its
case, and changed by attraction into diem quartum, so that the whole is
regarded as a phrase, which may be governed by another preposition ;
D. L. G. 5
 66 NOUNS.

thus, ex ante diem III. Non. Jun. usque ad pridie Kalendas Septembres,
' from the 3rd day before the Nones of June up to the day before the
Calends of September.' This adverbial usage was carried so far that we
have even ante Idus for Idibus, where the Ides themselves are intended, as
in Liv. III. 40 : ante Idus Maias decemviros abisse magistratu. From the
previous example it will be observed that the day before the Nones, Ides,
and Calends was designated by the adverb pridie, and not by an ordinal
number. And the use of this locative in the phrase in question shows
that the other days must have been originally expressed in the same case.
The number of days in the Roman months according to the Julian
year was the same as ours, but although February had, as with us, one
day more in leap-year, it was not added at the end of the month, but
was inserted after the 23rd of February, so that the 24th of February,
or the sixth day before the Calends of March, was reckoned twice, and
was accordingly called bis sextus ; whence the leap-year itself got the
name of bis sextus or ' bis-sextile.'
The following table, drawn up by Bröder, will save the trouble of
calculating the Roman date in any particular case.
.Month
Eng-
Days
lish
of

Martius, Maius, Ju- Januarius, Augus- Aprilis, Junius, Sep- Februarius, 28 Days
lius (Quintilis), Oc- tus (Sextilis), De- tember, November, in every fourth
tober, 31 Days. cember, 31 Days. 30 days. Year 29.
Nonas
Nonas

Nonas
Nonas

I Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis

Nov.
Sept.
Apr.
Jun.
Mart

2 a.d. VI. a.d. IV. a.d. IV. a.d. IV.

Mai
Jul..

Jan.

3 a.d. V. a.d. III. a.d. III. a.d. III.

4 a.d. IV. Pridie Pridie Pridie
5 a.d. III. Nonis Nonis Nonis
Aug.

Febr.
Dec.

6 Pridie a.d. VIII. a.d. VIII. a.d. VIII.

7 Nonis a.d. VII.
snpi

.a.d. VII. a.d. VII.

Idus
Idus

8 a.d. VIII. a.d. VI. a.d. VI. a.d. VI.

9 a.d. VII. a.d. V. a.d. V. a.d. V.
snpi

Io a.d. VI. a.d. IV. ga.d. IV. a.d. IV.

II a.d. V. a.d. III. a.d. III. a.d. III.
Oct.

12 a.d. IV. Pridie Pridie Pridie

13 a.d. III. Idibus Idibus Idibus
14 Pridie a.d. XIX. a.d.XVIII. a.d. XVI.
15 Idibus a.d.XVIII. a.d. XVII. a.d. XV.
16 a.d. XVII. a.d. XVII. a.d. XVI. a.d. XIV.
Kalendas
Mai
Oct.
Jul.
Kalendas

17 a.d. XVI. a.d. XVI. a.d. XV. a.d. XIII.

Nov.
Apr.
Aug.
Jun.

18 a.d. XV. a.d. XV. a.d. XII.

Kalendas

a.d. XIV.
Sept.
Febr
Jan..
Kalendas

19 a.d. XIV. a.d. XIV. a.d. XIII. a.d. XI.

Mart.

20 a.d. XIII. a.d. XIII. a.d. XII. a.d. X.

21 a.d. XII. a.d. XII. a.d. XI. a.d. IX.
22 a.d. XI. a.d. XI. a.d. X. a.d. VIII.
23 a.d. X. a.d. X. a.d. IX. a.d. VII.
24 a.d. IX. a.d. IX. a.d. VIII. a.d. VI.
25 a.d. VIII. a.d. VIII, a.d. VII. a.d. V.
26 a.d. VII. a.d. VII. a.d. VI. a.d. IV.
27 a.d. VI. za.d. VI. a.d. V. a.d. III.
28 a.d. V. a.d. V. a.d. IV. Pridie
29 a.d. IV. a.d. IV. a.d. III.
30 a.d. III. a.d. III. Pridie
31 Pridie Pridie
 NOUNS. 67

Obs. 6 All the ordinals are adjectives of three genders.

Obs. 7 From the feminines of certain ordinals we have adjectives
in -ā-nus to denote the soldiers of the Roman legions, which were
known, like our regiments, by their numbers ; thus primānus is a soldier
of the first legion (prima sc. legio) ; similarly we have secundanus,
quintanus, decumanus , tertiadecimanus, quartadecimanus, unaetvicesi .
manus, duoetvicesimanus , &c., for belonging to the 2nd, 5th, 10th, 13th,
14th, 21st, 22nd legion, ' &c. Besides this meaning, quintana and decu-
mana (sc. via) mean the passages after the fifth and tenth lines of tents
in a Roman camp ; and as the rear-wall of the camp bounded this tenth
road, the gate in that wall was called the decumana porta. There are
other applications of the adjective decumanus ; for decumanus ager
was land that paid tithes (decimae or decima pars) ; the decumanus fluc-
tus was the tenth wave ; and as this was supposed to be the largest,
decumanus came to signify " very large, ' as decumana scuta, ' very large
shields' (Fest. p. 4), and decumanus acipenser, 'a very large sturgeon'
(Lucilius, ap. Cic. Fin. 11. 8, § 24).

57 (c) Distributives .

1. singuli. 40. quadrageni.

2. bini. 50. quinquageni.
3. terni. 60. sexageni.
70. septuageni.
4. quaterni.
80. octogeni.
5. quini.
6. seni. 90. nonageni.
100. centeni.
7. septeni.
200. duceni.
8. octoni.
300. treceni.
9. noveni.
10. deni. 400. quadringeni.
11. undeni. 500. quingeni.
600. sexceni.
12. duodeni.
13, 14, &c. terni deni, quaterni 700. septingeni.
deni, &c. 800. octogeni.
20. viceni. 900. nongeni.
30. triceni. 1000. singula millia.

Obs. 1 These distributives seem to be formed from the numeral

adverbs (below, 59) from which they borrow their signification ; thus
bini refers itself to bis, terni to ter, quaterni to quater, and as bis,
ter, quater mean ' twice ' (i. e. two times), ' three times,' ' four times,'
we can see that the corresponding distributives mean ' two at a time,'
'three at a time,' ' four at a time,' &c.
Obs. 2 In combinations of the units with numbers above 20, the
usual plan is to put the smaller number second , without et; as viceni
5-2
68 NOUNS.

seni, 26 at a time, by twenty-sixes ;' but the smaller number may also
be prefixed with or without et ; as quini et viceni, or quini viceni, ' by
twenty-fives.' The usual subtraction takes place in the case of 8 and
9 : thus, 18, 19 may be written duodeviceni, undeviceni ; 28, 29 , duode-
triceni, undetriceni ; and 99 is undeceni. It will be observed that there
is no distributive for 1000 but we say singula millia, ' by thousands
at a time ;' just as we say singulis annis, ' every year ;' or singulis die-
bus, ' day by day.'
Obs. 3 Distributives are used instead of cardinals with words which
have no singular ; with the exception of singuli, for which uni is used
(35, Obs.). Thus we say, una moenia, ' a wall ;' binae litterae, ' two
epistles.' With such words trini is used for terni; as trina castra,
'three camps .'

Obs. 4 The adjectives bimus, quadrimus, trīmus, two, three, four

years old,' are derived from bis-hiems, ter-hiems, quater-hiems ( ' quasi a
bis, ter, quater ab ista a hieme dicta.' Eutyches, ap. Cassiod. p. 2311 ), and
so count the years by the winters (hiemes). It is not known with cer-
tainty what is the derivation of the correlative adjective hornus, ' of this
year ;' but it is probable that it is merely formed from hujus, anciently
hoius: cf. hodier- nus from hodius, tacitur-nus from tacitus. According
to Nonius, p. 83, it means ipsius anni.

58 (d) Multiplicatives and (e) Proportionals .

(d) Multiplicatives.
Of these words, which are formed by the addition of -plex,
-plicis, to the root denoting the number, only the following are
in use : simplex, ' simple ; ' duplex, ' double ; ' triplex, ' triple ;'
quadruplex, ' four-fold ; ' quincuplex, ' five -fold ;' septemplex, ' seven-
fold ; ' decemplex, ' ten-fold ; ' centumplex, ' one hundred-fold . '
Obs. Poets and later writers, like Pliny, use the distributives as
multiplicatives ; thus we have Lucan, VIII. 455 : septeno gurgite for sep-
templice, and Plin. N. H. XVII. 3 : campus fertilis centena quinquagena
fruge for oentumplice quincuplice.

(e) Proportionals.

These words add -plus to the root denoting the number, and are
generally used in the neuter gender. The following only are in
use : simplus, duplus, triplus, quadruplus, quinquiplus, septuplus,
octuplus. There is but a slight difference in meaning between the
proportional and the multiplicative ; duplex means that which is
double in itself, as duplex ficus, ' a double fig,' i . e. ' two growing
together ;' but duplum is the double of something else ; as poena
dupli, a penalty of double the amount.'
 NOUNS. 69

59 (f) Numeral Adverbs.

1. semel. 19. novies decies or undevicies.
2. bis. 20. vicies.
3. ter. 30. tricies.
4. quater. 40. quadragies.
5. quinquies. 50. quinquagies.
6. sexies. 60. sexagies.
7. septies . 70. septuagies.
8. octies. 80. octogies.
9. novies. 90. nonagies.
10. decies. 100. centies.
11. undecies. 200. ducenties.
12. duodecies. 300. trecenties.
13. ter decies or tredecies. 400. quadringenties .
14. quater decies or quartum 500. quingenties.
decies . 600. sexcenties.
15. quinquies decies or quin- 700. septingenties.
decies. 800. octingenties.
16. sexies decies or sedecies. 900. noningenties or nongen-
17. septies decies. ties.
18. octies decies or duodevicies. 1000. millies.

Obs. 1 These adverbs answer to the question quotiens ? ' how many
6
times ?' of which totiens, so many times,' is the demonstrative, and
aliquotiens, ' a certain number of times,' the indefinite expression. Hence
"
semel is once,' i. e. a single time ; bis, ' twice,' i . e. two times ; ter,
' thrice,' i. e. three times ; quater, ' four times,' and so on.
Obs. 2 For intermediate numbers in the tens, the smaller number
is either prefixed with et; as semel et vicies, or affixed with or with-
out et; as vicies et semel, or vicies semel.
Obs. 3 From the ordinals we have adverbs answering to the ques-
tion of what number ?' or ' in what number ?' Two forms were
adopted, one in -um, the other in -o, and the old grammarians them-
selves could not decide which was preferable (Aul. Gell. N. A. x. 1).
In the best writers the form in -um is the more common, except that
while both primum and primo are used to signify for the first time,'
primum alone signifies ' firstly,' and primo means also at first ;' and
while secundum is generally used as a preposition, iterum is used to sig-
nify a second time ;' and secundo, ' in the second place,' or ' secondly,'
is not so common as deinde.
 CHAPTER III.

PRONOUNS .

§1. Personal Pronouns and their Possessives.

60 THE personal pronouns, which are used instead of nouns ,

as the nominative cases or subjects of verbs , are ego , ' I, ' for the
first person, and tu, ' thou,' for the second. The third person is
not expressed in the nominative by a pronoun , but is either omit-
ted, or expressed by a noun substantive. When , however, it is
necessary to use a pronoun referring to the nominative case of the
verb, we employ the pronoun sui, ' of himself, herself, itself, them-
selves, ' which is called ' a reflexive pronoun ,' because it refers, or
is reflected back for its explanation, to the principal word in the
sentence. Thus, if we wish to express in Latin, ' Alexander said
that he, namely, Alexander, was the son of Jove, ' we must write,
Alexander dicebat SE Jovis filium esse. These personal pronouns ,
and their supplement the reflexive, have corresponding adjectives
in -us, which are called possessives. The personal pronouns have
possessives corresponding to their different numbers ; but the re-
flexive makes no difference between the singular and plural.

61 First person. Second person . Reflexive.

Singular. Singular. Sing. and Plur.

N. ego Posses- tu Posses- Posses-
mei (mis sive. tui (tis sive. sui (sis sive.
G.
obsol.) meus. obsol.) tuus. obsol.) suus.
D. mihi tibi sibi
A.
me te se
Ab.
 PRONOUNS. 71

Plural. Plural.
N.
A. nos Posses- vos Posses-
V. sive. sive.
G. nostri or noster. vestri or vester.
nostrúm vestrúm
D.
nobis vobis
Ab.

Obs. 1 The possessives meus, tuus, suus are regularly declined like
bonus, except that meus makes mi in the voc. sing. masculine.

Obs. 2 The genitives mei, and nostri or nostrum, tui, and vestri or
vestrum, are really the genitives singular and plural (13) of the posses-
sives meus, noster, and tuus, vester, which are used instead of them,
and in direct agreement with the noun, in all instances except when a
particular emphasis of personality is required ; as non meus hic sermo
est, this discourse is not mine ;' but si tibi cura mei, sit tibi cura tui,
' if thou hast a care for me, care for thyself;' and the two forms may
stand side by side ; as memoria nostri tua, ' your remembrance of us ;'
or they may be opposed ; as parsque tui lateat corpore clausa meo, ' a
part of you may lie hid, shut up in my body.' In the plural, nostri,
vestri, are used when we speak of the persons as a whole ; as memoria
nostri tua, ' your recollection of us,' as a single object of thought :
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui, ' you have a general mindful
of you, forgetful of himself. ' But we use nostrum, vestrum, when we
speak of the persons as a collection of separate elements ; thus these
genitives are used with omnium; as patria est communis omnium
nostrúm parens, ' our native land is the common parent of all of us,'
many and separable as we are. That this is an attraction appears
from such passages as hi ad vestrum omnium caedem Romae restite-
runt, ' these men remained at Rome for the massacre of you all .'

Obs. 3 The personal pronouns are sometimes strengthened by the

addition of the syllable met ; as ego-met, I myself;' vos-met, you
yourselves. ' This affix is not directly attached to tu, though we have
tutě and tutěmet; and it is never appended to the genitives nostrum and
vestrum.

Obs . 4 The abl. sing. of the possessives (especially suus) may be

strengthened by the affix -pte, as in meopte ingenio, ' by my own par-
ticular talents ; suopte pondere, by its very own weight.' The affix
met is also found with the ablative of suus and more rarely of meus,
especially when the pronoun ipse follows ; as suamet ipse fraude.

Obs. 5 From noster, vester we have the adjective in -as (for ati-s,
above, 28 (c), Obs. (d), nostras, vestras, ' of our country, ' ' of your country.'
 12
72 PRONOUNS.

• § 2. Indicative Pronouns.

62 The pronouns hic, iste, ille, indicate, as objects , the three

persons, ' I, ' ' thou, ' ' he.' Hic, ' this , ' indicates the speaker and
all close to him ; iste, that of yours, ' indicates the person ad-
6
dressed and those in his proximity ; ille, that other, ' indicates all
distant persons and objects. They correspond respectively to the
Greek ὅδε, οὗτος, and ἐκεῖνος, and are thus declined :

(a) Hic, 'this' (here, by me) .

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. hic haec hoc
G. hujus
D. huic
A. hunc hanc hoc
Ab. hoc hâc hoc

Plural.
N. hi hae haec
G. horum harum horum
D. his
A. hos has haec
Ab. his

(b) Iste, ' that' (there, by you) .

Singular.
N. iste ista istud
G. istius
D. isti
A. istum istam istud
Ab. isto ista isto

Plural.
N. isti istae ista
G. istorum istarum istorum
D. istis
A. istos istas ista
Ab. istis
 PRONOUNS . 73

(c) Ille, that other.'

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. ille illa illud
G. illius
D. illi
A. illum illam illud
Ab. illo illa illo

Plural.
N. illi illae illa
G. illorum illarum illorum
D. illis
A. illos illas illa
Ab. illis

Obs. 1 The c, which is found at the end of certain cases in the

ordinary declension of hic, is a remnant of a pronominal particle ce also
found in ec-ce, cis, ci-tra, ce-teri, &c. The original form must have been
hi-ce, hă-ce, ho-ce, and the diphthong in the nom. sing. fem. and the
nom. accus. pl. neut. has arisen from a transposition of the final vowel.
This diphthong is represented only by a long a in posthac, after these
things.' The full form of the affix ce is found occasionally after the
cases ending in s, as in hujusce, hosce, and in old Latin we have han-ce
legem, ha-ce lege. In the nom. plur. we have hic for hi or hi-ce, in
Varr. L. L. vi. 73, and haec, for hae or hae-ce in the comedians (Plaut.
Aul. III. 5, 59 ; Ter. Eun. III . 5, 34, &c.) . When the interrogative par-
ticle ne is added, we have the forms hicine, haecine, hocine, &c.

Obs. 2 In old Latin the affix ce is found with iste and ille in the
forms istic, istaec, istoc ; illic, illaec, illoc. The cases in which this
addition is found are the same as those which end in c in the common
declension of hic, except the dative. Cicero has only istuc and istaec.
We rarely find even in old Latin the full forms istace, istisce," illace,
illisce, illosce, illasce. The interrogative ne may be added as in the case of
hic, so that we get the forms istacine, istocine, illicine, illancine, istoscine.

Obs. 3 Istius and illius sometimes appear in the forms isti and
illi ; the dat. sing. fem. is written istae, illae ; and the nom. pl. fem. is
found with an appended c; as istaec, illaec (Bentl. ad Ter. Hec. IV.
2, 17).

Obs. 4 Ille was anciently written olle, or ollus, -a, -um, from which
we have the dat. sing. and nom. plur. olli in Virgil, the plur. olla and
ollos in Cicero (Legg. 11. 9, where he is reproducing the obsolete legal
forms), and the locative adverb olim, i. e. at that time,' whether past
74 PRONOUNS .

(which is the more common meaning) or future. Alius, another,' is

in constant use, as a by-form of ille, which it resembles in declension
(35). The only difference between them is that alius means ' another'
indefinitely ; ille, ' the ' or ' that other' definitely; as alio die, ' an-
other day ;' illo die, ' the other day,' i . e. ' on that day.'

§3. Distinctive Pronouns.

63 The pronoun is and its derivatives i-dem and i-pse (some-

times ipsus) define or distinguish particular objects. The meaning
of all three is conveyed by different usages of the Greek autós. Is
is either the correlative and antecedent to qui, so that is qui means
' the particular person who, ' or it is used as a mere pronoun of
reference, like the oblique cases of avтós ; as uxor ejus, ‘ his wife,'
ǹ yuvǹ avтoû, ' the wife of a person already mentioned and referred
to.' I-dem, means more emphatically, ' the very he,' ' the same
6
man, ' like ó autós ; and i-pse signifies the man himself,' or ' the
man as distinguished from others, ' like autós in apposition without
the article (see Gr. Gr. Art. 444, (d) , aa) . Is and i-dem are declined
as follows :

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. is ea id
G. ejus
D. ei
82

A. eum eam id
Ab. eo eâ eo

Plural.
N. ii (ei) eae ea
G. eorum earum eorum
D.
iis (eis)
Ab.
A. eos eas ea

Singular.
N. idem eadem idem
G. ejusdem
D. eidem
A. eundem eandem idem
Ab. eodem eâdem eodem
 PRONOUNS . 75

Plural.
M. F. N.
N. iidem eaedem eădem
G. eorundem earundem eorundem
D.
iisdem
Ab.
A. eosdem easdem eădem.

Ipse (in old Latin ipsus) is declined like ille and iste, except
that in the singular the N. and A. neut. end in -um instead of -ud,
as though it were ipsus, ipsa, ipsum.

Obs. 1 The declension of is seems to bear the same relation to that

of hic, that quis does to qui (below, 64, Obs. ) ; namely, is belongs to the -i,
and hic to the -o declension. There can be little doubt that they are
different forms of the same pronoun. There are no distinct traces of
an appendage ce in the case of is; but this must have been the case
originally, for there is no other explanation of the long a in intereā,
posteā, praeterea, &c. than that which applies to posthac, namely, that
it represents a diphthong arising from the transposition of the final
vowel of ce, so that ea is for eaec eace. Although the final ce is obso-
lete with is, yet we have in colloquial Latin such combinations as
eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas, for ecce eum, ecce eam, ecce eos, ecce eas, just as
we have eccillum or ellum, for ecce illum or en illum, and eccistam for
ecce istam, from which come the modern French and Italian cet for cest,
and questo, cel and quello.

Obs. 2 The dat. sing. fem. of is was written occasionally eae in old
Latin ; the obsolete dat. sing. ibi is in common use as a particle signify-
ing there ;' and the dat. abl. plur. appeared in the forms ibus, eabus.
In the nom. plur. masc. ei is rare. As eidem never appears for iidem, and
as iidem and iisdem are generally written with one i in the MSS. , and
are always treated as one syllable in poetry, it is probable that ii, iis
were the genuine spelling, and that the double ii in these forms as in
dii, diis merely represented a long i.

§ 4. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns and their Correlatives

or Antecedents.

64 The relative qui, ' who, ' connects with the indicative or
distinctive pronouns, and especially with is, its regular correlative
and antecedent, some fuller description or explanation of the person
or thing indicated or intended ; as vidi eum, qui haec scripsit, ' I
saw him, i. e. the man, who wrote these things,' i. e. ' the writer'
(τὸν γράψαντα) . Qui is thus declined :
76 PRONOUNS.

Singular.
M. F. N.
N. qui quae quod
G. cujus (quojus, obsol .)
D. cui (quoi, obsol.)
A. quem quam quod
Ab. quo quâ дио

Plural.
N. qui quae quae
G. quorum quarum quorum
D. quibus (queis)
A. quos quas quae
Ab. quibus (queis)

Obs. It seems that there were originally two forms of this pronoun,
one of which followed the -o, while the other belonged to the -i declen-
sion, the former being of adjectival and the latter of substantival signi-
fication. Traces of both forms exist, with a distinct reference to this
difference of usage. In old Latin we have a plural ques corresponding
to the -i form, and the particle quia, ' because,' seems to be a correspond-
ing neuter plural. There was also an ablative qui for all genders. By
itself it is used only as an interrogative, in such phrases as qui fit ?
'how does it happen ? ' qui convenit ? how does it agree ?' qui ista
intellecta sint, debeo discere, I ought to learn in what manner these
things are understood ; ' habeo, qui utar, I have what I can use ;' vix
reliquit, qui efferretur, ' he scarcely left wherewith to bury him.' Other-
wise, we have quicum for quocum or quacum, with an indefinite ante-
cedent, as Cic. Lael. 6 : quid dulcius quam habere, quicum omnia
audeas sic loqui ut tecum ? ' what is more agreeable than to have some
one, with whom you may venture to say all things just as if you were
speaking with yourself?' Virgil, En. XI. 821 : fida ante alias quae sola
"
Camillae, quicum partiri curas, singularly distinguished by her fidelity,
being such a one that Camilla could impart to her all her thoughts.'
There are traces of a locative in the particle quum or quom (also found
in quon-iam =quom-jam), which signifies when,' i. e. at what time,'
and is sometimes written cum, a mode of spelling, which, however sanc-
tioned by authority, is to be avoided as leading to a needless confusion
with the preposition.

C
65 The proper interrogative is quis ? who ?' which may be
lengthened by prefix into ecquis, numquis, and by affix into quisnam,
numquisnam. But all the relatives may be used as interrogatives.
The declension of quis is the same as that of qui, except that it has
quă as well as quae, and even more commonly, in the nom. sing.
fem., and the nom. and accus. neut. plural ; otherwise, it merely
 PRONOUNS. 77

substitutes quis for qui, and quid for quod in the singular ; thus ,
N. quis, quae or quă, quid; A. quem, quam, quid. Uter, ' which of
the two ?' (35) is also used as an interrogative.

Obs. A possessive pronoun cujus, cuja, cujum is formed from the

relative, as is, cuja res est, ' he whose property it is.' This form is also
used as an interrogative, as cujum pecus ? whose flock is it ?' The
only cases of this possessive which are used are the nom. and acc. sing. ,
the abl. fem. sing., and the nom. and acc. pl. fem. Like the possessives
noster, vester, this possessive has a collateral form in -as (-āti-s) to ex-
press its interrogative use when applied to a man's country, as cujas,
' of which nation ?'

(
66 The other correlatives are talis, of such a kind,' qualis,
of which kind' (declined like tristis) ; tantus, so great,' quantus,
' how great ' (declined like bonus) ; tot, ' so many,' quot, ' how
many' (undeclined) .

67 The affix -cunque may be subjoined to any relative and to

the interrogative uter in the sense of our ' -ever, ' or ' -soever ;' as
qui-cunque, ' whoever,' qualis-cunque, ' of what kind soever,' uter-
cunque, ' whichever of the two,' &c.

68 The indefinite pronouns are quis, quispiam¹, ' any one ;'
aliquis, aliquispiam, ' some one ' in particular ; quisquam, ullus,
'any one at all ;' quidam, ' a certain person ; ' alteruter, ' one or the
other ' (of two) ; quisque, ' every one ; ' unusquisque, ' each indivi-
(
dual ; ' uterque, each of two,' also ' both ' (uterque frater, ' both
brothers ;' uterque eorum, ' each of them them ; '' utrique, ' both of
·
them ') ; quivis, quilibet, any one you please ' (out of a larger
number) ; utervis, uterlibet, ' any one you please ' ( of two) ; with
which may be classed the negatives, nemo, neminis, ' no one ' (27) ;
nihil, ' nothing ;' nullus, ' no, none ;' neuter, ' neither ' (of two) .

Obs. 1 In all indefinite pronouns the form quod is used as an ad-

jective, and the form quid as a substantive ; thus we say aliquod
monstrum, ' some monster,' but aliquid monstri, ' something of a mon-
ster.' This rule applies to quoddam, quiddam ; quodpiam, quidpiam ;
unumquodque, unumquidque, &c. But quisquam is always substantive,
and forms the neuter in quidquam or quicquam. It has neither fem .
nor plural, and uses ullus as its adjective.

¹ Some old grammarians (as Festus, p. 254), and many modern scholars, regard
quispiam as a synonym of aliquis, but this is not its usage, and the occurrence of ali-
quispiam or aliquipiam (Cic. Tusc. Disp. III. 9, § 19 ; pro Sext. 39), shows that quis-
piam rather corresponds to the indefinite quis.
78 PRONOUNS.

Obs. 2 The indefinite quis may be written qui, chiefly in an adjec-

tive sense, and only after si, nisi, ne, num ; and quis itself is seldom
used except in suppositions, as dicat quis = dicat quispiam, ' suppose any
one says,' or after the particles just mentioned, and others of a similar
meaning, such as quum, quanto, quo. The fem. sing. or neuter plur.
is either quae or quă, but more commonly the latter.

Obs. 3 Ali-quis for alius-quis = ille-quis (35, 62) always indicates

some one in particular,' though the object is not named : and the
English ' some' must be introduced into the translation of all prono-
minal words to which the syllables ali- are similarly prefixed ; thus ali-
quot is ' some few, ' ali-quantus, ' of some considerable size, ' ali-quando,
at some time.' Consequently, aliquis is only a degree less definite
than quidam, which may be explained as certus aliquis. The word
' any' cannot therefore be used in translating aliquis or the other words
compounded with ali-. If by ' any' we merely grant or suppose the
existence of the person or thing, we use quis or quispiam (above,
Obs. 2), and we denote without naming the person or thing, when we
prefix ali- to either of these words. If by ' any' we mean to include
within the range of our choice all the objects referred to, we must use
quivis, quilibet. If by any' we mean to exclude all the objects speci-
fied, in which case we say ' any at all, ' we must use quisquam or ullus.
Such sentences are in effect negative. And as we find ullus used in
the negative form nullus, so quisquam and ullus are found chiefly in
combination with such particles as non, haud, ne, num, an, sine, and
absque ; and we may even have nihil quicquam, or nec quisquam unus,
and in colloquial Latin, quicquam may even stand alone for nihil quic-
quam, as in the phrase aeque quicquam for aeque ac nihil quicquam
(Ter. Andr. II. 6, 3). We have thus two pairs of words, (1) quis and
quispiam opposed to aliquis and aliquispiam, as any one' is distin-
6
guished from some one ;' (2) quivis and quilibet opposed to quisquam and
ullus, as ' any you please' is opposed to any at all.' These distinc-
tions, which are very important, will be remembered by the following
rhymes :
(1) Quis, quispiam, ' any,' esse dant
Vel ponunt ; non determinant ;
Aliquis, ' some one,' denotat
Quempiam, sed non nominat.
(2) Quivis, quilibet, ' any you please,'
Continebunt cunctas res ;
Quisquam, any at all,' et ullus,
Excludunt omnes, sicut nullus.

Obs. 4 In utervis, uterque, &c., uter is declined as above (35), and

ullus, nullus, follow the same form of declension . Nemo is a substan-
tive of the masculine gender, and is declined like homo which it in-
cludes (26) ; it may however be used as a general adjective, except that
the gen. and abl. are rarely found in the best writers, who substitute
nullius and nullo. Nihil occurs only as nom. and accus . But nihili
and nihilo from nihilum are sometimes found.
 PRONOUNS. 79

Obs. 5 Uterque means ' both the one and the other ' (Gr. ¿κárepos) ;
ambo means both together ' (Gr. äµow, aµpórepos) ; quisque means
' each ' or ' every one ' of a larger number (Gr. ExaσTos) ; unusquisque
means ' each ' or ' every one ' taken singly (Gr. els ékaσtos or ws KaσTos
opposed to σúμras, Herod. vI. 128 ; Thucyd. 1. 3) ; omnis means ' all, as
many as there are,' ' all, as a collection of individuals ' (Gr. wâs) ; cuncti,
"
for conjuncti, means all in a body, ' i. e. ' all conjoined and united for
a particular purpose and at a particular time ' (Gr. åπavτes) ; universus
means ' all acting by common consent,' i. e. all going in the same direc-
tion (una versus) and generally combined (Gr. ouμmas, σvváñas), so that
it is opposed both to unusquisque (Cic. de Off. III. 6), and to singuli (Cic.
de Nat. Deor. II. 17) ; and totus means ' the whole,' i. e. that all the parts
are so combined that they are regarded as forming a new unit (Gr. oλos).

§ 5. Indefinite Relative Pronouns and their Correlatives.

69 Indefinite relatives are those formed by the addition of

-cunque to any relative (67) , and to the interrogative uter. The
reduplicated quisquis is used both relatively and as an adjective
signifying ' every.' It is commonly found only in the nom . masc.
and in the nom. and accus. neuter quidquid or quicquid. The
"
phrase cuicuĭmodi, ' of whatever kind ,' has sprung from an abridge-
ment of the gen. of this pronoun coupled with the gen. of modus.
Several of these indefinite relatives have correlative forms, as
follows :

Demonstr. Rel. and Interrog. Indef. Rel. Indef.

6
talis, of such a qualis, of which qualiscunque, qualislibet, ' of
kind.' (what?)' kind. ' ofwhat- any kind you
soever kind .' please.'
tantus, ' so great.' quantus, quantuscunque, aliquantus, ' of
'(so great) as,' 'how great some consi-
' how great? ' soever. ' derable size.'

tot, 'so many.' quot, ' (so many) quotcunque, aliquot, ' a cer-
as,' 'how ma- quotquot, ' how tain number,
ny?' many soever.' some.'

totus, ' such in quotus, ' of what quotuscunque,

number.' number, ' ' never so
'which in the little.'
series?'
totidem, 'just so
many.'
 80 PRONOUNS .

Obs. 1 Aliquantus is generally used in the neuter (aliquantum, ali-

quanto) as a substantive. From tantus and its correlatives we have
the diminutives, tantulus, ' so little, ' quantulus, ' how little,' &c. &c.;
from tantum we have tantundem (nom. acc. neut.), ' just so much,' gen.
tantidem.

Obs. 2 The use of quisquis for quisque, in the sense ' every,' is of
comparatively rare occurrence, though it is found in the best writers ;
e. g. in Cicero, ad Famil. vI. 1, § 1, we have quocunque in loco quisquis
est, and in the same, book IV. § 3, ubi quisque sit in the same sense. In
the neuter modern scholars write quicquid when it means ' every,' but
quidquid when it means ' whatsoever ;' thus in Lucret. v. 304 : et pri-
mum quicquidfulgoris perdere semper, ' that they always lose every first
gush of light ;' but Virgil, En. II. 49 : quidquid id est, ' whatever that
is.' Similarly they distinguish between quidque in the sense of et quid,
and quicque the neuter of quisque.

Obs. 3 The adjective quotus signifies ' what in number ?' of what
⚫ number, order,' &c.; as hora quota est ? ' what o'clock is it ?' And
quotus quisque means ' what one amongst many ;' as quotus quisque
philosophorum invenitur, ' how few philosophers there are.' The mean-
ing of totus is shown by the line of Lucretius, VI. 652 : nec tota pars
homo terrai quota totius unus. And that of quotuscunque by the line
of Tibullus, II. El. ult. ad fin.: moverit e votis pars quotacunque deos.
 CHAPTER IV.

VERBS.

§ 1. Regular Verbs.

70 A REGULAR verb is that which may be inflected through

all its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, persons , participles, gerunds,
and supines.

(a) Voices.

There are two voices , the active, in -o (with the exception of

sum, ' I am ;' inquam , ' I say ') , which means that the subject or
nominative does something ; the passive, in -or, which expresses
that the subject or nominative suffers something, or has something
done to him, her, or it, and so becomes an object ; thus, amo, ' I am
loving ' some object- i.e. I am the subject of love ; amor, ' I am
loved,' or some one loves me-i.e. I am the object of love. If the
action of a verb is confined to itself, it is called intransitive ; if it
passes on to something else, it is called a transitive verb. Thus
curro, I am running,' caleo, ' I am warm,' sto, ' I stand,' are
intransitive verbs ; but amo, ' I love, ' scribo, ' I write, ' are transi-
tive verbs, because they generally imply and require some object
expressed in the accusative to which the action immediately passes,
as amo Deum, ' I love God, ' scribo epistolam , ' I write a letter.'
If a verb is active in form, but intransitive in sense and usage, it is
called neuter, that is, neither active nor passive ; if it is transitive
in sense and usage, but passive in form , it is called deponent ( ' lay-
ing aside,' from depono, because it lays aside its active form) ; and
while the neuter verb is never used in a passive form, except when
it is impersonal, the deponent verb has no active form, except in a
few cases where both forms are used with the same signification .
Thus curro, ' I run, ' is a neuter verb ; for though its form is active,
D. L. G. 6
82 VERBS .

and though it denotes an action, it is intransitive in sense and

usage, and it cannot have a passive form except in the impersonal
construction, as curritur a me, ' it is run by me ' (below, 100) . On
the other hand, hortor, I exhort,' is deponent, for it is essentially
transitive, and has not, by the nature of the case, any form to
express a passive signification.

Obs. A transitive verb may be used intransitively ; thus we may

say absolutely amo, ' I am in love,' as well as amo te, I love thee ;'
and conversely an intransitive verb may have a transitive usage ; thus
we may say excedo modum, ' I exceed bounds,' as well as absolutely
excedo, I go forth.'

(b) Moods.

There are four moods or ways (modi) in which an action or

circumstance may be stated :

A. The indicative, which declares a fact, as puer scribit, ' the

boy is writing.'

B. The imperative, which gives a command, as scribe, ' write !'

C. The subjunctive, which states a wish or possibility, as scribat

puer, may the boy write !' or, the boy may write.'

D. The infinitive, by which the mere action or circumstance is

described in a general and indefinite manner, as scribere,
' to write,' or ' writing. '

(c) Tenses .
There are five tenses or times (tempora) in the indicative and
subjunctive :

I. The present, which indicates that the action is going on at

the time of speaking, as amo, ' I am loving.'

II. The imperfect, which indicates that the action was going on
at a time specified, as amabam , ' I was loving ' at some
particular time.

III . The perfect, which declares that the action is past and
gone now, as scripsi, ' I have written, ' or ' I wrote.'
Obs. There are three forms of the perfect active, which do not,
however, differ in signification : (a) reduplicated, as do, de-di ; (b) aorist
in -si, as scribo, scrip-si; (c) composite, in -vi or -ui from fui, as ama-vi
for ama-fui.
 VERBS. 83

IV. The pluperfect, which speaks of an action done and ended

at some specified time now past, as scripseram, ‘ I had
written' at some specified time.

V. The future, which indicates some action as coming or about

to be, as amabo, ' I shall love.'

(d) Numbers and Persons.

In every one of these tenses there are two numbers, singular

and plural ; and in each number three persons, corresponding to
the personal and indicative pronouns : (1 ) ego, nos ; (2) tu, vos;
(3) hic, hi, iste, isti, ille, illi. The regular forms of the person-
endings in the active singular are : ( 1 ) -m, ( 2) -s , (3 ) -t ; plural :
(1) -mus, (2) -tis, (3 ) -nt. Thus we have, sing. ( 1 ) diceba-m, (2)
diceba-s, (3) diceba-t ; plur. (1 ) diceba-mus, (2) diceba-tis, (3) diceba-
nt. There is no doubt that these affixes represent the elements of
the personal pronouns. But while they are liable to some dis-
figurement in the active, they are almost undistinguishable in the
passive verb. The -m of the first person singular is always lost in
the perfect indicative active, and in the future indicative of the first
two conjugations. It is occasionally lost in the transition from -im
to -o in the perfect subjunctive, and, with the exception of two
verbs—sum, ‘ I am,' and inquam, ' I say '-the first person of the
present indicative active always ends in -o. The second person
singular always ends in -s, except in the imperative , when it is
either omitted or written -to ; and in the perfect indicative, when it
is written -is-ti, as in amav- is-ti, scrips-is-ti; just as we have amav-
is-tis, scrips-is-tis , in the second person plural. The syllable -is- is
constantly omitted both in these inflexions of the perfect indicative of
the fourth conjugation and in the corresponding form of the perfect
infinitive in -is-se. Thus we have direxti for direx-is-ti (Virgil,
En. VI. 57) , accestis for access-is-tis (Virgil, Æn. 1. 201 ) , surrexe
for surrex-is-se (Hor. 1 Serm . IX. 73) , traxe for trax-is-se (Virg.
Æn. v. 786) . The second person plural is changed from -tis to
-te, or -tote, in the imperative ; and the third person plural of the
perfect indicative sometimes substitutes -re for -ru-nt. In the pas-
sive voice the affix of the first person singular is invariably wanting.
Thus we have not only amo-r as the passive of amo, but amaba-r as
the passive of amaba-m, and ame-r as the passive of ame-m. The
second person singular substitutes -ris, or more rarely re, for the
6-2
84 VERBS.

-s of the active, as ama-ris or ama-re for ama-s. The third person

singular and plural change -t and -nt into -tur and -ntur, as ama-
tur for ama-t, or ama-ntur for ama-nt. The first person plural sub-
stitutes -mu-r for -mu-s, as ama-mur for ama-mus ; and the second
person plural presents the peculiar form in -mini, or -minor in the
imperative, which has no relation to the active of the same person ;
thus we have ama-mini, ama-minor, by the side of ama-tis and
ama-te, ama-tote. In the perfect and pluperfect of the indica-
tive and subjunctive passive there is no regular inflexion of the verb
itself, but only a combination of the participle with the persons
of the substantive verb sum.

(e) Participles and Gerunds.

Participles, which are so called from partaking of the nature of

the noun and verb, are nominal forms, expressing the undefined
and general action of the verb, like the infinitive mood, for which
they are sometimes used. The participles are either active and pre-
sent (E. I.), as amans, amandus, amabundus, ' loving ; ' or active and
future (E. V.) , as amatūrus, ' about to love ;' or passive and past
( E. III .) , as amātus, ' loved .' The neuter of the present participle ,
under the form -ndus, is used to make oblique cases of the infini-
tive, and is then called a gerund (F.) ; as amandum, ‘ to love ; '
amandi, ' of loving ;' amando, ' in or by loving.'

Obs. 1 The active verb has no past participle ; but the deponent
verb has a present participle in -ns, and a past participle in -tus, both
of them with an active signification ; thus hortans means ' exhorting,'
and hortatus means ' having exhorted.' If we wish to express the past
participle of an active verb, for instance amo, we must say either quum
amasset, since he had loved,' i. e. ' having loved,' qui amabat or ama-
་
vit, he who loved, ' or in the ablative absolute, filio amato, his son
having been loved,' i . e. ' having loved his son.' On the other hand,
the passive verb has no present participle, and ' being loved,' for in-
stance, must be expressed by quum amaretur, ' since he was being
loved.'

Obs. 2 The participle in -ndus is not used as equivalent to the par-

ticiple in -ns, except in some few forms, as secundus sequens, ' follow-
ing (of a fair wind), ' second ' (in order) ; oriundus, rising,' ' origi-
"
nating ; and in those in -bundus, as lacryma-bundus, weeping. ' This
participial or verbal form is generally employed as a present infinitive,
with four modifications of construction.

(a) Its neuter constitutes a substantival infinitive, and is then called

a gerund, as above.
 VERBS . 85

(b) This may be made to agree with the case governed by the verb,
as consilium urbis capiendae, ' the design of taking the city ;'
and it is then an attracted infinitive, and is called a gerundive.

(c) It may be used as a direct assertion with the verb sum; as nunc
est nobis pulsanda tellus, ' now it is for us to beat the earth ;' and
it is then a predicated infinitive.

(d) It may be used as an epithet or attribute, as reges timendi,

'kings to fear,' or ' objects of fear,' and it is then an adjectival
infinitive.

In the last two cases the English idiom admits the passive infinitive
also. But we must be careful not to suppose that the Latin participle
in -ndus is ever passive, for these constructions occur in the case of
deponent verbs, which have no passive (98), as proelia conjugibus
loquenda, battles for wives to talk about.'

(f) Supines.

There are also verbals in -tus, which correspond in meaning to

the infinitive ; and these, when used in the accusative and ablative
in -tum and -tu, are called supines (G.) , and correspond in meaning
to the gerunds in -dum and -do , as amātum, ' to love ; ' amātu, ' in
or by loving.' The supine in -tum is used with iri, the infinitive
of the impersonal itur, ' things are going, ' to express the future
passive of that mood, thus audio eum monitum iri, ' I hear that
things are going to admonish him '-i.e., that he will be admo-
nished.

71 The conjugations are arrangements of verbs according to

the form of the syllable to which the terminations are appended ,
and, like the declensions, depend upon the distinctions pointed out
before ( 14). There are three vowel conjugations in -a, -e, -i,
respectively, and one consonant conjugation, to which the semi-
consonant conjugations in -i and -u are properly appended. A
vowel conjugation is known by its infinitive -āre, -ārī ; -ēre, -ēri ;
-ire, -iri; as amo, amāre, amāri; audio, audire, audiri. Consonant
and semi- consonant conjugations are distinguished by their infini-
tive in -ère, -i, as scribo, scribere, scribi; rapio, rapere, rapi.

The following scheme shows the formation of the moods, tenses,

numbers, and persons in both voices, and in all four conjugations of
the regular Latin verb :
 86

Active
. Passive
.
Indicativ
. e Subjuncti
. ve
Conju
I. gatioII Indicative
. Subjunctive
.
.n III
. .
IV I. II
. III
. .IV
Sing I. II
. .
III .
IV I. .II III
. .
IV
I. .-0 -eo -io -0 -em -iam
-eam -am -or -ior
-eor -or -er -ear -iar
2. -as -ěs -is -Is -ias -ar
-es -eas -as -āris -ēris -iris -ĕris -ēris -eāris -iāris -āris
3. -at -et -it -it -et -eat -iat -at -ātur
-ētur
-itur -Itur -ētur
-eātur -iātur
-ātur
.1Plur -āmus -ēmus -imus -Imus -ēmus -eāmus -iāmus -āmus -āmur
-Imur
-imur
-ēmur
-emur
-eamur -iamu
-ātis -amurr

Present.
2. -ētis -ītis -Itis -ētis -eātis -iātis -ātis -amin i
-ēmin
-Imin
-eāmi
-īminiini -iamini
-āmini
-ant
3. -ent -iunt
-unt -ent
-eant -iant -ant -antu
-untu
-iuntur
-entu rr -iantur
-eantur
-antur
Sing
.
-abam
-ebam
-iebam
1.ebam
-ārem
-irem
-ērem -ěrema- e- ie- b-ear ā- ē- r-ĕer
.2 -abas -ebas -iebas
-ebas -āres
-ĕres
-ires
-ēres -baris
.3 -abat -iebat
-ebat -reris
-āret
-iret
-ēret
-ĕret -batur
Plur
I. . -abam
-ieba
-ebam
-ārēm us
mus -retur
-īrēm
-ērēmus
-ĕrēm us
us -bamur
-abati
-ebati
-iebat
2.
-ārēti
-ērēti s
is
s -remur
-irēti

Imperfect.
-ĕrētisss
VERBS .

-aban
3.
-eban -bamini -remini
-ieban
-eban
-arentttt
-ērent
-irent
-ĕrent -bantur -rentur

Sing
1. -, eri
-er om -tus
,&
.s
c um .,&
c im
s-tus
2. -isti -eris
-it es sis
.
3 -erit
Pl est sit
I. . ur -Imus -erimus sumus simus

Perfect.
2. -istis -eritis estis sitis
3. -ērunt
,-ēre -erint
,-erunt sunt sint
 Active
. .
Passive
.
Indicative Subjunctive
. .
Indicative .Subjunctive
I.
Conjugation IV
. I. .
.IIIII IV I. .
II .IV
III I. II
. III
. IV
.
II
. .
III
-issem .c&
, s
-tu eram .c&
,
-tus essem
Sing
.I. -eram
-isses eras esses
2. -eras
-erat -isset erat esset
.
3
Plur
I. . -issemus eramus essemus
-eramus essetis
-eratis -issetis eratis
2.
-erant -issent erant essent
3.
Conjugations
I. II
. .
III IV
. .
II
I. .
III .IV I. .
II .
III IV
.
-bo sc.,&im
-turus -bor -ar wanting
.
.1Sing -am
-bis -ēs sis -bĕris -ēris
2.
-bit -et sit -bitur -ētur
3.
Plur
I. . -bimus -ēmus simus -bimur -ēmur
-bitis -ētis sitis -bimini -emini
2.
-bunt -ent sint -buntur -entur
VERBS .

3.
.
Imperative
Conjugations
I. .
II .
III IV
. I. .
II .III IV
.
.2
Sing -, ēto
-ē , ito
--i , ĭto
--ě -, ātor
-āre -, ētor
-ēre , itor
--ire , Itor
--ĕre
-, āto
-ā
-ēto -ito -Ito -ātor -ētor -itor -Itor
-ā
3. to
-āte
,.2.ātōte
-Plur ,-ētōte
-ětě --ite
, itōte , Itōte
--Ite Iminor
,-Imini
iminor
--imini
ēminor
-ēmini
āminor
-amini
-ento -Yunto -unto -antor -entor -iuntor -untor
.
3 -anto
Infinitive
.
I.
Conjugations .
II .
III .IV I. II
. III
. .IV
Present-āre -ēre -ire -ĕre -ari -ēri -iri -i
Perfect -isse -tus
c.esse
,&
Future .,&
csse
e-turum iri
-tum
87
88 VERBS.

Active. Passive.
Participles.
Conjugations I. II. III. IV. I. II. III. IV.
Present -ans, ens, -iens, -ens wanting.
Perfect wanting. -tus, &c.
Future -turus, &c. wanting.

It will be remarked in the scheme, which is here given, that

(1) in the tenses the imperfect and future may be formed from the
present, the pluperfect from the perfect ; (2) that the subjunctive
mood may be formed from the corresponding tenses of the indica-
tive ; and the indicative and imperative from the infinitive ; and
(3) that the passive voice may be formed from the active. Thus,
(1) from the present amo- ama-o we get imp. ama-bam, fut. ama-bo ;
from mone-o we get mone-bam and mone-bo ; from audi-o we get
audi-ebam and audi-am ; from reg-o we get reg-ebam and reg-am;
from the perf. amav-i we have the plup. amav-eram ; from monu-i,
monu-eram ; from audiv-i, audiv-eram ; from scrips-i, scrips-eram :
(2) from the present indic. am-o, mone-o, audi-o, scrib-o are formed
the pres . subj . am-em, mone-am, audi-am, scrib-am ; from the imp.
indic. ama-bam, mone-bam, audi-ebam, scrib-ebam are formed the
imp. subj. ama-rem, mone-rem, audi-rem, scrib-erem ; from the perf.
ind. amav-i, monu-i, audiv-i, scrips-i, the perf. subj . amav-erim,
monu-erim, audiv-erim, scrips-erim ; from the plup . ind. amav-
eram, monu-eram, audiv-eram, scrips-eram, the plup . subj . amav-
issem, monu-issem, audiv-issem, scrips-issem ; from the infin. ama-
re, mone-re, audi-re, scrib-ere, we have the indic. and imper. ama-
o=amo, ama ; mone-o, mone ; audi-o, audi; scrib-o, scrib-e : (3)
from the active amo, amaba-m, ama-bo, the pass. amo-r, amaba-r,
amabo-r ; and similarly in the other conjugations.

Obs. In this mode of forming the tenses &c. of the verb attention
is paid only to the convenience of the learner. Theoretically the forma-
tion of the Latin verb is a question of considerable difficulty. It is pro-
bable that the forms in -bam, -bo, like those in -vi or -ui, are compounded
with the verb of existence fu-. The changes within this verb itself, and
in the tenses of other verbs which do not involve it, are effected by an
insertion of the letters 8 and i, either separately or combined, the
former being turned into r between two vowels, but resuming its form
when reduplicated or thrown back on another consonant. Thus from
fui we have fue-ram for fue-sam ; from amo ama-o we have amem =
ama-iam; from mone-o we have mone-am = mone-iam; from audi-o we
have audi-am audi-iam ; from scrib-o we have scrib-am = scrib-iam.
Then again from amem = ama-iam we have ama-r-em = ama-s-iam ; from
scrib-am = scrib-iam we have scrib-e-r-em = scrib-e-s-iam ; from fui we
 VERBS . 89

have fue-rim = fue-siam; and from this again fuissem fue-se-siam. As

we have an omission of the syllable is in direxti for direx-is-ti, and
surrexe for surrex-is-se, so we may have an omission of the syllable
eres in the perfect subjunctive. Thus for jusserim jus-se-sim, we
have jussim (Plaut. Rud. 1248) ; for aus-erim aus-se-sim always ausim
or aussim (Plaut. Bacch. 1056) ; for faxerim = fac-se-sim (which is obso-
lete) we have faxim ; for dixeris dix-se-sis we have dixis (Plaut. Aul.
Iv. 10. 14) ; and so in the pluperfect for intellexissem we have intellexem
(Plaut. Cist. 11. 3. 81 ) ; for extinxissem we have extinxem (Virg. Æn. IV.
606); for erepsissemus we have erepsemus (Hor . 1 Sat. v. 79). The forms
in -asso, assim from verbs of the first conjugation, as servasso (Plaut.
Most. 228), negassim (Asin. 503), seem, from the infinitives in -assere, as
expugnassere (Plaut. Amph. 1. 1. 55) to be agglutinate forms compounded
with sino (see below, 97, a). Perhaps prohibessis (Plaut. Aul. IV. 2. 4)
belongs to this class.

§ 2. The Substantive ' Verb, or Verb ofbeing.

SUM, 'I am.'

72 All the conjugations make some use of the verb sum,

which is thus inflected :

A. (Indicative Mood.)
I. (Present Tense.)
Singular. Plural.
1 . sum, I am sumus, we are
thou art
2. ěs, estis, ye are
you are
3. est, he is sunt, they are.

II. (Imperfect.)
1. ĕram , I was ĕrāmus , we were
thou wert
2. ĕras, ĕrātis, ye were
you were
3. ĕrăt, he was ĕrant, they were.

III. ( Perfect.)
1. fui, I have been fuimus , we have been
thou hast been
2. fuisti, you have been fuistis, ye have been

fuerunt,
3. fuit, he has been or they have been.
fuere,

1 This name is derived from substantia, by which the school-doctors translated

ovala, ' essence, ' ' being.'
90 VERBS .

IV. (Pluperfect.)

Singular. Plural.
1. fueram, I had been fuerāmus, we had been
thou hadst been
2. fueras , fueratis, ye had been
youu had been
{yo
3. fuerat, he had been fuerant, they had been.

V. (Future. )

1. ĕro, I shall be erimus, we shall be

( thou wilt be
2. čris, ĕritis, ye will be
you will be
3. ĕrit, he will be erunt, they will be.

B. (Imperative Mood.)

2. és, esto, be thou este, estōte, be ye

3. esto, be he, or let him be sunto, be they, or let them be.

C. (Subjunctive Mood.)

I. (Present Tense.)

1. sim ( siem, fuam, obsol.), } simus , we may be

I may be
thou mayst be
2. sis, sitis, ye may be
maybe
you may
3. sit, he may be sint, they may be.

II. (Imperfect.)

Singular.
1. essem, forem, I might be
(thou mightest be
2. esses, fores,
(you might be
3. esset, foret, he might be

Plural.

1. essēmus, forēmus, we might be

2. essētis, forētis, ye might be
3. essent, forent, they might be.
 VERBS. 91

III. (Perfect.)

Singular.
1. fuero, fuerim, I shall or may have been
2. fueris, (thou wilt or mayst have been
you will or may have been
3. fuerit, he will or may have been
Plural.

1. fuerimus', we shall or may have been

2. fueritis' , ye will or may have been
3. fuerint, they will or may have been .

IV. (Pluperfect.)

Singular.
1. fuissem, I should or might have been
(thou wouldest or mightest have been
2. fuisses, you would or might have been
3. fuisset, he would or might have been
Plural.
1. fuissemus, we should or might have been
2. fuissetis, ye would or might have been
3. fuissent, they would or might have been.

V. (Future.)

Singular.
1. futūrus sim, I may be about to be
2. futūrus sis, (thou mayst be about to be
(you may be about to be
3. futurus sit, he may be about to be

Plural.
1. futūri sīmus, we may be about to be
2. futūri sītis, ye may be about to be
3. futūri sint, they may be about to be.

As futurus is a participle, it will , according to the syntax , alter

with the gender of the nominative to the verb.

1 The quantity of -rimus and -ritis in this tense has been a cause of dispute to the
old grammarians. Usage and philological reasoning are in favour of the long i. See
Varronianus, p. 433, Ed. 3.
92 VERBS.

D. (Infinitive Mood.)
I. (Present.) III. ( Perfect.)
esse, to be fuisse, to have been.

V. (Future.)
fore vel futurum esse, to be about to be.

The present participle sens, occurs only in some compounds :

as ab-sens, ' being away or at a distance, ' from ab-sum.
The future participle is futurus, ' about to be.'

§3. Vowel Conjugations.

73 The vowel conjugations contain contracted verbs only, and

are known by the long ā, ē , and i respectively of the infinitive ;
thus we have ămāre for ama-ĕre, monere for mone-ĕre, and audire
for audi-ère. Hence we see that the irregular do, das, dedi, dăre,
dătum does not belong entirely to the vowel verbs, but partly also
to the same class as its compounds : condo, condis, condidi, con-
dere; trado, tradis, tradidi, tradere; &c. And similarly we dis-
tinguish from this class the semi-consonant verbs in -io, as fug-io,
fugis, fugi, fugère; rapio, rap-is, rapui, rapĕre; &c.

First or a Conjugation.
74 Active voice : amo, ' I love ' or ' am loving.'

A.
1. I (thou or you, he, &c. ) ' love, ' ' do love ' or ' am loving.'
Singular. Plural.
1. ǎmo ǎmāmus
2. ǎmās ǎmātis
3. ămăt ǎmant.

II. I (&c.) ' did love ' or ' was loving.'

1. ǎmābam ǎmābāmus
2. ǎmābas ǎmābātis
3. ǎmābat ǎmābant.

III. I (&c.) ' loved ' or ' have loved.'

1. ǎmāvi ǎmāvimus
2. ǎmāvisti ǎmāvistis
3. ǎmāvit ǎmāvērunt v. ǎmāvērě.
 93
VERBS .

IV. I (&c.) 6 had loved .'

Plural.
Singular.
1. ǎmāvĕram ǎmāvērāmus
2. ǎmāvērās ǎmāvērātis
3. ǎmāvěrat ămăvĕrant.

v. I (&c .) ' shall ' or ' will love .'

1. ǎmābo ǎmābimus
2. ǎmābis ǎmābītis
3. ǎmābit ǎmābunt.

B. Love thou,' (&c. )

2. ǎmā, ǎmāto ǎmāte , ǎmātōte

3. ǎmāto ǎmanto.

C.

I. I (&c.) ' may love .'

1. ǎmem ǎmēmus
2. ǎmēs ǎmētis
3. ǎmět ǎment.

II. I (&c.) might love.'

1. ǎmārem ǎmārēmus
2. ǎmārēs ǎmārētis
3. ǎmārět ǎmārent .

III. I (&c.) ' shall ' or ' may have loved .'

1. ǎmāvēro , ǎmāvĕrim ǎmāvērīmus

2. ǎmāvēris ǎmāvērītis

3. ǎmāvĕrit ămăvĕrint..

IV. I (&c.) ' should ' or ' might have loved .'

ǎmāvissem ǎmāvissēmus
1.
2. ǎmāvisses ǎmāvissētis

3. ǎmāvisset ǎmāvissent.

v. I (&c.) ( may be about to love .'

Hai

1. ǎmātūrus , -a , -um, sim ǎmātūri , -æ, -a , simus

aj

sis sitis
2.
sit sint.
3.
94 VERBS .

D.
I. ' to love.'
ǎmāre

III. to have loved .'

ǎmāvisse

V. 'to be about to love.'

amaturum, -am , -um, esse v. fore.

E.

I. amans, ' loving. ' V. ǎmātūrus, ' about to love.'

F. G.
amandum, ' to love." amatum , ' to love.'
amandi, ' of loving.'
amando, ' in ' or ' by loving. ' amatu, ' in ' or ' by loving.'

75 Passive voice : amor, ' I am being loved .'

A.

1. I (&c.) ' am loved ' or ' being loved .'

Singular. Plural.
1. ǎmor ǎmāmur
2. ămāris v. ǎmāre amāmīni
3. ǎmātur ământur.

II. I (&c.) was being loved.'

1. ǎmābar ǎmābāmur
2. ǎmābāris v. ǎmabāre ǎmābāmīni
ai
—a

3. ǎmābātur ǎmābantur.

III. I (&c.) ' was, have been loved.'

Singular.
1. ămātus, -a , -um, sum v. fui¹
2. es v. fuisti
3. est v. fuit

1 The auxiliary fui is rarely, if ever, used by good authors to form the perfect
passive, and the same remark applies to facram.
 VERBS . 95

Plural.
1. ǎmāti , -æ, -a, sumus v. fuimus
2. estis v. fuistis
3. sunt, fuerunt v. -ēre.

IV. I (&c.) had been loved .'

Singular.
Hai

1. ămātus , -a , -um , eram v. fuĕram

2. eras v. fuĕras
3. erat v. fuěrat

Plural.
1. ǎmāti, -æ, -a , ērāmus v . fuĕrāmus
2. ĕrātis v . fuĕrātis
3. ĕrant v. fuerant.

v. I (&c.) ' shall , will be loved .'

Singular. Plural.
1. ǎmābor ǎmābimur
2. ǎmābĕris v . ǎmābĕre ǎmābimini
3. ǎmābitur āmābuntur.

B. ' be thou (&c. ) loved. '

2. ǎmārě, amator ămāminī, ǎmāminor

3. ǎmātor ǎmantor.

C.

1. I (&c. ) ' may be loved.'

1. ǎmer ǎmēmur
2. ǎmēris v . ǎmēre ǎmēmini
3. ǎmētur ǎmentur.

II. I (&c. ) ' might be loved .'

1. ǎmārer ǎmārēmur
2. ǎmārēris v . -ēre ǎmārēmini
3. ǎmārētur ǎmarentur.
96 VERBS.

III. I (&c.) ' shall ' or ' may have been loved.'

Singular.
1. ămātus , -a, -um, sim, fuero, fuerim
2. sis, fueris
3. sit, fuerit
Plural.
1. ǎmāti, -æ, -a, sīmus, fuerimus
co
ai
i

2. sītis , fuĕrītis
3. sint, fuerint.

IV. I (&c.) ' should ' or ' might have been loved.'

Singular.
Hoi

1. ǎmātus, -a, -um, essem, fuissem

aj

2. esses , fuisses
3. esset, fuisset

Plural.
Hai

1. ǎmāti, -æ, -a, essēmus, fuissēmus

a

2. essētis , fuissētis
3. essent , fuissent .

D.

I. 'to be loved.'

amāri (obsol. amarier) .

III. 'to have been loved.' v. 'to be about to be loved.'
ǎmātum esse v . fuisse amātum īri

E.

III. ǎmātus , ' loved.'

76 Remarks on the -a Conjugation .

(1) Perfect. (a) It has been already mentioned (above, 70 ,

(c) III. Obs.) that there are three forms of the perfect active in
Latin : (a) the proper or reduplicated perfect ; (B) the aorist-perfect
in si; (7) the composite perfect, which adds -vi or -ui, for fui. In
this composite tense the v may be dropt when avi is followed by st
or ave by r; thus we have amavisti, amásti ; amavissem, amâssem ;
amavisse, amâsse ; amaveram, amâram ; amavero , amâro ; amavêrunt,
amârunt ; but not amâre for amavere, lest there should be a confu-
 VERBS . 97

sion with the infinitive. The only verbs of the -a conjugation,

which take the proper perfect, are do and sto, which have for their
perfects dědi and stěti. Do, which is otherwise irregular, and of
which an older form dano is still in existence (e. g. Plautus, Most.
III. 1. 34. Pseud. III . 1. 1 ) , exhibits the following forms : A. I. do,
das, dat, dămus, dătis, dant, II . dăbam , v. dăbo , B. da, dăto, C. 1.
dem, des, det, demus, dētis, dent, II. dărem, D. dăre, supine dătum.

(b) All other -a verbs take the composite perfect from fui,
which is written -vi if the a of the root is retained , and -ui if the a
is elided ; and the v is absorbed or represented only by a lengthen-
ing of the first vowel of the verb, if in the latter case it comes in
contact with another v (below, (d) ) . In the pluperfect, -ave- or
-avi- may be contracted into á ; as amârat, amâsset, for amaverat,
amavisset.
(c) The following are the only verbs which elide the charac-
<
teristic -a : crěpo, crepui,
rattle ; ' cubo, cubui, ' lie ; ' dõmo, domui,
' tame ;' frico, fricui, ' rub ; ' mico, micui, ' move rapidly ;' něco,
necui, ' kill ; ' plico, plicui, ' fold ; ' sěco , secui, ' cut ; ' sono, sonui,
'sound ;' tono, tonui, ' thunder ; ' věto, vetui, forbid ; ' and their
compounds. In some of these verbs the a is occasionally retained
in the perfect. Thus applico, complico, implico have also the per-
fects applicavi, &c. The simple verb neco has generally the perfect
necavi, though its compounds, as eneco, enecai, most frequently
omit the characteristic. The only compound of mico, which retains
the form in -avi, is dimico, ' I fight.'

(d) In the verbs juvo, ' I assist ; ' lavo, ' I wash, ' the affix of
the perfect is represented only by a lengthening of the root sylla-
ble ; thus we have jūvi for juv-ui and lāvi for lăv-ui. In old
Latin (e. g. in Ennius, ap. Cic. Cat. Maj. init.) , we have a double
omission of the v of the juvo, for in adjuro for adjuvero we have
lost both the v of the perfect and the v of the root.
(e) Verbs derived from adjectives in plex, as duplico from
duplex, and supplico from supplex, must be carefully distinguished
from the compounds of plico. These verbs always retain their
characteristic in the perfect, which is duplicavi, supplicavi, &c.
(2) Supine and passive participle. Verbs, which omit the
characteristic a in the perfect, generally omit it in the supines, or
rather substitute for it a short . Thus cubo makes cubitum , domo,
domitum, plico, plicitum, &c. But the compounds of plico some-
D. L. G. 7
98 VERBS.

times retain a in the supine as they do in the perfect ; thus we have

applicatum, complicatum, explicatum as well as applicitum, &c.
Frico, neco, and seco omit even the i, and their supines are frictum,
nectum, sectum, though fricatum, necatum also occur. The same is
the case with juvo, jūvi, jūtum ; lăvo, lāvi, lautum or lōtum. Pōto,
although it has a regular perfect, has both potatum and potum in
the supine, and its participle is potus, which means both being
drunk' and ' having drunk.' Mico has no supine, and its com-
pounds always retain the characteristic in the supine ; as emicātum,
dimicātum .

Second or -e Conjugation .

77 Active voice : moneo , ' I put in mind . '

A.

I. ' I (&c.) am putting in mind.'

Singular. Plural.
1. moneo monēmus
-ல்ஸ்

2. monēs monētis
3. monet monent.

II. ' I (&c.) was putting in mind .'

1. monēbam monēbāmus
2. monēbas monēbātis
3. monēbat monebant.

III. ' I (&c.) have put in mind.'

1. monui monuimus
2. monuisti monuistis
3. monuit monuērunt v. monuēre.

IV. 'I (&c.) had put in mind.'

1. monuĕram monuerāmus
2. monuĕras monuerātis
3. monuĕrat monuĕrant.

v. ' I (&c.) shall ' or ' will put in mind.'

1. monēbo monebimus
2. monēbis monēbītis
3. monēbit monebunt.
 VERBS. 99

B. Put thou (&c.) in mind. '

Singular. Plural.
2. monē, monēto monēte, monētōte
3. monēto monento.

C.

I. ' I (&c.) may put in mind.'

1. moneam moneamus
12i

2. moneas moneātis
a

3. moneat moneant.

II. 'I (&c.) might put in mind.'

1. monērem monērēmus
2. monēres monērētis
3. moneret monērent.

III. ' I (&c.) shall ' or ' may have put in mind. '
1. monuĕro, monuĕrim monuĕrimus
2. monueris monuĕrītis
3. monuerit monuerunt.

IV. ' I (&c.) should' or ' might have put in mind. '
1. monuissem monuissēmus
2. monuisses monuissētis
3. monuisset monuissent.

v. ' I (&c.) may be about to put in mind.'

1. monitūrus, -a, -um, sim monitūri, -æ, -a, sīmus
2. sis sītis
3. sit sint.

D.

I. monere, ' to put in mind." v. moniturum esse v. fore, ' to

III. monuisse, ' to have put in be about to put in mind.'
mind.'

E.
I. monens, ' putting in mind . ' v. monitūrus, ' about to put
in mind .'
7-2
100 VERBS .

F. G

monendum, ' to put in mind.' monitum, ' to put in mind.'

monendi, ' of putting in mind.'
monendo, in or by putting in monitu, ' in or by putting in
mind' mind.'

78 Passive voice : moneor, I am being put in mind. '

A.

I. 'I (&c.) am being put in mind.'

Singular. Plural.
1. moneor monēmur
2. monēris v. monēre monemini
3. monētur monentur.

II. ' I (&c. ) was being put in mind.'

1. monēbar monēbāmur
2. monēbāris v. monēbāre monēbāmĭni
3. monēbātur monebantur.

III. ' I (&c.) have been put in mind. '

Hai

1. monitus, -a, -um, sum monĭti , -æ, -a, sumus

2. es estis
3. est sunt.

IV. ' I (&c.) had been put in mind.'

1. monitus, -a, -um, eram monĭti, -æ, -a, eramus

2. eras eratis
3. erat erant.

·
v. 'I (& c.) shall ' or will be put in mind.'
1. monebor monebimur
2. monēbĕris (-e) monebimini
3. monēbītur monebuntur.

B. Be thou (&c.) put in mind . '

2. monere, monētor monēmini , monēminor

3. monētor monentor.
 VERBS. 101

C.

I. 'I (&c.) may be put in mind.'

Plural.
Singular.
1. monear moneamur
moneämini
2. moneāris (-e)
3. moneātur moneantur.

II. ' I (&c .) might be put in mind .'

1. monerer monērēmur
monērēmĭni
2. monērēris (-e)
3. monērētur monerentur.

III. ' I (&c.) shall ' or ' may have been put in mind.'

Singular.
1. monĭtus, -a , -um, sim, fuĕro , fuĕrim
2. sis, fuĕris
3. sit, fuĕrit

Plural.
-லீஸ்

1. moniti , -æ, -a, simus , fuerimus

2. sītis, fuĕrītis
3. sint, fuĕrint.

IV. ' I (&c.) should ' or ' might have been put in mind.'

Singular.
1. monitus , -a, -um, essem, fuissem
1

2. esses , fuisses
3. esset, fuisset

Plural.
1. moniti, -æ , -a, essēmus , fuissēmus
2. essētis , fuissētis
3. essent, fuissent .

D.

1. monēri (obs . monerier ) ' to be put in mind.' III. monitum ,

-am, -um, esse, ' to have been put in mind. ' v. monitum iri, ' to
be about to be put in mind.' E. III. monitus , ' put in mind.'
102 VERBS.

79 Remarks on the -e Conjugation.

(1) Perfect. (a) The only verbs of this conjugation , which

take the proper or reduplicated perfect, are mordeo, I bite,'
momordi; pendeo, ' I am hanging, ' pependi ; tondeo, ‘ I shear,' to-
tondi; spondeo, ' I promise , ' spopondi.
(b) Most of the -e verbs elide this characteristic in the perfect,
and take the composite form (y) in -ui, as mon-eo, mon-ui, hab-eo,
hab-ui.

(c) The only verbs , which form the perfect in ē- vi, are deleo,
' I destroy,' delēvi ; fleo, ' I weep ,' flēvi; neo, ' I spin, ' nēvi; the
compounds of oleo, ' I grow, ' as ab-oleo, ab-olēvi, ad-oleo, ad-olēvi;
the compounds of pleo, ' I fill, ' as compleo, complēvi, impleo, im-
plēvi; and vieo, ' I bind with twigs, ' vievi. This form of the perfect
may lose its v, like the perfect in -avi of the first conjugation ; thus
we have nevisti, nêsti, neverunt, nérunt ; complevissem, complês-
sem ; &c.

(d) Some of the verbs which omit the characteristic -e take

the aorist-perfect in -si, (B) , which , as we shall see , is the usual
form with consonant-verbs. The only labial verb which exhibits this
perfect alone is jubeo , which has jussi for jub-si; but sorbeo may
have sorpsi, as well as its more common perfect sorbui. The fol-
lowing guttural verbs have the perfect in -si, which, in combina-
tion with the preceding letter, becomes -xi: augeo, ' I increase,'
6
auxi; frigeo, ' I freeze,' frixi ; luceo, I shine, ' luxi ; lugeo, ‘ I be-
wail,' luxi; to which must be added conniveo for conniqueo, ' I
wink,' connixi, also connīvi, as in caveo mentioned below.
(e) If the liquid l or r precedes the guttural, this characteristic
is omitted before si: as in algeo, I am cold , ' alsi ; fulgeo, ' I
shine,' fulsi; indulgeo, ' I indulge ,' indulsi ; mulceo, ' I soothe ,'
mulsi; mulgeo, ' I milk, ' mulsi ; tergeo, ‘ I wipe , ' tersi ; torqueo, ‘ I
twist, ' torsi; turgeo, ' I swell , ' tursi; urgeo, I press , ' ursi.
(f) When a dental precedes the -e, it is omitted before -si, as
in ardeo, ' I burn,' arsi; rideo, ' I laugh, ' risi ; suadeo, ‘ I advise, '
suasi.

(g) The same rule applies to the r of haereo, ' I stick,' perf.
haesi; but maneo, I remain, ' makes mansi.

(h) Sedeo, I sit, ' video, ' I see, ' merely add i and lengthen
the first syllable, the perfects being sēdi, vidi ; and the same ab-
 VERBS. 103

sorption has really taken place in prandeo, ' I dine,' perf. prandi;
strideo, ' I hiss, ' perf. stridi; where the root-vowel is already long
by position or by nature.

(i) The same is generally the case when the root ends with v ;
thus we have caveo, I take care, ' cavi ; faveo, ' I am favourable,'
favi; foveo, ' I make warm, cherish, ' fovi ; moveo, ' I move , ' mōvi;
paveo, ' I dread,' pāvi; voveo, ‘ I vow, ' vōvi. The compounds of
movi sometimes syncopate vi- , as in commôssem for commovissem.
But ferveo, ' I glow, ' makes fervui as well as fervi, and conniveo, as
we have seen, makes connixi as well as connivi.

(2) Supine and passive participle. The characteristic -e is

retained only in those verbs which exhibit it in the perfect ; as
deleo, delēvi, delētum : even in one of these it is elided ; for we have
adoleo, adolēvi, adultum, and another compound of oleo, namely,
aboleo, has abolitum, substituting a short i for the ē, which is
generally the case in verbs which form the perfect in -ui; thus we
have moneo, monui, monitum ; habeo, habui, habitum , &c. The
deponent tueor, ' I protect, ' sometimes forms its participle tutus as
well as tuitus, and the shorter form is always adopted, when the
participle is used as an adjective, and tutus, ' protected , ' means
เ
safe.' Guttural verbs often form the supine and participle passive
in ct; thus, from augeo, doceo, lugeo, we have auctus, doctus, luctus.
If or precedes the guttural, the latter is omitted and the t
changed into s; thus, from mulceo, ' I soothe, ' mulgeo , ‘ I milk, '
tergeo, ' I wipe, ' we have mulsus and tersus. But the t is retained
in indulgeo and torqueo, which make indultus and tortus. All other
verbs of this kind want the supine and passive participle. Misceo,
' I mix,' makes both mistus and mixtus. Ardeo, fateor, mordeo,
pendeo, sedeo, suadeo , video, have for their supines, arsum, fassum,
morsum, pensum, sessum, suasum, visum. Teneo gives tentum, mise-
reor both misertus and miseritus, torreo, tostum ; caveo, moveo, voveo,
give cautum, mōtum, vōtum; censeo has censum, but recenseo makes
recensĭtum as well as recensum. Haereo has only haesum, maneo,
mansum, and jubeo, jussum. Cieo, ' to stir up, ' makes citum, to be
distinguished from the synonymous citum, which belongs to cio.
The deponent reor, I think, ' has the irregular form ratus , whence
ratio; but the compound ir-ritus = non ratus, not ratified,' ' of
no effect,' follows the model of monitus.
104 VERBS .

Third or -i Conjugation.

80 Active voice : audio, ' I hear.'

A.

1. ' I (&c.) am hearing.'

Singular. Plural.
1. audio audīmus
2. audis audītis
∞i
-
a

3. audit audiunt.

II. ' I (&c.) was hearing.'

1. audiēbam audiēbāmus
2. audiēbas audiēbātis
3. audiebat audiebant.

III. 'I (&c.) have heard.'

1. audivi audivimus
2. audīvisti audīvistis
3. audivit audīvērunt v. audīvēre.

IV. ' I (&c.) had heard.'

1. audiveram audiverāmus
2. audiveras audīverātis
3. audiverat audīverant.

v. ' I (&c.) shall hear.'

1. audiam audiēmus
2. audies audiētis
3. audiet audient.

B. " Hear thou

,' (&c. )

2. audi, audito audīte , audītōte

3. audito audiunto.

C.

I. 'I (&c.) may hear.'

1. audiam audiamus
2. audias audiātis
3. audiat audiant.
 VERBS. 105

II. ' I (&c.) might hear.'

Singular. Plural.
1. audirem audīrēmus
2. audires audīrētis
3. audiret audirent.

III. ' I (&c.) shall or may have heard.'

1. audivĕro, audiverim audivĕrimus
2. audīvĕris audiverītis
3. audiverit audīvĕrint.

IV. ' I (&c.) should ' or ' might have heard.'

1. audivissem audīvissēmus
2. audivisses audīvissētis
3. audivisset audīvissent.

v. ' I (&c. ) may be about to hear.'

1. audītūrus, -a, -um, sim audītūri, -æ, -a, simus

2. sis sitis
ai
aj
-

3. sit sint.

D.

1. audire, ' to hear." III. audivisse , ' to have heard.'

"
v. auditurum esse v. fore, to be about to hear.'

E.

I. audiens, hearing.' v. auditūrus, ' about to hear.'

F. G.
audiendum, ' to hear' auditum , ' to hear'
audiendi, ' of hearing'
audiendo, ' in or by hearing ' audītu, ' in or by hearing.'

81 Passive voice : audior, ' I am being heard. '

A.

I. ' I (&c.) am being heard.'

1. audior audimur
2. audīris (-e) audīmini
3. auditur audiuntur.
106 VERBS.

II. ' I (&c.) was being heard.'

Plural.
Singular.
1. audiebar audiebāmur
2. audiēbāris (-e) audiēbāmini
3. audiēbātur audiebantur.

III. ' I (&c.) have been heard.'

1. audītus, -a, -um, sum audīti , -æ, -a, sumus

2. es estis
3. est sunt.

IV. ' I (&c.) had been heard.'

1. audītus, -a, -um, eram audīti, -æ, -a, erāmus
2. eras erātis
3. erat erant.

v. ' I (&c .) shall be heard. '

1. audiar audiēmur
2. audiēris (-e) audiēmīni
3. audiētur audientur.

B. ' Be (&c.) thou heard. '

2. audire, auditor audīmini , audīminor
3. auditor audiuntor.

C.

1. ' I (&c.) may be heard.'

1. audiar audiāmur
2. audiāris (-e) audiămîni
3. audiatur audiantur.

11. ' I (&c.) might be heard .'

1. audirer audīrēmur
2. audīrēris (-e) audīrēmini
3. audīrētur audirentur.

III. ' I (&c.) shall, ' or ' may have been heard.'

Singular.
1. audītus , -a, -um, sim, fuero, fuerim
2. sis , fueris
3. sit, fuerit
 VERBS. 107

Plural.
1. audīti, -æ, -a, sīmus, fuerimus
2. sītis, fuĕrītis
3. sint, fuerint.

IV. ' I (&c.) should , ' or ' might have been heard.'
Hoi

Singular.
1. audītus, -a, -um, essem, fuissem
2. esses , fuisses
3. esset, fuisset
Plural.
1. audīti, -æ, -a, essēmus , fuissēmus
2. essētis , fuissetis
3. essent, fuissent .

D.

1. audiri (obs. audirier, ' to be heard ') . III. auditum, -am,

-um, esse, ' to have been heard. '. v. auditum iri, ' to be about to
be heard.' E. III. auditus, ' heard.'

82 Remarks on the -i Conjugation .

(1) Imperfect. The imperfect almost always adds -ebam , &c.

to the characteristic i, but the poets contract ie into i : thus Virgil
has lenībat from lenio, polibant from polio, &c.; and eo, queo, as we
shall see, have always ibam, quibam.

(2) Perfect. (a) The perfect is generally in -ivi, which may

be shortened into ii, and even contracted in the pluperfect sub-
junctive into thus we may have not only audivit, audiverat,
audivissent, but also audiit, audierat, audissent. It is, however, to
be observed that, although v is often omitted even in the best prose
writers between i and e, as in audierunt, definieram, &c. , the con-
currence of two i's , as in audiit, mugiit, muniit, except in the
compounds of eo, is generally confined to the poets, and especially
occurs in cases like impědii, oppětii, where the hexameter verse
would not admit the full form. The contraction of the two is, as
in audîsti, audisse, audîssem, is common even in prose, and in the
silver age the contracted form was the most usual.
(b) The aorist perfect in -si is not uncommon, especially with
guttural verbs ; thus, amicio, ' I clothe ;' sancio, I ordain ; ' vincio,
108 VERBS.

' I bind; ' make amixi, sanxi, and vinxi; but amicio has also
amicui and sancio has sometimes sancivi.
(c) If l or r precedes the guttural, it produces the same effect
as in the -e conjugation, for the guttural is omitted before -si; thus
(
farcio, I stuff;' fulcio, I support ; ' sarcio, ' I mend ; ' make farsi,
fulsi, sarci.
(d) The labial verbs sepio, ' I hedge in ,' cambio, ' I exchange,'
have the perfects sepsi, campsi.
(e) The dental sentio, ' I feel, ' makes sensi.

(f) of the liquid verbs haurio makes hausi (like hæreo) ; ape-
rio, ' I open, ' and operio, ' I cover, ' make aperui, operui ; salio, ‘ I
leap, ' makes salui and sometimes salii ; sarrio, ' I weed corn with
a hook,' sarrivi and sarrui; and venio, ' I come,' perf. vēni, is the
only verb of this class, which represents the absorbed affix of the
perfect by a lengthening of the root syllable.
(3) Future. In the -i conjugation, as in the consonant-verbs,
the only future in common use is a stronger form of the present
subjunctive, to which it corresponds in the first person singular.
The true form in -bo is obsolete except in eo and queo.
(4) Supine and passive participle. The regular supine and
passive participle retain the characteristic i, as in auditus, and, of
course, when this is the root-vowel, as in accitus from accio, to be
distinguished from concitus, incitus, percitus, which belong to con-
cieo, incieo, percieo. The i is omitted in those cases in which it
is omitted in the perfect ; thus we have amicio, amixi, amictus ;
sancio, sanxi, sanctus (but sancīvi, sancītus) ; vincio, vinxi, vinctus.
Similarly farcio, farsi, fartus (also farsus) ; fulcio, fulsi, fultus;
sarcio, sarsi, sartus. Verbs with r before the characteristic i omit
the latter before the t: thus we have apertus, compertus, expertus,
opertus, ortus, repertus, from aperio, comperio, experior, operio, orior,
reperio. But haurio makes haustus, hausum, and hausurus. Salio
and venio make saltus and ventus ; sentio has sensus, and sepelio
forms its participle sepultus.

83 The verb eo, ' I go, ' belongs to the -i conjugation, but
changes i into e before a, o, u. It is inflected thus :

A. I. eo, is, it, imus, ītis, eunt.

II. ibam, -as , -at, -amus, -atis, -ant.
III. ivi (in compounds ii), ivisti, &c.
 VERBS. 109

IV. iveram, iveras, &c. (in compounds ieram) .

V. ibo, ibis, &c.

B. i, ito ; ito ; ite, itōte, eunto.

C. I. eam , eas, eat, &c.

II. īrem, īres, iret, &c.
III. ivero or iverim, iveris, &c. (in compounds iero, &c.)
IV. ivissem (in compounds iissem or îssem) .

D. ire. Part. iens, gen. euntis. Fut. itūrus. Gerund eun-

dum, &c. Supine ĭtum.

In the same way is inflected veneo for venum eo , which is used

as the passive of vendo, ' I sell.'

Obs. 1 Except in the poets the shortened form in ii is not used in

the simple verb ; on the other hand, there are very few instances in
which compounds of eo retain the v in the perfect and its derivatives.
Sometimes the i is still farther contracted into , as in abîsti, abîstis,
abisse.
Obs. 2 Eo has no passive except when used as an impersonal ; as
itur a me, ' I go,' and in the infinitive iri, when, in conjunction with
the supine of a verb, it forms the future passive, as amatum iri, ' to
be about to be loved ' (70). Some of its compounds, however, are regu
larly formed in the passive ; as praetereor, I am passed by,' adeor, ' I
am approached,' &c . That eo had also the form ino may be inferred
from prodinunt for prodeunt (Ennius, ap. Fest. p. 229).
Obs. 3 Queo, ' I can,' and nequeo, ' I am unable,' are inflected like
eo, but the original forms were queno and nequino, which contain the root
of our ' can.' In common Latin the perfect quivi is obsolete . The im-
perf. , plup., and future are also of very rare occurrence, and while queo
is generally employed in negative propositions only, quis and quit are
used only with non. When a passive or deponent infinitive follows we
find in the older Latin an occasional attraction of queo into the passive
form ; thus we have in Terence, Hec . iv. 1 , 57 : forma in tenebris nosci
non quita est. Sallust, Jug. 31 : quidquid sine sanguine civium ulcisci
nequitur. Lucret. I. 1045 : dum veniant aliae ac suppleri summa queatur.

§ 4. Fourth or Consonant Conjugation.

84 Regular consonant verbs are divided into different classes

according to the nature of the consonant which is their character-
istic. Thus there are mute verbs and liquid verbs ; and the mute
verbs are either labial, guttural or dental : and to these must be
added the semi- consonantal verbs in -i and -u. Accordingly we
have the following arrangement :
110 VERBS.

A. Mute Verbs :

(a) Labial verbs ; as scribo, ' I write,' scripsi, scriptum.

(b) Guttural verbs ; as dico, ' I speak, ' dixi, dictum.
(c) Dental verbs ; as ludo, ' I play, ' lusi, lusum.

B. Liquid Verbs :
L verbs ; as colo, ' I till, ' colui, cultum.
M verbs ; as gemo, ' I groan , ' gemui, gemitum.
N verbs ; as cano, ' I sing,' cecini, cantum.
R verbs ; as gero, ' I carry,' gessi, gestum.
S verbs ; as texo, ' I weave,' texui, textum.

C. Semi-consonantal Verbs :

I verbs ; as facio, ' I make, ' feci, factum.

U verbs ; as ruo, ' I throw down, ' ruž, ruitum or rŭtum.
We will take the first of these, as a specimen of the regular
conjugation of verbs which form their infinitive in -ĕre.

85 Active voice : scribo, ' I am writing.'

A.

I. ' I (&c.) am writing.'

Singular. Plural.
1. scribo scribimus
2. scribis scribitis
3. scribit scribunt.

II. ' I (&c.) was writing.'

1. scribēbam scribēbāmus
2. scribēbas scribēbātis
3. scribebat scribebant.

III. ' I (&c.) have written.'

1. scripsi scripsimus
2. scripsisti scripsistis
3. scripsit scripserunt v. scripsere.

IV. ' I (&c.) had written.'

1. scripseram scripserāmus
2. scripseras scripserātis
3. scripserat scripserant.
 VERBS. 111

v. ' I (&c.) shall write.'

Singular. Plural.
1. scribam scribēmus
2. scribes scribētis
3. scribet scribent.

B. Write thou ' (&c.)

2. scribe, scribito scribite, scribitote
3. scribito scribunto .

C.

1. 'I (&c.) may write.'

1. scribam scrībāmus
2. scribas scrībātis
3. scribat scribant.

II. ' I (&c.) might write.'

1. scriběrem scrībĕrēmus
.2. scribĕres scribĕrētis
3. scriberet scriberent.

III. ' I (&c.) shall , ' or ' may have written.'

1. scripsero, scripserim scripserimus
2. scripsĕris scripserītis
3. scripserit scripserint.

IV. ' I (&c. ) should or might have written.'

1. scripsissem scripsissēmus
2. scripsisses scripsissētis
3. scripsisset scripsissent.

v. ' I (&c.) may be about to write .'

1. scripturus, -a, -um, sim scripturi, -æ, -a, simus

2. sis sitis
ai
—a

3. sit- sint.

D.

1. scribere, ' to write.' III. scripsisse , ' to have written.' v. scrip-

turum esse, ' to be about to write.'
112 VERBS .

E.

I. scribens, ' writing.' V. scripturus , 6 about to write.'

F. G.

scribendum, ' to write. ' scriptum , ' to write .'

scribendi, ' of writing. '
scribendo, ' in or by writing.' scriptu, in or by writing.'

Passive voice : scribor, ' I am being written.'

A.

I. ' I (&c.) am being written .'

Singular. Plural.
1. scribor scribimur
2. scribēris (-e) scribimini
3. scribitur scribuntur.

II. ' I (&c.) was being written.'

1. scribēbar scribēbāmur
2. scribēbāris (-e) scribēbāmīni
3. scribēbātur scribebantur.

III. ' I (&c.) have been written .'

1. scriptus, -a, -um, sum scripti, -æ, -a, sumus

1

2. es estis
3. est sunt.

IV. ' I (&c.) had been written.'

1. scriptus, -a, -um, eram scripti, -æ, -a, erāmus

2. eras erātis
aj
ai
-

3. erat erant.

V. ' I (&c.) shall be written . '

1. scribar scribēmur
2. scribēris (-e) scribēmini
3. scribētur scribentur.

B. Be thou (&c . ) written. '

2. scribere, scribitor scribimini , scribĭminor
3. scribitor scribuntor.
 VERBS . 113

C.

I.
1. ' I (&c.) may be written.'

Singular. Plural.
1. scribar scrībāmur
2. scrībāris (-e) scrībāmīni
3. scrībātur scribantur.

II. ' I (&c.) might be written.'

1. scriberer scrībĕrēmur
2. scrībĕrēris (-e) scrībĕrēmini
3. scribĕrētur scriberentur.

III. ' I (&c. ) shall ' or ' may have been written.'

Singular.
Hai

1. scriptus , -a, -um, sim, fuero, fuerim

aj

2. sis, fueris
3. sit, fuerit

Plural.
1. scripti, -æ, -a, simus , fuerimus
Hi
aj
ai

2. sitis , fueritis
3. sint, fuerint .

IV. ' I (&c.) should ' or ' might have been written.
Hoia

Singular.
1. scriptus, -a, -um, essem, fuissem
2. esses , fuisses
3. esset, fuisset

Plural.
1. scripti, -æ , -a, essēmus, fuissēmus .
1

2. essētis , fuissētis
3. essent, fuissent.

D.

I. scribi (obs. scribier) , ' to be written.' III. scriptum, -am,

-um, esse, ' to have been written.' V. scriptum iri, ' to be about to
be written.' E. III. scriptus, ' written.'
D. L. G. 8
114 VERBS .

Remarks on the Consonant Conjugation.

A. Mute Verbs.

86 (a) Labial Verbs .

(1) Perfect. (a) The form is generally the aorist (B) in -sẻ,
before which b is changed into p; thus we have carpo, ' I pluck,'
carpsi; nubo, ' I put on the veil, ' nupsi.

(b) Some verbs take the composite form in -ui; as cumbo , ‘ I

lie down,' cubui (cf. cubo) ; strepo, ' I make a noise, ' strepui.
(c) Some verbs merely add i to the root, which, if possible, is
lengthened ; as lambo, ' I lick, ' lambi; rumpo, ' I break,' rūpi;
scabo, ' I scratch, ' scābi.
(d) Bibo, ' I drink, ' perf. bibi, has lost its reduplication.

(2) Supine and passive participle. Generally the t is imme-

diately attached to the p of the perfect ; thus we have nubo, nup-
tum, rumpo, ruptum. But bibo, cumbo, lambo, strepo insert a short
i in bibitum, cubitum, &c. And the deponent labor , ' I glide down,'
makes the participle lapsus.

87 (b) Guttural Verbs.

(1) Perfect. (a) The general form of the perfect is that in

-si, and the -s combined with the preceding guttural becomes -x.
Thus we have dico, ' I say,' dixi ; cingo, ' I gird ,' cinxi; coquo,
' I cook, ' coxi ; distinguo , I distinguish ,' distinxi.
(b) The same rule applies when the guttural is reduced to a
mere aspirate, and when qu is represented by v or u only ; thus we
have veho, ' I carry,' vexi; traho, ' I draw, ' traxi ; vivo for viquo,
' I live, ' vixi ; fluo for fluquo, ' I flow, ' fluxi; struo for struquo,
' I build,' struxi ; and the deponent fruor, ' I enjoy ,' fructus sum.
(c) If r precedes the characteristic, the latter is omitted before
-si: thus mergo, I dip, ' makes mersi ; parco, ' I save up,' parsi;
spargo, ‘ I scatter, ' sparsi. In the sense of ' I spare,' parco makes
peperci.
(d) The perfect affix is sometimes represented by a mere length-
ening of the root-vowel , which may be changed from a to e, and in
this case an euphonic n may be omitted . Thus we have ago, 'I
drive,' ēgi; frango, ' I break, ' frēgi; linquo, ‘ I leave,' liqui ; vinco,
 VERBS . 115

' I conquer,' vici ; lego, ' I read,' lēgi. But three compounds of
lego take the form in -si; thus we have diligo, ' I love,' dilexi ;
"
intelligo, I understand,' intellexi ; negligo, ' I neglect,' neglexi.

(e) Pungo, ' I pierce,' has pupugi, but its compounds, as inter-
pungo, ' I distinguish with points, ' take the form in -si, as inter-
punxi. Tango, ' I touch , ' makes tetigi, but its compounds omit the
reduplication ; thus we have contingo, contigi. Pango, ' I fix, ' makes
panxi, and in the compounds -pēgi: but in the sense ' I bargain'
(for which paciscor is generally used in the present) we have the
perfect pepigi.

(2) Supine and passive participle. As a general rule -t is

subjoined to the guttural, which is changed into c ; thus we have
coctum from coquo, lectum from lego , &c. But mergo , parco, spargo
omit the guttural, as in the perfect, and make mersum, parsum,
sparsum: and the euphonic n is omitted in fractus, lictus, pactus,
victus, from frango , &c. The deponents loquor and sequor vocalize
the u in the participles locutus, secutus , and also in secundus, ‘ fol-
lowing, ' for sequendus.

88 (c) Dental Verbs.

(1) Perfect. (a) The usual form is that in -si, before which
the dental is always omitted. Thus, claudo, ' I shut,' makes
clausi ; divido, I divide,' divisi ; and even mitto, ' I send,' misi.
Cedo, 'I yield, ' and quatio, ' I shake , ' retain the dental under the
form of s in their perfects cessi, quassi (in compounds -cutio, -cussi).

(b) If the characteristic is ct, the perfect follows the rule of

the guttural verbs ; thus flecto, ' I bend , ' necto, ' I knit, ' pecto, ‘ I
comb,' make flexi, nexi, pexi.

(c) Cado, ' I fall ,' caedo, ' I cut down, ' ' fell, ' take the redupli-
cated perfect, cecidi and cecidi, the reduplication being as usual
omitted in the compounds, as incido, ' I fall upon, ' incidi ; concido,
'I cut to pieces ,' concidi.

(d) The same rule applies to some verbs which take an euphonic
n before d in the present ; as pendo, ' I weigh, ' pependi ; tendo, ‘ I
stretch out,' tetendi; tundo, ' I beat,' tutudi. But findo, ' I split,'
makes fidi; scindo, ' I cut,' scidi, without any reduplication even
in the uncompounded verbs ; and the same is the case with accendo,
8-2
116 VERBS.

' I inflame,' mando, ' I chew,' offendo, ' I stumble against,' pre-
hendo, ' I seize, ' verto, ' I turn , ' which have for their perfects the
simple forms accendi, mandi, offendi, prehendi, verti.
(e) Ědo, ' I eat,' fõdio, ' I dig,' and fundo, ' I pour out, ' have
ēdi, fōdi, fudi: and cudo, ' I forge, ' sido, ' I sit down , ' strido, ' I
hiss,' have cudi, sīdi, strīdi.
(
(f) Fido, I trust, ' has no active perfect, but uses the passive
fisus sum .
(g) The only dental verbs which take the composite perfect
form -fui are frendo, ' I gnash with the teeth ,' sterto, ' I snore ,'
which make frendui and stertui; and meto, ' I reap,' peto, ' I seek, '
rudo, ' I bray, ' which have the elongated forms messui, petīvi,
rudivi.

Obs. The later writers have the forms rugio and rugītus, as well as
ruditus, which seem to be suggested by the pronunciation of an original
rudio pronounced rudjo. An approximation to this change is first seen
in Persius, III. 9, who makes the first syllable of rudere long, as though
he had written rudjere, whereas Virgil ( Georg. III. 374 ; Æn. vII. 16)
and Ovid (4. A. III. 290) make the first syllable short.

(2) Supine and passive participle. The t of the affix is

generally changed into s ; thus from ludo we have lusum ; and if c
precedes the characteristic , it becomes x; thus from flecto we have
flexum. The following have a double s in the supine : cedo, cessum ;
findo, fissum ; fodio, fossum ; meto, messum ; mitto, missum; quatio,
quassum ; scindo, scissum ; sido, sessum ; to which may be added the
deponents gradior, ' I go ,' gressum, and patior, ' I suffer, ' passum.
But tendo has tentus as well as tensus , comedo has comestus as well
as comēsus, and peto and rudo have the elongated forms petītus,
ruditus.

B. Liquid Verbs.
89 L Verbs.

(1) Perfect. (a) The usual form is -ui, as alo, ' I rear, ' alui.
Some merely add i, as vello , I pull,' velli ; but the compounds of
this verb retain the -si, as convello, convulsi.

(b) Some few take the proper or reduplicated perfect, as fallo,

'I deceive,' fefelli ; pello, ' I drive,' pepuli ; and tollo, ' I take up ,'
omits the reduplication in its perfect tuli for tetuli.
 VERBS. 117

(2) Supines. The usual form is -t appended to the l ; as alo,

altum ; colo, cultum. The former verb has also alitum, and this
is the case with molo, ' I grind,' molitum. Verbs with a double l
generally change t into s, as fallo, falsum ; pello, pulsum ; percello,
perculsus ; but excello, excelsus. Tollo has the peculiar form latus
for tlatus or toltus.

90 M Verbs.

(1) Perfect. (a) Generally the perfect is formed in -ui; as

tremo, ' I tremble, ' tremui.

(b) But emo, ' I take up, ' thence I buy, ' with its compounds
adimo, ' I take away, ' coemo, ' I buy up, ' interimo, ' I take out of
the way, i . e. destroy,' form the perfect by a lengthening of the
root-vowel ; thus : ēmi, adēmi, coēmi, interēmi: and when the pre-
position in the compound coalesces with the first syllable of emo,
the perfect is formed in -si, the liquid m being followed by the
=
corresponding mute p ; thus we have como coěmo, ' I take and
put together' (the hair) , compsi ; dēmo = de-emo, ' I take away from ,'
dempsi; promo = pro-emo, ' I take out' (from a store) , prompsi;
=
sumo sub-emo, ' I take up' (for use) , sumpsi.

(c) Premo, I press, ' makes pressi, the liquid m being assi-
milated .

(2) Supines and passive participles. Perfects in -ui have a

supine in -itum ; as gemo, gemui, gemitum. All others have the
supine in -ptum ; as emo, emptum ; except premo, pressi, which
makes pressum.

91 N Verbs.

There are only two n verbs : the reduplicated gigno, ‘ I beget ,'
' bring into being, ' ' cause to be, ' which makes genui, genitum ;
and cano, ' I sing, ' which makes cecini, cantum.

Obs. Three of the compounds of cano, namely, concino, occino (or

occano) and praecino, take the composite perfect in ui, as occinui; others,
as accino, have no perfect.

92 R Verbs.

Curro, I run,' makes cucurri, cursum ; gero, ' I carry,' and

uro, ' I burn,' make gessi, gestum and ussi, ustum. Sero, ' I place
118 VERBS.

in rows,' makes serui, sertum ; and verro, ' I sweep, ' makes verri,
versum. The deponent queror, ' I complain, ' makes questus.

93 S Verbs.

Depso, I knead , ' makes depsui, depstum ; texo, ' I weave, '
texui, textum, and so all the others except viso, I visit, ' which
makes visi.

C. Semi-consonantal Verbs.

94 I Verbs.

Many of these have been already mentioned under the charac-

teristic which precedes the i. They are such as allicio, ' I entice'
(and other compounds of lacio) , allexi, allectum ; capio, ' I take,'
cepi, captum ; cupio, ' I desire, ' cupīvi, cupītum ; facio, ' I make, '
feci, factum ; fodio, ' I dig,' fōdi, fossum; fugio, ‘ I flee, ' fūgi,
fugitum; gradior, ' I go, ' gressus ; jacio, ' I throw,' jēci, jactum ;
morior, I am dying, ' mortuus ; pario, ' I bring forth, ' pěpĕri,
partum ; patior, ' I suffer,' passus; quatio, ' I shake, ' quassus ;
rapio, ' I snatch, ' rapui, raptum ; sapio, ' I have a taste , ' hence
'I have sense, I am wise , ' sapui (no supine) ; specio, ' I see' (obsol .) ,
spexi, spectum (hence aspicio, conspicio, &c.)

95 U Verbs.

Many of these verbs belong to the guttural class, and have been
discussed in their proper place. Others, as juvo, caveo, have a or
e after their characteristic v, and therefore belong to the vowel-
verbs. Ruo, ' I overthrow,' makes rui, ruitum or rutum ; minuo,
I break into small pieces, ' makes minui, minutum. Compounds
of nuo, ' I nod,' as abnuo, ' I refuse, ' i. e. ' express dissent by nod-
ding,' make abnui, abnuitum, &c. Arguo, I put to the test,'
makes argui, argūtum.
 VERBS. 119

TABLES OF THE REGULAR VERBS.

TABLE I. Comparison of the Four Conjugations.

I. Finite Moods.

A. Primary Formations.

(1) Present and its Derivatives .

Indicative Active.
1. Present.
Conj. I. Conj. 2. Conj. 3. Conj. 4.
(love) (teach) (hear) (read)
Sing. amo doceo audio lego
amas doces audis legis
amat docet audit legit
Pl. amamus docemus audimus legimus
amatis docetis auditis legitis
amant docent audiunt legunt

2. Imperfect.
Sing. amabam docebam audiebam legebam
amabas . docebas audiebas legebas
amabat docebat audiebat legebat
Pl. amabamus docebamus audiebamus legebamus
amabatis docebatis audiebatis legebatis
amabant docebant audiebant legebant
3. Future.
Sing. amabo docebo audiam legam
amabis docebis audies leges
amabit docebit audiet leget
Pl. amabimus docebimus audiemus legemus
amabitis docebitis audietis legetis
amabunt docebunt audient legent

Indicative Passive.

1. Present.
Sing. amor doceor audior legor
amaris (-e) doceris (-e) audiris (-e) legeris (-e)
amatur docetur auditur legitur
Pl. amamur docemur audimur legimur
amamini docemini audimini legimini
amantur docentur audiuntur leguntur
120 VERBS.

2. Imperfect.

Conj . I. Conj. 2. Conj. 3. Conj. 4.

(love) (teach) (hear) (read)
Sing. amabar docebar audiebar legebar
amabaris (-e) docebaris (-e) audiebaris (-e) legebaris (-e)
amabatur docebatur audiebatur legebatur
Pl. amabamur docebamur audiebamur legebamur
amabamini docebamini audiebamini legebamini
amabantur docebantur audiebantur legebantur

3. Future.

Sing. amabor docebor audiar legar

amaberis (-e) doceberis (-e) audieris (-e) legeris (-e)
amabitur docebitur audietur legetur
Pl. amabimur docebimur audiemur legemur
amabimini docebimini audiemini legemini
amabuntur docebuntur audientur legentur

(2) Perfect and its derivative.

Indicative Active.

1. Perfect.

Sing. amavi docui audivi legi

amavisti docuisti audivisti legisti
amavit docuit audivit legit
Pl. amavimus docuimus audivimus legimus
amavistis docuistis audivistis legistis
amaverunt docuerunt audiverunt legerunt
(amavere) (docuere) (audivere)

2. Pluperfect.

Sing. amaveram docueram audiveram legeram

amaveras docueras audiveras legeras
amaverat docuerat audiverat legerat
Pl. amaveramus docueramus audiveramus legeramus
amaveratis docueratis audiveratis legeratis
amaverant docuerant audiverant legerant
 VERBS. 121

B. Secondary Formations .

(1 ) Present and its derivatives.

Subjunctive and Imperative Active.

1. Subjunctive Present (from the pres. indic.)

Conj. 1. Conj. 2. Conj. 3. Conj . 4.
(love) (teach) (hear) (read)
Sing. amem doceam audiam legam
ames doceas audias legas
amet doceat audiat legat
Pl. amemus doceamus audiamus legamus
ametis doceatis audiatis legatis
ament doceant audiant legant

2. Subjunct. Imperfect (from the imp . indic.) .

Sing. amarem docerem audirem legerem
amares doceres audires legeres
amaret doceret audiret legeret
Pl. amaremus doceremus audiremus legeremus
amaretis doceretis audiretis legeretis
amarent docerent audirent legerent

3. Imperative (from the pres. infin.) .

(ama doce audi lege
Sing. amato
doceto audito legito
amato doceto audito legito
(amate docete audite legite
Pl.
amatote docetote auditote legitote
amanto docento audiunto legunto

Subjunctive and Imperative Passive.

1. Subj. Present (from the pres. indic. ) .

Sing. amer docear audiar legar
ameris (-e) docearis (-e) audiaris (-e) legaris (-e)
ametur doceatur audiatur legatur
Pl. amemur doceamur audiamur legamur
amemini doceamini audiamini legamini
amentur doceantur audiantur legantur
122 VERBS .

2. Subj. Imperfect (from the imp. indic. ).

Conj. 1. Conj. 2. Conj. 3. Conj. 4.
(love) (teach) (hear) (read)
Sing. amarer docerer audirer legerer
amareris (-e) docereris (-e) audireris (-e) legereris (-e)
amaretur doceretur audiretur legeretur
Pl. amaremur doceremur audiremur legeremur
amaremini doceremini audiremini legeremini
amarentur docerentur audirentur legerentur

3. Imperative (from the pres. infin .) .

(amare docere audire legere
Sing. amator docetor auditor legitor
amator docetor auditor legitor
(amamini docemini audimini legimini
Pl. audiminor
amaminor doceminor legiminor
amantor docentor audiuntor leguntor

(2) Perfect and its derivative.

Subjunctive Active.

1. Perfect (from the perf. indic.) .

Sing. amaverim docuerim audiverim legerim
amaveris docueris audiveris legeris
amaverit docuerit audiverit legerit
Pl. amaverimus docuerimus audiverimus legerimus
amaveritis docueritis audiveritis legeritis
amaverint docuerint audiverint legerint

2.Pluperfect (from the plup. indic.) .

Sing. amavissem docuissem audivissem legissem
amavisses docuisses audivisses legisses
amavisset docuisset audivisset legisset
Pl. amavissemus docuissemus audivissemus legissemus
amavissetis docuissetis audivissetis legissetis
amavissent docuissent audivissent legissent

II. Infinitive Mood and its adjuncts .

1. Supine.
amatum doctum auditum lectum
amatu doctu auditu lectu
 VERBS . 123

2. Infinitive.
Conj. I. Conj. 2. Conj. 3. Conj . 4.
(love) (teach) (hear) (read)
Pres. Act. amare docere audire legere
Pres. Pass. amari doceri audiri legi
Perf. Act. amavisse docuisse audivisse legisse

3. Gerund.

Nom. Acc. amandum docendum audiendum legendum

Gen. amandi docendi audiendi legendi
Abl. amando docendo audiendo legendo

4. Participles.
Part. Pr. Act. amans docens audiens legens
Part. Perf.amatus , a, doctus auditus lectus
Pass. } um
Part. Fut. amaturus, a, docturus auditurus lecturus
Act. ит
Part. Fut. amandus, a, docendus audiendus legendus
Pass. um.

TABLE II.

Formation of the Perfect.

First Conjugation .

1. Perfect in -ui.
crepo, crepui, rattle mico, micui, move quickly
cubo, cubui, lie down seco, secui, cut
domo, domui, tame sono, sonui, sound
frico, fricui, rub tono, tonui, thunder
juvo, jūvi (for juv-ui) , help veto, vetui, forbid
(so also lavo, lāvi, wash)

2. Perfect in -ui and -avi.

neco, necui and necavi, kill
discrepo, discrepui and discrepavi, differ
increpo, increpui and increpavi, chide
plico, plicui and plicavi, fold
124 VERBS .

but supplico has only supplicavi, supplicate

multiplico only multiplicavi, multiply
duplico only duplicavi, double
dimico only dimicavi, fight.

3. Reduplicated Perfect.
do, dědi, give sto, stěti, stand
circumdo, surround circumsto, surround
venumdo, sell antesto, stand before
pessumdo, overthrow intersto, stand between
satisdo, satisfy supersto, stand above

Second Conjugation.

1. Perfect in -evi.
deleo, delevi, destroy fleo, flevi, cry
neo, nevi, spin vieo, vievi, bind with twigs
and the verbs from oleo, cause to grow ; pleo, fill, and sueo, am
accustomed.

2. Perfect in -i.
caveo , cavi, take care moveo, movi, move
faveo, favi, favour niveo, nivi, wink with eyes
ferveo, fervi and ferbui, glow paveo, pavi, quake with fear
foveo , fovi, cherish voveo, vovi, vow
but conniveo has connixi

prandeo, prandi, dine video, vidi, see

sedeo, sedi, sit langueo, langui, languish
strideo, stridi, hiss, creak liqueo, liqui and licui, am clear

3. Perfect in -si.
jubeo , jussi, order luceo, luxi, shine
sorbeo, sorpsi, sup up, suck in augeo , auxi, increase
frigeo, frixi, am cold
mulceo, mulsi, soothe lugeo, luxi, bemoan
algeo, alsi, am cold
indulgeo, indulsi, indulge ardeo, arsi, am burning
fulgeo, fulsi, shine suadeo, suasi, advise
mulgeo, mulsi, milk
turgeo, tursi, am swollen maneo, mansi, remain
urgeo, ursi, press haereo, haesi, adhere
torqueo, torsi, twist
 VERBS. 125

4. Reduplicated Perfect.
mordeo, momordi, bite spondeo, spopondi, promise
pendeo, pependi, am hanging tondeo, totondi, cut with shears

5. Neuter Passive.

audeo, ausus sum, dare

gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice, am glad
soleo, solitus sum, am accustomed, am wont

Verbs ofthe Second Conjugation without any Perfect.

aveo , desire immineo, hang over

calveo, am bald maereo, am sorrowful

flaveo , am yellow polleo , am strong

foeteo, stink renideo , shine
hebeo, am dull scateo, bubble forth like water
humeo , am moist squaleo, am rough with hair, &c.
liveo, am livid vegeo, excite

Third Conjugation.

1. Perfect in -i.

venio, vēni, come comperio, compĕri, discover

reperio , reppĕri, find .

2. Perfect in -ui.

salio, salui (salii) spring up , jump

aperio, aperui, open operio, operui, cover

3. Perfect in -si.

amicio, amixi, clothe sancio , sanxi, ordain

farcio, farsi, stuff sarcio, sarsi, mend , patch

sentio, sensi, feel
fulcio, fulsi, support
haurio , hausi, draw out sepio, sepsi, hedge in
raucio, rausi, am hoarse vincio, vinxi, bind

4. Perfect wanting.

ferio, strike ferocio , am fierce

 126 VERBS.

Fourth Conjugation.

Perfect in -i.

(a) Without alteration of the root.

A. acuo, acui, sharpen ruo, rui, overthrow
arguo, argui, test spuo, spui, spit out
congruo, congrui, agree statuo, statui, establish
imbuo, imbui, imbue sternuo, sternui, sneeze
induo, indui, put on suo, sui, sew or stitch
luo, lui, pay tribuo, tribui, assign
metuo, metui, fear
minuo, minui, lessen solvo, solvi, loosen, pay
pluo, plui, rain volvo, volvi, roll
and the verbs formed from nuo, I nod, abnuo , annuo , innuo, renuo.

B. mando, mandi, chew prehendo, prehendi, seize

pando, pandi, open scando, scandi, climb
and the verbs formed from cando and fendo, accendo, succendo, in-
cendo ; defendo and offendo.

C. bibo, bibi, drink scăbo, scābi, scratch

cudo, cudi, hammer sido, sīdi, settle myself
dēgo, degi, live vello, velli, (vulsi) , pluck
lambo, lambi, lick verro, verri, sweep
psallo, psalli, play on a verto, verti, turn myself
stringed instrument viso, vīsi, visit

(b) With an alteration of the root.

A. ědo, edi, eat căpio, cepi, take
ěmo, emi, buy (90, (1) , (b)) făcio, feci, do, make
lego, legi, read jacio, jeci, throw
fodio, fodi, dig ǎgo, ēgi, do, act
fugio, fugi, flee

B. findo, fidi, cleave rumpo, rupi, burst

frango, fregi, break scindo, scidi, split
fundo, fudi, pour out vinco , vici, conquer
linquo, liqui, leave sisto, stiti, stop
percello, perculi, beat down
 VERBS . 127

C. With reduplication.

cado, cecidi, fall parco, peperci, spare

caedo, cecidi, fell pario, peperi, bring forth
cano, cecini, sing pello, pepuli, drive away
credo, credidi, believe pendo, pependi, weigh
curro, cucurri, run pungo, pupugi, prick
disco, didici, learn posco , poposci, demand
fallo, fefelli, deceive tango, tetigi, touch
pango, pepigi, make a con- tendo, tetendi, stretch
tract tundo, tutudi, thump
and the derivatives of -do, as condo, abdo, indo, &c. , condidi, abdidi,
indidi, &c.

2. Perfect in -si.

(a) Without any essential alteration of the root.

A. glubo, glupsi, strip carpo, carpsi, pluck

nubo, nupsi, put on a veil (as repo , repsi, creep
a bride) scalpo, scalpsi, scrape
scribo, scripsi, write sculpo, sculpsi, carve in stone
ango , anxi, vex
cingo, cinxi, gird frigo, frixi, roast
figo , fixi, fix jungo, junxi, join
fingo , finxi, form lingo, linxi, lick

and the derivatives of fligo, flixi, affligo, confligo, &c.

mingo, minxi, make water plango, planxi, beat the breast

mungo, munxi, wipe the nose rego, rexi, direct
ningo, ninxi, snow stringo, strinxi, strip
pingo, pinxi, paint
and the derivates of stinguo , i . e . exstinguo, restinguo

sugo, suxi, suck dico, dixi, say

tego, texi, cover duco, duxi, lead
tingo, tinxi, dye coquo, coxi, cook
ungo , unxi, anoint
flecto, flexi, turn
traho, traxi, draw necto, nexi, and nexui, link to-
veho, vexi, carry gether
pecto, pexi, comb
128 VERBS.

como, compsi, adorn promo, prompsi, put forth

demo, dempsi, take away sumo, sumpsi, take up

contemno, formed from temno, tempsi.

B. claudo, clausi, shut mitto, misi, send

divido, divisi, divide rado, rasi, scrape
laedo, laesi, hurt rodo , rosi, gnaw
ludo, lusi, play trudo, trusi, thrust
plaudo, plausi, clap the hands

and evado, evasi, invado, pervado, formed from vado, go.

(b) With an alteration of the root.

cedo, cessi, go, yield gero, gessi, carry

uro, ussi, burn

and concutio, percutio, incutio, &c . , concussi, percussi, &c. ,

formed from quatio, shake ;

premo, pressi, press .

mergo , mersi, sink spargo, sparsi, scatter

tergo, tersi, wipe ;

those formed from the obsolete specio, behold :

conspicio, conspexi, look at adspicio, adspexi, regard
those formed from lacio:
allicio, allexi, entice pellicio, pellexi, seduce ;
besides
diligo, dilexi, love intelligo, intellexi, understand .

3. Perfect in -ui.

(a) Without alteration of the root.

alo, alui, nourish occino (-ui), sing
colo, colui, pay attention to occulo, occului, conceal
concino, (-ui) sing in concert volo, volui, wish
consulo, consului, consult, de- nolo, nolui, am unwilling
liberate malo, malui, prefer
molo, molui, grind praecino (-ui), sing before
 VERBS. 129

those from cello , raise up :

excello, excellui, rapio, rapui, snatch

antecello, excel sapio, sapui, have a savour, am
praecello, wise

fremo, fremui, roar elicio, elicui, draw out

gemo, gemui, groan compesco, compescui, restrain
tremo, tremui, tremble dispesco, dispescui, separate
vomo, vomui, vomit
depso, depsui, knead
gigno, genui, beget pinso, pinsui, pound
sterto, stertui (sterti) , snore
and those formed from sero , put in rows :
consero, conserui, join together dissero, disserui, discourse.

(b) With an alteration of the root (-ui and -vi) .

meto, messui, mow tero, trivi, rub
pono, posui, put, lay down
(see 97, (a), p. 134)
cerno, crevi, distinguish cresco, crevi, grow
lino, levi, smear nosco, novi, know
sino, sivi, leave, suffer pasco, pavi, feed
sperno, sprevi, despise quiesco, quievi, rest
sterno, stravi, strew suesco, suevi, am accustomed
sero, sevi, sow
and the other inchoatives (97, (c) ) ,

4. Perfect in -xi.

fluo, fluxi, flow struo, struxi, build up

vivo, vixi, live .

5. Perfect in -ivi (see 97 , (a) , p. 134) .

peto, petivi, make for capesso, capessivi , undertake

quaero, quaesivi, seek, inquire facesso, facessivi , cause
cupio, cupivi, desire lacesso , lacessivi , provoke
incesso, incessivi, attack
arcesso, arcessivi, send for

6. One Neuter-passive.

fido, fisus sum, trust.

D. L. G. 9
130 VERBS.

7. Verbs without any perfect, (see 97, (c) , (2) , (a) , p. 136) .
furo, rage incurvesco, become crooked
quatio, shake integrasco, become renovated
stinguo, extinguish juvenesco, grow young
aegresco, grow sick or infirm mitesco, grow mild
ditesco, grow rich mollesco, grow soft
dulcesco, grow sweet plumesco, get feathers
grandesco, grow large puerasco, become a child (again)
gravesco, sterilesco, become barren
grow heavy
ingravesco, teneresco , become tender
fero, bear, perfect tuli
tollo, raise up, perfect sustuli.

TABLE III .

Formation of the Supines.

First Conjugation.
--
frico - fricatum and frictum explico explicatum and ex-
seco sectum plicitum
juvo -jutum and juvatum (both implico implicatum and im-
rare) plicitum
— poto - potum and potatum
adjuvo adjutum and adjuva-
tum (the latter rare) do đặtum
lavo - lavatum, lautum and lo- sto stātum
tum praesto - praestātum and prae-
- stitum (rare)
applico applicatum and ap-
plicitum

Several compounds with sto have no Supine.

Second Conjugation.
doceo - doctum jubeo - jussum
teneo tentum sedeo - sessum
misceo - mixtum and mistum indulgeo indultum
torreo tostum torqueo tortum
censeo censum - auctum
augeo
recenseo - recensum and recensi- cieo citum
tum

The last is the same word as cio, sup. citum, which occurs
only in compounds and when the idea of ' calling ' is included ;
 VERBS. 131

e. g. excitus is ' called forth , ' but excitus, ' aroused : ' we have only
accitus, summoned forth, ' from accio.

Verbs without any Supine, besides those which have no Perfect.

algeo , am chilled arceo, keep off

but coerceo and exerceo have Supine in -itum.

calleo , am inured pateo, stand open

egeo, need paveo, quake for fear

emineo , project forward rigeo, am stiff

ferveo, am hot rubeo, blush
floreo , flourish sileo, am silent
frigeo, am cold sorbeo, sup up

frondeo, grow green sordeo, am dirty

fulgeo, shine splendeo , glitter
horreo, shudder studeo , am eager
lateo, lie hid stupeo, am amazed

langueo, languish timeo, fear

luceo, am bright torpeo, am torpid
lugeo, lament tumeo, swell

madeo, am wet turgeo, grow big

niteo , shine vigeo, am strong
conniveo, wink at vireo, am green
oleo, smell of something urgeo , press on
palleo, am pale
Obs. All these verbs except sorbeo are neuter.

Third Conjugation .
sancio sanctum and sancitum
eo ĭtum
queo quitum sarcio sartum
sentio - sensum
sepelio - sepultum
farcio - fartum sepio - septum
venio ventum
fulcio - fultum
haurio haustum vincio- vinctum

raucio rausum amicio amictum

salio - saltum aper io ______ apertum

Verbs without any Supine.

ferio and ferocio.

9-2
 132 VERBS.

Fourth Conjugation .
frendo -fressum fugio -fugitum
pando - passum (rarely pansum) parco - parsum
vello - vulsum credo creditum
bibo - bibitum abdo abditum
also condo, edo, indo, &c.
sisto stitum -
rapio raptum
fingo -fictum sero sertum
mingo - mictum alo altum and alitum
pingo — pictum -
depso depstum and depsitum
stringo strictum pinso -pinsitum and pistum
figo -fixum pono ·positum
flecto -flexum lino - litum
necto nexum sino situm
pecto pexum sero sătum
gero -- gestum pasco - pastum
uro - ustum cognosco cognitum
colo cultum fero latum
consulo - consultum tollo - sublatum

Verbs without any Supine.

congruo mando psallo pluo

sido dego sternuo lambo
viso metuo scabo posco
disco ango compesco tremo
dispesco sapio volo antecello
nolo praecello malo excello
incesso fio

TABLE IV.

(a) Verbs of the Third Conjugation , which have i before

the ending .
facio, make cupio , desire
jacio, throw sapio, am wise
fodio, dig pario, bring forth
fugio, flee quatio, shake,
capio, take
whence percutio, discutio, concutio, &c.
Those formed from lăcio, pull about :
elicio, draw out allicio, draw on pellicio , allure
 VERBS . 133

Those formed from specio, see :

adspicio , look at conspicio, gaze on

Three deponents :
morior, die patior, suffer gradior, approach,
whence congredior, aggredior, &c.

(b) Verbs of the First Conjunction which have e or i before

the ending :
beo, bless ablaqueo, lay bare the roots
calceo, put on shoes illaqueo, ensnare
creo, create malleo, hammer
cuneo , wedge in meo, go to and fro
collineo, aim in a straight line nauseo , feel sick
delineo, draw a line or outline enucleo, take out the kernel
lanceo, fling a lance screo, hawk in spitting

amplio , increase hio, gape

ascio, hew medio, divide in the middle
brevio, shorten nuntio, announce
centurio, divide into centuries pio, atone
decurio, divide into tens satio, satiate
crucio, torture saucio, wound
ebrio, intoxicate socio, confederate
sobrio, make sober spolio, spoil
ferior, enjoy a holiday strio, groove or make chan-
furio, rage nels
glacio, freeze tertio, repeat thrice

§ 5. Irregular Verbs.

96 Irregularities, in the inflexion of verbs through their moods

and tenses, arise either from the use of some strengthening affix in
the present tense, which is neglected in the perfect, or from the
practice of making up the tenses by forms derived from different,
but synonymous roots, or from some syncope or abbreviation in the
inflexions themselves.

A. Additions to the Present Tense.

97 (a) N added. Those in which an euphonic n (or m

before a labial) is inserted before the characteristic of the verb,
134 VERBS .

often retain this letter in the perfect ; as in jungo, root jug-, junxi ;
fungor, root fug-, functus sum. Others omit it, as rumpo, rupi.
These verbs have been discussed under their proper characteristics.
When the inserted n is added to the root, it is always omitted in
the perfect and supine ; thus we have cerno , ' I separate ,' crēvi,
certum; sperno, ' I despise, ' sprēvi, sprētum ; sterno, ' I strew, ' strāvi,
strātum ; in which verbs there is a change in the place of the
vowel. Similarly, we have contem-no , ' I despise, ' contemp-si, con-
temp-tum ; li-no, ' I besmear, ' li-vi, li-tum; sino, ' I let, suffer, or
cause to be, ' sīvi, sītum . The last verb is used, without the in-
serted n, as the affix to a class of compound verbs signifying ' to
cause or allow an action.' These are known from other verbs in

-so by their meaning and by the perfect -sivi. They are arcesso or
accerso for accedere sino, ' I send for, ' i. e. ' cause to approach,'
arcessīvi, arcessitum ; capesso for capere sino, ' I let myself take,'
i. e. ' I undertake, ' capessīvi, capessitum ; lacesso for lacere sino,
' I let myself pull about, ' ' I provoke or irritate,' lacessivi, laces-
sītum ; pōno for po-sino, ' I let down , ' ' I place ,' posui for po-sīvi
(Plaut. Trin. 1. 2. 108) , positum and postum; quaero (from quaeso,
which occurs in the sense of ' prithee') for quere (see in-quam)
sino, ' I cause to speak, ' i. e. ' I ask , ' quaesivi, quaesitum.

(b) R added. The only verb of this class is se- ro, ' I sow,'
sēvi, sătum.

(c) Sc added. This affix is inchoative, i. e. it expresses the

beginning of an action , and therefore is necessarily omitted in the
perfect, which declares the completion or perfection of an action .
If the termination follows a, e, i, the perfect is formed according to
the rule of the vowel-verbs : thus pasco, ' I feed,' makes pā-vi
(though its compounds compesco, ' I feed together,' ' keep in the
same field, ' ' restrain,' dispesco, ' I separate, ' make compescui, dis-
pescui) ; cre-sco, ' I grow, ' makes crē-vi; sue-sco, ' I am accustomed ,'
sue-vi; contice-sco, ' I become silent, ' contic-ui; exarde-sco, ' I grow
hot,' exar-si; sci-sco, ' I inquire, ' sci-vi, like corresponding verbs
in a, e, i. But di-sco for dic-sco, ' I learn ,' makes didici. The
only verb which has o before sc is no-sco, I get knowledge,' and
its derivatives agno-sco, ' I acknowledge,' cognosco, ' I become ac-
quainted,' dignosco, ' I distinguish ,' ignosco, ' I pardon , ' i . e. ‘ take
no knowledge of ; ' and these make nōvi, ‘ I am acquainted with '
 VERBS. 135

(always used as a present) , agnovi, cognovi, &c., in which ov may

be syncopated, as in nôrunt, nôrim, nôsse, &c.; compare commôssem
for commovissem , &c. ( 79 , (i) ) . In the supine we have nōtum, dig-
nōtum, ignōtum, but agnitum, cognitum. If the original verb has a
consonant for its characteristic , i is inserted before sc ; thus from
vivo we have revivisco, ' I revive, ' revixi; and from facio we have
profici-scor, I cause myself to set forth, ' ' I set out,' profectus sum.
The peculiar verb ob- liv-i-scor (from liv-o, ' to blacken ,' whence
livor, liveo, livesco), ' I make for myself a black mark, ' ' I oblite-
rate,' 'I forget ,' has the perfect oblitus sum.

The following lists contain most of the inchoative verbs in

common use :

(1) Verbal inchoatives which adopt the perfect of the original

verb.

Acesco (aceo) acui, grow sour ; coacesco, peracesco.

Albesco and exalbesco (albeo) albui, become white.
Aresco (areo) arui, grow dry.
Calesco (caleo) calui, become warm .
Canesco (caneo) canui, become grey.
Conticesco (taceo) conticui, become silent, hold one's peace.
Contremisco (tremo) contremui, tremble.
Defervesco (ferveo) deferbui, grow cool gradually.
Delitesco (lateo) delitui, lurk.
Effervesco (ferveo) efferbui, grow hot.
Excandesco (candeo) excandui, grow of a white heat ; figuratively,
am enraged.
Extimesco, pertimesco (timeo) extimui, am terrified.
Fatisco (fateor) perf. pass. part. fessus, give in, begin to confess ,
yield, and, physically, open or gape.
Floresco, de-, ef- (floreo) florui, burst into flower.
Haeresco, ad-, in- (haereo) , ad-, in-, haesi, stick to.
Horresco, exhorresco, perhorresco (horreo) horrui, am struck with
horror.
Ingemisco (gemo) ingemui, groan.
Intumesco (tumeo) intumui, swell up.
Irraucesco (raucio) irrausi, become hoarse.
Lactesco (lacteo, no perfect) , turn to milk, begin to give suck.
Languesco, elanguesco, relanguesco (langueo) elangui, become feeble.
Liquesco (liqueo) licui, melt away.
136 VERBS.

Madesco (madeo) madui, become wet.

Marcesco (marceo) comp . commarcesco ; emarcesco, perfect, emarcui,
fade.
Occallesco (calleo) occallui, become hard on the surface.
Pallesco, expallesco ( palleo) pallui, turn pale.
Putresco (putreo) putrui, moulder.
Resipisco (sapio) resipui and resipivi, grow wise again.
Rubesco, erubesco (rubeo) , grow red, blush .
Senesco, consenesco (seneo) consenui, grow old.
(The part. senectus, grown old , is rare) .
Stupesco (obstupesco, stupeo) obstupui, am struck dumb.
Tabesco (tabeo) tabui, pine, waste away.
Tepesco (tepeo) tepui, grow lukewarm .
Viresco, comp. conviresco, eviresco, reviresco (vireo) virui, grow
green.

(2) Inchoatives apparently derived from Nouns.

(a) Having no perfect.

Aegresco (aeger) , grow sick or infirm .
Ditesco (dives), grow rich .
Dulcesco (dulcis) , grow sweet.
Grandesco (grandis) , grow large.
Gravesco and ingravesco (gravis) , grow heavy.
Incurvesco (curvus) , become crooked.
Integrasco (integer) , become renovated.
Juvenesco (juvenis), grow young.
Mitesco (mitis), grow mild.
Mollesco (mollis), grow soft.
Pinguesco (pinguis) , grow fat.
Plumesco (pluma) , get feathers.
Puerasco, repuerasco ( puer), become a child (again) .
Sterilesco (sterilis), become barren.
Teneresco, tenerasco (tener) , become tender.

(6) Having a perfect.

Crebresco, in-, per- (creber) crebrui, grow frequent.
Duresco, ob-, in- (durus) durui, grow hard.
Evanesco (vanus) evanui, disappear.
Innotesco (notus) innotui, become known.
Macresco (macer) macrui (rare) , grow lean.
 VERBS . 137

Maturesco (maturus) maturui, grow ripe.

Nigresco (niger) nigrui, grow black.
Obmutesco (mutus) obmutui, become dumb.
Obsurdesco (surdus) obsurdui, become deaf.
Recrudesco (crudus) recrudui, to open again (of a wound that had
been closed) .
Vilesco, evilesco (vilis) evilui, become cheap or worthless.
Obs. Mansuesco, mansuevi, ' grow tame,' ' get used to the hand,'
is a compound of manus and suesco (p. 129 ).

(3) Verbal Inchoatives which have the supine as well as perfect

of the root.

Abolesco, abolevi, abolitum, cease, am annihilated .

Exolesco, exolevi, exolētum, grow useless by age.
Adolesco, adolevi, adultum, grow up.
Coalesco (alere) coalui, coalitum, grow together.
Concupisco (cupere) concupivi, concupitum , desire.
Convalesco (valere) convalui, convalītum, recover health .
Exardesco (ardere) exarsi, exarsum, am inflamed .
Indolesco (dolere) indolui, -itum, feel pain .
Inveterasco (inveterare) inveteravi, -atum , grow old.
Obdormisco (dormire) -ivi, -itum, fall asleep, edormisco, sleep out.
Revivisco (vivere) revixi, revictum, recover life.
Scisco (scire) scivi, scitum, resolve, decree.
(Hence plebiscitum, populiscitum).
Obs. The first three are from oleo , the neuter of alo, root al- or ol-,
which must be distinguished from oleo, ' smell,' root ol-- od-, cf. od-or.

B. Abbreviated Forms.

98 The following verbs are liable to syncope or abbreviation

in many of the inflexions : possum for potis sum, ' I am able, ' which
prefixes an abridged form of the adjective to a complete inflexion
of the verb sum, except that in the perfect and pluperfect the ƒ of
fui is omitted, as in the verbs which take this form of the perfect ;
6
volo, I wish, ' and its compounds-nolo for non volo, ' I do not
wish ; ' mālo for magis volo, ' I prefer ; ' -edo , ' I eat ; ' fèro, ‘ I
bear or suffer. ' The latter is also irregular in having no perfect of
its own, for tollo gives it the perfect and supine, tuli for tetŭli and
lātum for t'latum or toltum, and takes to itself the compound forms
sus-tuli and sub-lātum.
 138 VERBS .

A.

I.
Singular.
possum potěs potest
volo vis vult
nōlo nonvis nonvult
mālo māvis mavult
ědo ĕdis v. es ĕdit v. est
fero fers fert.

Plural.
possumus potestis possunt
võlumus vultis võlunt
nōlumus nonvultis nōlunt
mālumus mavultis mālunt
ědĭmus ědītis v. estis ĕdunt
ferimus fertis férunt.

II.
Singular. Plural.
poteram poteras poterat poterāmus poterātis poterant
võlē-bam
nōlē-bam
mālē-bam › -bas -bat -bāmus -bātis -bant.
ĕdē-bam
fĕrē-bam
III.
potu-i
võlu-i
nōlu-i
-isti -it -ĭmus -istis, -ērunt v. -ĕre
mālu-i
ēd-i
tŭl-i

IV.
potu-eram
volu-eram
nolu-eram
-eras -erat -erāmus -erātis -erant.
malu-eram
ed-eram
tul-eram
 VERBS . 139

V.
Singular. Plural.
potero poteris poterit potěrĭmus potěrĭtis potěrunt
vol-am
nol-am
mal-am -es -et -ēmus -ētis -ent.
ed-am
fer-am

B.

2. nōli, nōlīto 2. nōlīte, nōlītōte

2. ede, edito v. es, esto 2. ědíte, ĕditōte v. este, estote
3. edito v. esto 3. ĕdunto
2. fer, ferto, 3. ferto 2. ferte, fertōte, 3. ferunto.

Obs. Possum, volo, and malo have no imperative.

C.
I.
poss -im
vel-im
-is -it -imus -itis -int
nol-im
mal-im
ed-am
-as -at -āmus -ātis -ant.
fer-am

II.
poss-em
vell-em
noll-em
mall-em -es -et -ēmus -ētis -ent.
eder-em v.
ess-em
ferr-em
III.
potuer-o, -im
voluer-o ,-im
noluer-o , -im -is -it- -imus -ītis -int.
maluer-o, -im
eder-o, -im
tuler-o, -im
140 VERBS .

IV.
Plural.
Singular.
potu-issem
volu-issem
nolu-issem -issēmus -issent.
-isses -isset -issētis
malu-issem
ed-issem
tul-issem
D.

I.
posse, velle, nolle, malle, edere v. esse , ferre .

III.
potuisse, voluisse, noluisse, maluisse, edisse , tulisse.

V.
ēsūrum esse, latūrum esse.
The supines of edo and fero are esum and lātum.

The abbreviated forms of fero are found in the passive also ;

thus we have, A. 1. feror, ferris , fertur, and B. ferre, fertor ; C. II .
ferrer, ferreris. In the passive of edo, we have estur for editur.
In fero the shortened forms alone are used, but in edo both forms
are common. In volo we have the still further abbreviations, sis
for si vis, sultis for si vultis.

§ 6. Defective Verbs.

99 All impersonal verbs are defective in the first and second

persons, though they are regularly inflected through the moods and
tenses ; thus we have

oportet me, it behoves me, or I ought.

miserebat te, it pitied you, or you pitied.
licuit mihi, it was allowed to me, or I could.
pigeret eum, it would vex him, or he would be vexed.

The following lists contain the most common impersonal verbs :

1. Impersonals never used personally.

oportet, it is proper. licet, it is lawful.
libet, it is pleasing. piget, it is wearisome .
 VERBS . 141

paenitet, it repents . refert (i.e. rei fert), it is for the

pudet, it shames. interest.
miseret, it pities. diluculat, it dawns.
taedet, it disgusts .
2. Impersonals also used personally in the 3rd sing. or pl.
tonat, it thunders . fulminat, it thunders .
pluit, it rains. rorat, it bedews .
ningit, it snows. lapidat, it rains stones .
fulgurat, it lightens . vesperascit, it grows late.
grandinat, it hails . lucescit or luciscit , it is light.
Obs. In a secondary or figurative sense tono and lapido are used as
personal verbs in the 1st and 2nd persons. Otherwise when used per-
sonally the subject of these words is some word implying the heavenly
phenomena, as Jupiter (the sky) pluit ; astra rorant; dies luciscit, ves-
perascit.

3. Personal verbs used impersonally in a particular sig-

nification.
(a) in the active.
stat, it is determined . solet, it is wont.
constat, it is known. accidit, it happens .
praestat, it is better. accedit, it is added .
restat, it remains . excidit, it falls out.
delectat, it pleases . conducit, confert, it is advanta-
juvat, it is agreeable . geous.
vacat, there is leisure. contingit, it succeeds .
placet, it is agreed . sufficit, it suffices.
attinet, pertinet, it concerns. interest, it concerns.
apparet, it is plain . crebrescit, it is spread abroad.
decet, it is becoming. evenit, it happens.
dedecet, it is unbecoming. expedit, it is useful.
liquet, it is clear. fit, it comes to pass.
patet, it is manifest. convenit, it suits .
latet, it is hidden.
(b) in the passive.
videtur, it seems. favetur, people are well dis-
dicitur, it is said. posed.
itur, one goes. estur, people eat.
venitur , one comes. bibitur, people drink.
scitur, one knows . creditur, the world believes.
statur, one stands. &c.
 142 VERBS .

100 All neuter and deponent verbs are defective in voice,

except in the usage just mentioned, i.e. when the former are de-
fective in person : thus curro, ' I run, ' is not inflected in the pas-
sive, except as an impersonal, when we also have the gerund ; as
curritur a me, it is run by me, i.e. I run .
currendum est vobis, ye must run .

101 These verbs, fio, ' I become, ' vāpulo, ' I cry out for pain,'
' I am beaten, ' vēneo , ' I go for sale, ' ' I am sold , ' are strictly
passive in their signification and construction , and may be called
neuter-passives. Fio , which is used as the passive of facio, ' I
make, ' is thus inflected :

A. I. C. I.
fio, fis, fit fiam , fias, &c .
fimus, fitis, fiunt.
II. II.
fiebam , &c . fiĕrěm , &c .
III. III.
factus sum , &c. factus sim, fuero , fuerim, &c.
IV. IV.
factus eram, &c. factus essem, &c.
V.
fiam, fies, fiet, &c.
B.

2. fi, fito, 3. fito. 2. fite, fitōte, 3. fiunto.

D.
I. fiĕri. III. factum (-am, -um) esse. V. factum iri.

Veneo, which is a compound of the supine venum and the verb

eo, is used as the passive of ven - do or venum do. We have seen
that the passive infinitive of eo may be used with the supine of any
verb to form the future infinitive passive ; as amatum iri, ' to be
about to be loved, ' from itur [a me, &c. ] amatum, ' there is a going
[by me, &c. ] to love' = ' I am going to love' (70) .

102 A deponent verb is inflected like a passive, but has an

active supine and participle ; and its participle of the passive form
is merely past in signification ; thus loquor, ' I am speaking, ' locu-
 VERBS . 143

tus sum, ' I have spoken , ' loquens , ' speaking ,' locūtūrus, ' about to
speak,' locūtus, ' having spoken ,' loqui and locutum , ' to speak,'
6
locutum esse, ' to have spoken,' locūtūrum esse, to be about to
speak.' A deponent verb may be either transitive, as veneror
deum, 'I worship God ;' or intransitive, as morior, ' I am dying.'

(1) The following paradigm will suffice to show the contrast

between the form and signification of a deponent verb.

Loquor, ' I speak.'

Indicative. Subjunctive.
A. C.
I. Present.
loquor, I am speaking loquar, I may speak
loqueris (-e), thou art speaking loquaris (-e), thou mayest speak
loquitur, he is speaking loquatur , he may speak
loquimur, we are speaking loquamur, we may speak
loquimini, ye are speaking loquamini, ye may speak
loquuntur, they are speaking loquantur, they may speak.

II. Imperfect.
loquebar, I was speaking loquerer, I might speak
loquebaris (-e) , thou wast speak- loquereris (-e) , thou mightest
ing speak
loquēbātur, he was speaking loqueretur, he might speak
loquēbāmur, we were speaking loquĕrēmur, we might speak
loquēbāmini, ye were speaking loquěrēmini, ye might speak
loquebantur, they were speaking loquerentur, they might speak.

III. Perfect .
locutus (-a, -um) sum, I have locutus (-a, -um) sim, I may have
spoken spoken
locutus (-a, -um) es, thou hast locutus (-a, -um) sis , thou mayst
spoken have spoken
locutus (-a, -um) , he (she, it) has locutus (-a, -um) sit, he (she, it)
spoken may have spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) sumus, we have locuti (-ae , -a) simus, we may
spoken have spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) estis, ye have locuti (-ae, -a) sitis, ye may have
spoken spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) sunt, they have locuti (-ae, -a) sint, they may
spoken have spoken .
144 VERBS .

Indicative. Subjunctive.
IV. Pluperfect.

locutus (-a, -um) eram, I had locutus (-a, -um) essem, I might
have spoken
spoken
locutus (-a, -um) eras, thou hadst locutus (-a, -um) esses, thou
spoken mightest have spoken
locutus (-a, -um) erat, he (she, locutus (-a, -um) esset, he (she,
it) had spoken it) might have spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) eramus, we had locuti (-ae, -a) essemus , we might
spoken have spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) eratis , ye had locuti (-ae, -a ) essetis , ye might
spoken have spoken
locuti (-ae, -a) erant, they had locuti (-ae, -a ) essent, they might
spoken have spoken.

V. Future.

loquar, I shall speak locuturus (-a, -um) sim, I may

be about to speak
loqueris (-e) , thou wilt speak locuturus (-a, -um ) sis, thou
mayest be about to speak
loquetur, he (she, it) will speak locuturus (-a, -um) sit, he (she , it)
may be about to speak
loquemur, we shall speak locuturi (-ae, -a) simus , we may
be about to speak
loquemini, ye will speak locuturi (-ae, -a) sitis, ye may be
about to speak
loquentur, they will speak locuturi (-ae, -a) sint, they may
be about to speak.

Imperative.
B.

loquere, loquitor, speak thou

loquimini, loquiminor, speak ye.

Infinitive.
D.
I. loqui, to speak
III. locutum (-am, -um) esse, to have spoken
V. locuturum (-am, -um) esse, to be about to speak.
 VERBS . 145

Participles.
E.
I.
1. loquens, speaking. III. locutus, having spoken. v. locuturus,
about to speak .

Gerunds.
F.

loquendum, to speak, loquendi, of speaking, loquendo, in or by

speaking.

Supines.
G.

locutum, to speak, locutu, in or by speaking.

The following lists give the principal verbs of this class :

1 Deponent Verbs ofthe First Conjugation.

Abominor, express abhorrence Auctionor, sell at auction

Adminiculor, aid Aucupor, catch birds (am au-
Adversor, oppose myself ceps)
*Adulor, flatter Aversor, dislike, avoid with
Emulor, rival horror
Allucinor, also aluc- and haluc-, Auguror (augur)
practise
dote, talk idly * Auspicor (auspex)
soothsay-
*Altercor, quarrel Hariolor (hariolus)
ing
Amplexor, embrace Vaticinor ( vates)
Ancillor, am a handmaid Auxilior, aid
Apricor, sun myself Bacchor, revel as a Baccha-
Aquor, fetch water ; frumentor, nal
collect corn ; lignor, collect * Cachinnor, laugh aloud
wood ; materior, fell timber ; Calumnior, cavil
pabulor, forage Cavillor , ridicule
Arbitror, think Cauponor, deal in retail
Architector, build (architectus) Causor, allege
Argumentor, test by proofs Circulor, form a circle round
Argutor, chatter (am argutus) me
Aspernor, despise Comissor, feast
Assentor, agree, flatter * Comitor, accompany (active only
Astipulor , agree in the poets )
D. L. G. 10
146 VERBS .

Commentor, reflect upon, dispute Gratificor, comply with

Concionor, harangue Grator andgratulor, give thanks,
*Conflictor, contend present congratulations
Conor, attempt Gravor, think heavy (passive of
Consilior, advise gravo)
Conspicor, behold Helluor, gluttonize
Contemplor, contemplate Hortor, exhort ; adhortor, ex-
Convicior , revile hortor, dehortor
Convivor, feast (conviva) Hospitor, am a guest, lodge
Cornicor, chatter as a crow Jaculor, throw, dart
Criminor, accuse Imaginor, imagine
Cunctor, delay Imitor, imitate
Depeculor, plunder Indignor, am indignant, spurn
Despicor, despise ; but despica- Infitior, deny
tus is passive, despised Insidior , plot
Deversor, lodge Interpretor, explain ( am an in-
Digladior, fight terpres)
Dignor, think worthy (Cicero Jocor, jest
sometimes uses it as a passive) Jurgor, quarrel
Dedignor, disdain Lacrimor, shed tears
Dominor, rule (dominus) Laetor, rejoice
Elucubror, produce by dint of Lamentor, lament
labour Latrocinor, rob
Epulor, feast Lenocinor (alicui) , flatter
Exsecror, execrate Libidinor, am voluptuous.
*Fabricor, fashion Licitor, bid at an auction
Fabulor, confabulor, talk Lucror, gain
Famulor, serve (famulus) Luctor (ob-, re-) , strive, wrestle
Foeneror, lend at interest (in Ludificor, ridicule
later writers active in the Luxurior, am luxurious
same sense as deponent, but Machinor, devise
foenero in Terence means ' to *Medicor, heal
restore with interest') *Meditor, meditate
Ferior, keep holiday Mercor, buy
Frustror, disappoint *Meridior, repose at noon
Furor, suffuror, steal Metor, measure out
Glorior, boast Minor and minitor, threaten
Graecor, live like a Greek , i . e. Miror (de-, ad-), wonder
luxuriously Miseror, commiseror, pity
Grassor, advance quickly, attack Moderor, restrain, temper
 VERBS. 147

Modulor, modulate Precor, pray; comprecor, depre-

Morigeror, comply cor, imprecor
Moror (com-) , delay ; trans. and Proelior, fight a battle
intrans. Ratiocinor, reason
*Muneror, remuneror (aliquem Recordor, remember
aliqua re), reward Refragor , oppose
Mutuor, borrow Rimor, examine minutely
Negotior, carry on business Rixor, wrangle
Nidulor, build a nest *Ruminor, chew the cud
Nugor, trifle *Runcor, eructate
Nundinor, deal in buying and Rusticor, live in the country
selling Scitor and sciscitor, inquire
Nutricor, nourish Scortor, live unchastely
Odōror, smell out Scrutor, perscrutor, search
Ominor, prophesy Scurror, play the buffoon
Operor, bestow labour on Sector, follow (frequentative of
Opinor, think sequor) ; assector, consector,
Opitulor, lend help insector
* Oscitor, yawn Sermocinor, hold discourse
Osculor, kiss Solor, consolor, comfort
Otior, have leisure Spatior, exspatior, walk
Palor, wander Speculor, keep a look out
*Palpor, stroke, flatter Stipulor, make a bargain
Parasitor, act the parasite (pa- Stomachor, am indignant
rasitus) Suavior, kiss
Patrocinor, patronize Suffragor, assent to
Percontor, inquire Suspicor, suspect
Peregrinor, dwell as a stranger Tergiversor, shuffle
Periclitor, try, am in danger Testor (de-, ob-) and testificor,
Philosophor, philosophize bear witness
*Pigneror, take a pledge, bind Tricor, make unreasonable dif-
by a pledge ficulties (tricas)
Pigror, am idle Tristor, am sad
Piscor, fish Trutinor, weigh (trutina)
*Populor, lay waste Tumultuor, make uproar
Praedor, plunder Tutor, defend
Praestolor, wait for Vador, summon to trial
Praevaricor, walk crookedly Vagor, wander
(figur. act dishonestly as an *Velificor, steer towards (fig.
advocate) promote an object ; with dat. )
10-2
148 VERBS.

Velitor, skirmish with light dwell, am occupied in ; aver-

troops sor, conversor, obversor
Veneror, venerate Vociferor, vociferate
Venor , hunt Urinor, dive under water (to void
Verecundor, feel shame at doing urine is urinam facere or red-
Versor (properly passive of verso) , dere)

2 Deponents ofthe Second Conjugation.

Fateor, fassus sum, fateri, acknowledge.

Confiteor, confessus sum, confess ; profiteor, profess ; diffiteor (no
participle), deny.
Obs. This word properly means I give in, own that I have had
enough,' like the Greek areɩTEîv ; and in this sense the inchoative
fatisco, E. III. fessus sum, is regularly used.
Liceor, licitus sum, bid at an auction.
Polliceor, promise.

Medeor, no participle, for which medicatus is commonly used.

*Mereor, meritus sum, more commonly merui, deserve . The active
used in the sense of earning or securing, as merere stipendia ;
quid mereas ? But the forms are often interchanged .
Commereor, demereor, promereor, have the same meaning.

Misereor, miseritus or misertus sum, pity.

Reor, ratus sum, reri, think ; has no imperfect subjunctive (Cic. de

Or. III. 38 ; Quint. VIII. 3. 26) .
Tueor, tuitus sum, look upon, fig. defend.
Contueor, intueor, look upon. There was an old form tuor.

Vereor, veritus sum, fear.

Revereor, reverence ; subvereor, slightly fear.

3 Deponents of the Third Conjugation.

Adsentior, adsensus sum, adsentiri, assent. (As an active, adsentio,
adsensi, adsensum, adsentire, it is not so common) .
Blandior, blanditus sum, blandiri, flatter.
Experior, expertus sum, experiri, experience, try.
*Comperior is used in the present tense, as well as comperio; the
other tenses are formed only from the active verb ; comperi, not
compertus sum.
 VERBS. 149

Largior, largitus sum, largiri, give money ; dilargior, distribute

money.
Mentior, mentitus sum, mentiri, lie ; ementior, the same.
Mētior, mensus sum, metiri, measure.
Dimetior, measure out ; emetior, measure completely ; permetior.
Molior, molitus sum, moliri, move a mass ; plan.
Amolior, remove from the way ; demolior, demolish, and others.
Opperior, oppertus sum, opperiri, wait for.
Ordior, orsus sum , ordiri, begin.
Exordior, the same ; redordior, begin over again.
Orior, ortus sum, oriri. See this verb in the list of the Fourth
Conjugation.
Partior, partitus sum, partiri, divide (rarely active) .
*Dispertior, dispertitus sum (more frequently active), distribute ;
*impertior (also impertio, impartio, impartior), communicate.
Potior, potitus sum, potiri, possess myself of.
It is not uncommon, especially in the poets, for the present indi-
cative and the imperfect subjunctive to be formed after the fourth
conjugation ; potitur, potimur, poteretur, poteremur.
* Punior. This verb is also found as an active verb ; but is used as
a deponent by Cicero, Off. 1. 25, punitur ; Tusc. Disp. 1. 44,
puniantur; Phil. VIII . 3, puniretur ; Mil. 13, punitus es ; Invent.
II. 27, punitus sis.
Sortior, sortitus sum, sortiri, cast lots.

4 Deponents of the Fourth Conjugation.

Adipiscor, adeptus sum, and indipiscor, obtain (from the obsolete
apiscor, aptus sum, apisci).
Divertor, turn aside, and revertor, return, are used as deponents ,
though vertor is passive only. They take the perfect from the
active form, except the participle reversus ; reversus sum occurs ,
but much more rarely than reverti.
Expergiscor, experrectus sum, expergisci, awake.
Fruor, fructus, and fruitus sum, frui, enjoy.
Perfruor, perfructus sum, strengthens the meaning.

Fungor, functus sum, fungi, perform, discharge.

Defungor, completely discharge, finish.
150 VERBS.

Gradior, gressus sum, gradi, proceed, is obsolete , except in the

compounds .
Aggredior, aggressus sum, aggrědi, assail ; congredior, meet ; digre-
dior, depart ; egredior, go out of; ingredior, enter on, progredior,
advance ; regredior, return.

Invěhor, invectus sum, invěhi, inveigh against, properly passive of

veho.

Irascor, irasci, properly an inchoative, grow angry ; iratus sum, I

am angry. I have been or was angry, is succensui.
Labor, lapsus sum, lābi, fall.
Collabor, sink together ; dilabor, fall in pieces ; elabor, slip away ;
illabor, fall on ; relabor, fall back.

Liquor, liquefactus sum, liqui, melt away.

Loquor, locutus sum, loqui, speak.
Alloquor, address ; colloquor, speak with ; eloquor, interloquor;
obloquor, speak against, revile.
Comminiscor, commentus sum, comminisci, devise, imagine (from
the obsolete miniscor ) ; reminiscor has no perfect ; recordatus sum
is used for the perfect .

Morior, morĕris, imperative morere; moriebar, mortuus sum, moriar,

morerer (participle future, moriturus) , mori, die (moriri poetical) .
Emorior, commorior, demorior.

Nanciscor, nactus sum, nancisci, obtain. The participle is written

nanctus in many passages of Livy and other writers .
Nascor, natus sum, nasci, nasciturus, am born (passive in sense, but
without an active).
Innascor, renascor.

Nitor, nisus or nixus sum, niti, lean upon, strive .

Adnitor, strive for ; connitor and enitor, exert myself ; in the sense
of having brought forth,' enixa is the preferable form of the par-
ticiple ; obnitor, strive against, commonly obnixus ; renītor, resist.
Obliviscor, oblitus sum, oblivisci, forget.

Orior, ortus sum (participle future , oriturus) , has in the infinitive

orīri, and in the imperfect subjunctive both orerer and orīrer
(Liv. XXIII. 16 ; Tac. Annal. II . 47, XI . 23) . The present
indic. follows the fourth conjugation, orĕris, oritur, orĭmur.
Coorior and exorior are formed in the same way (exoreretur, Lucret.
II. 516) ; of adorior, adoriris and adoritur are certain, whereas
adorĕris, adoritur are only probable.
 VERBS. 151

Paciscor, pactus sum (or pepigi ; see 87, ( 1 ) ) , make a bargain.

Depaciscor or depeciscor, depactus sum, same meaning.

Pascor, pastus sum, feed ; intransitive. (Properly passive of pasco.)

Patior, passus sum, păti, suffer.

Perpetior, perpessus sum, perpeti, endure.

Amplector and complector, complexus sum, embrace (from plecto,

twine).

Proficiscor, profectus sum, proficisci, set out (from facio, 97, (c) ) .

Queror, questus sum, queri, complain.

Conqueror, lament.

Ringor (no perfect or participle) , ringi, grin, show the teeth.

Sequor, secutus sum, sèqui, follow.

Assequor and consequor, overtake, attain ; exsequor, execute ; in-
sequor, follow ; obsequor, comply with ; persequor, pursue ; prose-
quor, attend; subsequor, follow close after.

Vescor (no perfect or supine) , vesci, eat. Edi is used as the perfect.
Ulciscor, ultus sum, ulcisci, revenge, punish.

Utor, usus sum, uti, use.

Abutor, abuse.

5 Many deponents occur also in the active form, and these

are denoted by an asterisk (*) in the above lists. This explains
the fact, that many deponents are occasionally found also in a
passive signification, e. g. adulor, criminor, dignor, partior, testor
in Cicero. On the other hand , some active verbs are occasionally
used as deponents, namely, bello (Virg. ) ; communico (Livy) ; pera-
gro (Vell. Pat.) ; multo (Suet. ) ; elucubro, punio, and suppedito
(Cicero) . The perfect participle (E. III.) of the deponent verb is
very often used in a passive sense, as the following list will show :

arbitratus, thought machinatus, devised

comitatus, accompanied meditatus, considered
conatus, attempted mercatus, bought
dominatus, ruled metatus, measured
frustratus, frustrated moderatus, moderated
imitatus, imitated modulatus, modulated
lamentatus, lamented moratus, delayed
152 VERBS.

opinatus, thought testatus, proved

populatus, laid waste veneratus, honoured
stipulatus, agreed on

blanditus, flattered pactus, agreed on

largitus, bestowed mensus, measured
mentitus, lied orsus, begun
partitus, divided ausus, dared
meritus, deserved

Also the compounds :

abontinatus , detested velificatus, sailed over
commentatus, devised adeptus, obtained
consolatus, consoled aggressus, attacked
deprecatus , deprecated confessus, admitted
despicatus, despised professus , made known
exhortatus, encouraged commentus, imagined
exsecratus , cursed complexus, embraced
insectatus, pursued expertus, experienced
interminatus, threatened exsecutus, carried out
interpretatus, explained oblitus, forgotten
testificatus, proved

On the other hand, some active participles are used in a re-

flexive or middle sense, as vertens, ' turning oneself, ' volvens, ' roll-
ing oneself' or ' being rolled,' vehens, ' carrying oneself, carried ,'
rotans, ' wheeling oneself ' (of a wheel).

103 Four verbs, audeo, ' I dare,' ausus sum ; fido, ' I trust,'
fisus sum ; gaudeo, ' I am glad, ' gavīsus sum ; soleo, ' I am accus-
tomed,' solitus sum, have a passive form but active signification in
the perfect, and might therefore be called neuter deponents. To the
same class belong the participles exōsus and perōsus, ' having
hated ; 'pertaesus, ' weary of;' pōtus , ' having drunk ; ' juratus,
' having sworn ;' coenatus, ' having dined ; ' and the quasi-adjec-
tives consideratus (Cic. Caecin. 1 , § 1 ) , circumspectus, cautus, falsus,
tacitus, nupta, &c., which belong to active verbs.

104 The following verbs are specially defective :

(a) Aio, ' I say.'
A. I. aio , ǎis , ǎit aiunt.
 VERBS. 153

II. aiē-bam, -bas, -bat, -bamus , -batis, -bant.

III. ait.
Part. aiens .

(b) Inquam, ' say I,' ' quoth I,' only used between words
quoted as spoken by another.
A. I.
inquam inquis inquit inquimus inquitis inquiunt.
II.
inquie-bam -bas -bat -bamus -batis -bant.

III.
inquisti inquit inquistis.
V.
inquies inquiet.
B.
inque inquito inquite.

(c) Fari, ' to speak ,' has only fatur, ' he says,' fare, ‘ say
thou,' fatus, ' having said, ' fando , ' by saying.'

(d) Quaeso, I pray, ' ' prithee, ' has only this form and quae-
sumus ; but the verb quaero, which is merely another orthography,
is complete (above, 97 , (a) ) .

(e) Coepi, ' I begin , ' memini, ' I remember,' odi, ' I hate,'
have only the perfect and pluperfect of the indicative , subjunctive,
and infinitive ; but coepi has also a perfect passive coeptus sum,
coepi and ōdi have the future participles coepturus and ōsūrus, and
memini has the imperative memento, mementōte.

(f) Forem and fore are used as synonyms of essem and futu-
rum esse (above, 72) .

(g) Aus-im, -is, -it, -int are used for corresponding persons of
audeam, ' I may dare,' and faxim, faxis, faxit, faximus, faxītis,
faxint are synonymous with faciam, facias, &c. ' I may make.'

(h) The following verbs are used only as imperatives : apage,

"
apagěte, ' begone, ' ave, avēte, hail,' salve, salvete, ' good morrow,'
fut. salvēbis, infin. salvère; vale, valete, ' farewell,' infin. valere ; to
which may be added cedo, give me ,' ' tell me,' with its obsolete
plural cette for cedite.
 CHAPTER V.

UNDECLINED WORDS.

§ 1. Adverbs .

105 AN adverb is a word used in a fixed case for the pur-

pose of qualifying by some secondary statement that which is
already expressed by a verb, an adjective, or even another adverb ;
thus in the phrases feliciter vivit, he lives happily ; ' eximie
doctus, ' exceedingly learned ; ' satis bene scripsit, ' he wrote suffi-
ciently well ; ' the adverb feliciter qualifies the verb vivit by a
secondary or accessory statement, of the manner of the life ; the
adverb eximie qualifies the adjective doctus by a secondary state-
ment of the degree of the learning ; the adverb satis qualifies the
other adverb bene by the secondary, or, in this case, the tertiary
statement, that the writing was not only well done , in regard to
quality, but that it exhibited a sufficient amount of that quality.
The prepositions , conjunctions, and interjections, which are given
as separate varieties of undeclined words, are, in regard to their
origin and primitive use, neither more nor less than adverbs ; but
they are classed as separate parts of speech, because they have
peculiar functions in the syntax of an inflected language. With
regard to their etymology, adverbs are either (1 ) primitive, or
(2) derivative. Primitive adverbs are those which cannot be re-
ferred to any declinable words as their immediate origin . Deri-
vative adverbs are those which may be formed regularly from
adjectives or participles.The latter are much the most nume-
rous, and their meaning is generally given by that of the cor-
responding declinable words. The former, though a less extensive
class , constitute some of the most important machinery in the Latin
language, and involve a considerable amount of philological diffi-
culty. It will be sufficient in a practical grammar to classify
the adverbs in common use according to the nature of the secondary
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 155

qualifications which they express , and to add observations on those

which are most deserving of the student's attention . But it will
be desirable in the first place to make some remarks on the for-
mation of those adverbs , which belong to the class of derivatives.

106 The great majority of adverbs are cases of substantives,

adjectives, and participles.

(a) From adjectives and participles in -us, -a, -um, and adjec-
tives in -er, -a, -um, we have adverbs in ē, which is the commonest
form , as longe from longus, or pulcrē from pulcer ; or ō, as raro from
rarus, subito from subitus. But we have běně and mălě from bonus
and malus. Some adjectives have two forms of the adverb with
a difference of meaning : thus certe means ' at any rate, ' certo,
' certainly : vere means ' truly ; ' vero is either the conjunction
' but, ' or it is added to another word in the sense of ' indeed ; '
as ego vero, minime vero. Sanē from sanus is nearly equivalent
in meaning to certo, and has many idiomatic uses as a concessive
particle, in which case it may even be opposed to certe ; as sint
falsa sane, invidiosa certe non sunt, let them be false, if you
please ; at any rate they are not malicious ' (Cic. Acad. Prior.
II . 32 , § 105) .

(b) Other adjectives and participles form their adverbs, if

they have any, in -ter which is the common form , or else use
their neuter as an adverb ; thus we have celeriter from celer,
amanter from amans , &c. , or dulce from dulcis, and recens instead
of recenter. Some adjectives in us have adverbs in -ter as well
as in -ē; thus we find both firme and firmiter from firmus. From
violentus we have violenter only, although violens is never used
in prose. Vehementer is used, like oppido, as a merely intensive
adjunct in the sense of ' very ' or ' very much ; ' as haec res
vehementer ad me pertinet, ' this matter very much concerns me.'

(c) Adverbs in -tim or -sim have a sort of participial meaning,

but are apparently derived from nouns as well as verbs ; thus we
have caesim, ' cuttingly,' i. e. ' with a cut,' catervā-tim, ' troop-
ingly,' i. e. ' in troops, ' vicis-sim, ' in turns, ' fur-tim, ' by stealth,'
&c. Partim is merely the locative of pars ; it means not only
' partly,' but, substantively, ' a part of ; ' as partim e nobis timidi
sunt, partim aversi, ' some of us are cowardly, others unfriendly.'
156 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Saltim, ' jumpingly,' is generally used as a concessive particle = ' at

least,'' at all events ; ' and statim, ' standingly, ' means not only
' firmly,' ' stably,' but also and more commonly ' on the spot,'
' immediately,' as a particle of time.

(d) . Adverbs in -tus denote origin ; as coeli- tus, ' from heaven,'
fundi-tus, ' from the bottom,' peni-tus , ' from within , ' hence ‘ en-
tirely,' ' thoroughly,' like plane and prorsus = pro-versus, which
have the same meaning.

(e) Many adverbs are merely cases of nouns ; as diu, noctu,

palam, forte, frustra, vulgo ; and some include more than one word,
as denuo = de novo, profecto = pro facto, nimirum = mirum ni,
postrīdie =posteri die, meridie = medii die (where posteri, mediï are
locatives, like domi) , hodie = hoc die, magnopere = magno opere.
Others are formed from verbs, as scilicet, videlicet, for scire licet,
videre licet = it is clear,' dumtaxat = ' provided one estimates it
exactly,' ' only,' ' at least, ' ' as far as that goes.'

(f) New adverbs are formed by prefixing prepositions , as

exinde, deinde, subinde, adhuc, &c. But antea , posteā, posthac,
& c. are merely obsolete forms of the pronoun added to the pre-
position ; thus antea is for ante ea, posthac for post haec, &c.

107 According to their signification adverbs fall into five

principal classes : (A) Adverbs of negation , affirmation, and inter-
rogation ; (B) adverbs of place ; (C ) adverbs of time, which an-
swer to the question, ' when ? ' (D) adverbs of time, which answer
to the question, ' how long ? ' or ' how often ? ' (E) adverbs of
manner or degree.

(A) Adverbs of negation, affirmation, and interrogation.

(a) Negative particles.

Non, no, not Immo, nay rather
Haud, quite the reverse Ne, the prohibitive or final nega-
Ne-quidem, not even tion
Neutiquam, by no means

(b) Affirmative or concessive particles.

Nae, verily Equidem, surely
Etiam, yes Utique, at any rate
Quidem, at least, at all events Vel, if you please
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 157

Sic plane, quite so Certe, certainly, at least

Nempe, to be sure Profecto, of a truth , doubtless
Nimirum,) Quippe, of course
Scilicet, doubtless Sane, assuredly
Videlicet, Recte, quite right.

(c) Interrogative particles.

-ně, is it so ? Quare,
Nonne, is it not so ? Cur, why ?
Num, it is not so , is it ? Quid,
Utrum (num) -ne (an) , is this Qui,
how ?
the case, or that ? Quomodo,

(B) Adverbs of place.

*Ubi, where Illinc, from that other place
lbi, there Utrinque, from both sides
Ibidem, at the same place Undique, from all sides
Alibi, elsewhere Undevis, from any place you
Nusquam, nowhere at all Undelicet, please
Hic, here (by the speaker) Alicunde, from some other place
Istic, there (by the person ad- Undeunde, from whenceso-
dressed) Undecunque, ever
Illic, at that other place *Quo, whither
Utrobique, at both places Eo, thither
Ubivis, Eodem, in the same direction
Ubilibet, everywhere Alio, in another direction.
Ubique, Citra, on this side
Alicubi, somewhere Ultra, on that side, beyond
Uspiam, anywhere Citro, in this direction
Usquam, anywhere at all Ultro, in that direction
Ubiubi, Prae, before
wherever
Ubicunque,) Pone,
*Unde, whence Retro, }behind
Inde, thence Longe, far (a considerable dis-
Indidem, from the same place tance in length)
Aliunde, from another place Late, widely (a considerable dis-
Hinc, from hence (from the tance in breadth)
speaker) Longe lateque , far and wide
Istinc, from thence (from the Procul, afar (relative distance
person addressed) and separation)
* Words marked with an asterisk are used also as interrogatives.
158 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Huc, hither (to the speaker) Quavis,

in any way
Istuc, thither (to the person ad- Qualibet,
dressed) Aliqua, in some way
Illuc, in that other direction Quaqua,
in any way soever
Quovis, Quacunque,
whither you please *
Quolibet, Quorsum, in what direction
Aliquo, some whither (for quoversum)
Quopiam, any whither Aliorsum, in another direction
Quoquam, any whither at all Illorsum, in that direction
Quoquo, whithersoever Dextrorsum, to the right
Quocunque, Sinistrorsum, to the left
*Qua, in what way Introrsum, inwards
Ea, in that way Retrorsum, backwards
Eadem, in the same way Sursum, upwards
Alia, in a different way Deorsum, downwards
Hac, in this way Quoquoversus, in any direction
Istac, in that way whatsoever
Illac, in that other way

(C) Adverbs of time, which answer to the question ' when ?'

Quum, Aliquando, sometimes (opposed

when
* Quando, to nunquam)
Hodie, to-day Ante, antea, before (multo ante,
Hĕri (here), yesterday long before)
Nudiustertius, the day before Actutum , with all despatch, with-
yesterday out waiting
Cras, to-morrow Cito, soon
Perendie, the day after to-morrow Confestim, in all haste
Pridie, the day before Continuo, immediately, opposed
Postridie, the day after to ex intervallo (also, ' from the
Propediem, within a few days, first')
shortly Extemplo, now, on the spur of
Interdiu, by day the moment (opposed to mox
Noctu, by night and postremo)
Mane, in the morning E vestigio, without delay
Vesperi, in the evening Illico, at once, without hesita-
Abhinc, from this time (counting Ilicet,) tion or slowness
backwards ) Dein, deinde, then
Alias, at another time Deinceps, in succession
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 159

Diu, long ago Paullo post, shortly after

Dudum, sometime before (but Posthac, hereafter
with haud, quam, and jam, Postremo, at last
dudum implies a long time) Postremum, for the last time
Jam, now, already (jam amplius, Pridem, long ago
any longer) Protinus , straightway , forthwith
Interim, interea, in the mean- Quam primum, as soon as possi-
time ble

Modo, just now Quandoque, sometimes

Commode, commodum, just at Quondam, once upon a time
that moment, but that mo- Repente, suddenly (i.e. unex-
ment pectedly)
Mox, soon, presently (between Subito, suddenly (i.e. unforeseen)
extemplo and postremo) Statim, now, at once (opposed
Nondum, not yet (ovπw) to deinde and postea)
Non jam, no longer (ovéTI) Tandem, at length
Nunc, now Tum, then, thereupon (opposed
Nunc demum, not until now to quum , when)
Nunc denique , now at last Tunc, then, at that time (opposed
Etiam nunc, still, even now to nunc, now, at this time)
(without any idea of duration) , Tunc demum, not until then
distinguished from Tunc denique, then at last
Adhuc, still, until now (with an Unquam, ever at all
idea of duration) Vix, scarcely
Olim, formerly (also ' sometimes' Vixdum, but now (followed by
and ' hereafter ') quum)

(D) Adverbs of time, which answer to the question ' how long?'
or ' how often ?'
Quoties, how often, as often as
*Quamdiu, how long, as long as
Aliquamdiu, rather a long Aliquoties , several times
time Crebro, frequently (opposed to
Aliquantisper,S
Adhuc, still, until now (to be raro)
distinguished from etiam nunc) Frequenter, on numerous occa-

Diu, a long time sions, or by many persons

Iterum, again, a second time
a little while
Paulisper,} (in the same direction back

*Quousque, how long again)

Tantisper, so long, such a short Rursus, again, over again
while Denuo, anew
160 UNDECLINED WORDS.

De integro, quite afresh, from Quotannis, every year

the beginning Quotidie, every day
Identidem, repeatedly Raro, seldom
Subinde, in quick succession, Saepe, often (opposed to semel,
one after the other nonnunquam , and semper)
Interdum, sometimes, now and Toties, so often
then (opposed to saepe) Semper, always (of duration)
Nonnunquam, not unfrequently Usque, always (of continuance
(opposed to raro) up to a certain point)
Plerunque, generally, in most
cases (opposed to semper)

To these may be added the numeral adverbs (above, 59) .

(E) Adverbs of manner or degree.

Abunde, even more than enough Item, itidem, likewise, in the

(satis superque) very same manner
Adeo, to such an extent Magnopere (magne does not oc-
Admodum , considerably cur) ,majore opere, maximopere,
Affatim, sufficiently (in regard much, more, most
to the person satisfied) Magis , more
Aliter, otherwise (non aliter Maxime, chiefly
quam si, just as if) Minus, less
Alioqui(n) , in other respects (also Minime, least
' besides ' ) Modo, only
Apprime, by far, especially Omnino, altogether
Imprimis, very much, exceed- Paene, almost
ingly Pariter ac, just as well as
Eque ac, just as much as Nimis, nimium, too much (also
Ceterum, ceteroqui, for the rest, ' very much ')
in other respects Parum, too little
Ceu, as it were Penitus, to the very bottom
Dumtaxat, precisely, solely, at Perinde ac,
least just as if
Proinde ac,
Fere, ferme, almost Perquam, very much, exceedingly
Forte, fortasse, forsitan, perhaps Plane, quite
Frustra, incassum, nequidquam, Potius , rather
in vain Potissimum, chiefly
Gratis, freely, for nought Praecipue, especially
Ita, so Praesertim,
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 161

Prope, nearly Secus, otherwise

Praeut, prout, just as secus ac,
otherwise than
Prorsus, entirely secus quam, }
Quam, as, how much Sic, so
Quantopere, how greatly Sicuti, just as
Tantopere, so much Solum , only
Quasi, as if Tanquam, as though
Quatenus, as far as Tantum,
do
Eatenus, so far as Tantummo ,} only
Hactenus, thus far Tantum non, all but
Aliquatenus, to a certain extent Ut, as, for example
Saltim , at least Utique, in any case, at any rate
Sanequam, very much Valde, very much
Satis, sat, enough (in regard to Velut, veluti, just as
the thing in question) Vix, scarcely.

108 Many of these adverbs create special difficulties, either

because the synonyms require to be carefully discriminated, or
because there is a tendency on the part of the English student to
introduce into the Latin language the vagueness which he finds in
his own vernacular idiom. In these cases it is desirable to add
some observations to the lists given above.

(A)
(a) A negative either denies , i. e. affirms that the thing is not
so, or prohibits, i. e. forbids that it should be so : thus, non and
haud deny, but ne prohibits : non dico, ' I do not say, ' haud dico,
' I am the very reverse of saying,' but ne dic, ' say not,' ne dicam,
'let me not say,' ' that I may not say,' 'lest I say.' The difference
between non and haud is, that, while the former merely denies, the
latter contradicts ; thus, auctor haud quaquam spernendus, means
' an author the very reverse of despicable :' and haud scio does
away with the ambiguity of the question which follows, so that
haud scio an, means ' I am rather inclined to think. ' Although ne
by itself is always used in prohibitive, optative, or final sentences ,
ne or nec (neg-) in composition amounts to a simple negative ; as
ne-scio, ' I know not, ' neg-otium, no leisure, ' neg-ligo, ' I neglect,'
nec-opinato, ' unexpectedly,' &c.: and when followed by some other
word and quidem it amounts to the intensive negative, ' not even ; '
as ne musca quidem, ' not even a fly.'
D. L. G. 11
162 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Obs. The following rhymes will exemplify the usage, and remind
the young student, that quidem must not immediately follow the
negative :
' Ne unus quidem locus est
In all the authors, reckoned best,
Where ne quidem ' not even' mean,
Without some words these words between.'
The reason is, however, because quidem qualifies only the word
which it immediately succeeds.

We have sometimes nec in the same sense as ne-quidem, espe-

6
cially in Quintilian, e . g. alioqui nec scriberem,
otherwise I should
not even write.' If ne-quidem, or nec -nec follow another negative,
the force of the negation is not lost ; thus we may say nihil nec
utilius nec jucundius fieri potest, ' nothing can be done either more
usefully or more pleasantly. '
In conditional and final sentences minus sometimes stands for
"
non or ne; as si minus, if not ; ' quo-minus, ' lest,' ' so as not ; ' and
in the conjunction qui-n the negative is represented by a single
letter.
The particle immo (or imo) primarily means ' in the lowest
degree' (from imus). In answers it is used as a corrective nega-
tion ; thus Cic. de Off. 111. 23 : si patriam prodere conabitur pater,
silebitne filius? immo vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat, if a
father shall attempt to betray his native land, will the son remain
silent ? Nay rather' (in the lowest degree in accordance with that
supposition, on the contrary) , ' he will earnestly beseech his father
not to do so. ' Ter. Andr. III . 5. 11 : Expedies ? Certe Pamphile.
Nempe ut modo. Immo melius spero. You will deliver me ? Yes,
certainly. No doubt as you did just now. On the contrary, better
I hope.' In some cases, where immo has been thought to mean
' yes,' it really contradicts the previous remark by the intimation
that it does not go far enough ; thus in Hor. 1 Serm. III . 20 : quid
tu? nullane habes vitia ? Immo alia et fortasse minora, ' What of
yourself? have you no faults ? On the contrary, I have faults,
but they are of a different kind, and perhaps less than those of
Tigellius.' In general immo approaches very nearly to the cor-
rective use of μèv ovv (Greek Grammar, 567) . In simply answer-
ing ' no ! ' to a question , we must use non, non vero, non ita, minime,
or minime vero.

(b) The affirmative adverbs do not create much difficulty.

The simple answer ' yes, ' is not very commonly expressed in Latin.
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 163

It may be given by sane, utique, vero, ita, or ita est. But perhaps

the only single particle, which exactly bears this meaning, is

etiam. Thus Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 32 : ut probabilitatem sequens, ubi-
cunque haec occurrat aut deficiat, aut etiam,' aut non' respondere
possit, ' to answer either yes or no.' Plin. Ep. VI. 2 : at quaedam
supervacua dicuntur. Etiam. Sed satius est et haec dici. Yes ,
but it is better that even these things should be mentioned .' When
quippe stands alone in an answer , it implies that the question or
observation is assented to as obvious ; thus Cic. pro Caecin. 19 :
recte igitur diceres te restituisse ? quippe, ' Yes, of course.' To
express an ironical assent, the particles nempe, nimirum, scilicet,
videlicet are commonly used ; thus Ter. Andr. 1. Sc . ii . 5 : meum
natum rumor est amare. Id populus curet scilicet, ' Oh ! of course
the world cares much for that.'

(c) The simple interrogative particles are num, utrum, an, -ně
(which is enclitic and may be added to the three preceding) and nonne,
to which we may add the prefix ec- found in ecquid, and numquid.
Of these -ne appended to a verb merely inquires ; num expects the
answer ' no,' and nonne the answer ' yes ; ' numquid follows the
meaning of num , and ecquid is quite general ; utrum always im-
plies an alternative, and an can only stand before the second of
two questions. Thus we have the following usages :
6
aegrotasne? are you ill ?'
num aegrotas? ' you are not ill, are you ?'
nonne aegrotas? ' you are ill , are you not ?'
utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est? ' is that your fault or ours ?'
The same rules apply to indirect questions. Of double ques-
tions there are only four modes :

1. utrum (num) an : ' non refert utrum sit aureum poculum, an

vitreum, an manus concava,' ' it matters not
whether it be a gold cup, or a silver one, or
the hollow of the hand.'
2. an : ' recte an secus fecerim nescio,' 'whether I
have done rightly or otherwise, I know not. '
3. ne, enclitic, an : ' taceamne an prædicem nescio , ' ' I know not
whether to hold my tongue or to speak out.'
4. ne: ' experiri voluit verum falsumne esset rela-
tum , ' ' he wanted to find out whether the
story was true or false .'
11-2
164 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Sometimes both interrogative particles are omitted in the indi-

rect double question, as velit, nolit, scire difficile est, ' it is difficult
to know whether he wishes it or not.'

Obs. Young students must remember that only an and ne can

render or' in questions :
' In double questions an and ne
Not aut or vel the word must be.'

If the second member of the double question , whether direct

or indirect, is merely the opposite of the first, we have in Latin
either annon or necne ; thus, num tabulas habet, annon ? ' has
he got the document or not ?' Antigonus nondum statuerat, con-
servaret Eumenem necne, ' Antigonus had not yet determined whe-
ther to preserve Eumenes or not.' Quaeritur, Corinthiis bellum
indicamus annon, it is asked whether we ought to declare war
against the Corinthians or not. ' Di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur,
'the question is whether the Gods exist or not.'

(B)
Adverbs of place do not generally require any special explana-
tion, but ultro, which properly answers to quo, as ultra does to qua,
has some usages which deserve particular attention. Its primary
meaning is ' to a place beyond ; ' as ultro istum a me, ‘ take him far
from me ;' and ultro citroque is ' thither and hither ;' hence it sig-
nifies still farther, ' ' over and above,' ' besides ; ' as his lacrimis
vitam damus et miserescimus ultro, ' to these tears we grant his life,
and pity him besides. ' But the commonest use of the word is as
an apparent synonym for sponte, which must be distinguished from
it. For sponte, which is the ablative of s-pons or expons, a deriva-
tive of another form of pondus, means ' by its own weight or incli-
nation, ' ' of its own accord,' ' unbidden : ' hence we have (Hor. 1
Epist. XII. 17) : sponte suâ jussaene : but ultro means ' going still
farther,' ' going beyond expectation , ' ' without waiting, ' ' to our
surprise ;' hence (in the same Epist. V. 22) we have : si quid petet,
ultro defer, if he wants any thing, give it at once, ' ' surprise him
with it.' This distinction may be remembered by the following
line :
' Sponte-quod injussus ; necopinus quod facis,—ultro. '

In many passages ultro may be best rendered by our particle

' even.' Thus in Hor. 4 Carm. IV. 51 : sectamur ultro quos opimus
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 165
6
fallere et effugere est triumphus, we even pursue those whom it is
the greatest triumph to deceive and avoid.' Liv. 1. 5 : captum regi
Amulio tradidisse latrones ferunt, ultro accusantes, ' they say that the
robbers, having captured Remus, delivered him to king Amulius,
and even accused him (i . e. although they were brigands them-
selves) ' . It may sometimes even be rendered on the contrary.'
Thus in Virgil, Æn. Ix. 126 : at non audaci cessit fiducia Turno:
ultro animos tollit dictis, atque increpat ultro, ' bold Turnus did not
abate his confidence ; on the contrary (far beyond that) he rouses
their courage with his words, and he even chides them. ' Similarly,
En. v. 55 : Hunc (diem) ego Gaetulis agerem si Syrtibus exsul, &c.
annua vota tamen exsequerer, &c. Nunc ultro ad cineres ipsius et
ossa parentis adsumus, if I were an exile, I should keep the anni-
versary ; now, on the contrary (when the case is so different) , we
are come even to the ashes and bones of my father.' The true force
of ultro is also given in the opposition between ultro tributum and
vectigal; for while the latter denotes a tax, for the privilege of
collecting which the farmer-general had to pay a fixed sum to the
treasury, the ultro tributum was some public work for which the
state had even to advance money to the contractor (see e. g. Liv.
XXXIX. 44). Hence we may explain Seneca's illustration when
he says (De Beneficiis, IV. 1 ) that virtue in se impendere jubet et
saepius in ultro tributis est, bids us spend money upon itself, and
generally belongs to those contracts which presume an initiatory
outlay.'

(C ) and (D)
Many of the adverbs of time, which are apparently synonyms,
require to be carefully distinguished , for even some of those which
answer to the question ' when ?' are not unfrequently confused by
the student with the adverbs which answer to the question ' how
long ?' or ' how often ?' It will be desirable therefore to consider
these two classes together.
(a) Jam and nunc both signifying ' now,' and tum and tunc
both signifying ' then,' are frequently confused in writing Latin.
Nunc signifies the actually present time of the speaker as opposed
to the past or the future, but jam only indicates the immediate
occurrence of an incident, whether it belongs to the present, the
past, or the future.Hence it is prefixed not only to nunc, but to
tunc, dudum, pridem of past time ; and while jam amplius means.
166 UNDECLINED WORDS.

' any longer,' non jam means ' no longer,' and non jam ut ante is
' no longer as before.' The general distinction between tum and
tunc, which is sometimes lost from the careless writing of the
manuscripts, is suggested by the difference between jam, which,
as well as quum, is the correlative of the former, and nunc, which
is the regular antithesis of the latter. The following examples '
will illustrate these distinctions : Erat tunc excusatio oppressis,
misera illa quidem, sed tamen justa : nunc nulla est. Cic. Phil.
VII. 5. Quæ quidem multo plura evenirent, si ad quietem integri
iremus : nunc onusti cibo et vino perturbata et confusa cernimus.
Cic. Divin. I. 29. Jam Horatius, cæso hoste victor, secundam
pugnam petebat. Tum clamore Romani adjuvant militem suum.
Liv. I. 24. Cedo, quid postea ? Eum ego meum esse aio.
Quid tum ? Cic. Mur. XII . Hæc non noram tum, quum cum
Democrito tuo locutus sum. Cic. Att. vI . 1. Id tu, Brute, jam
intelliges, quum in Galliam veneris. Cic. Brut. 46. Quo autem
pacto deceat incise membratimve dici , jam videbimus ; nunc quot
modis mutentur comprehensiones dicendum est. Cic. Or. 63. Sunt
duo menses jam. Cic. Rosc. Com. 3. Jam a prima adolescentia. Cic.
Divers. 1. 9. Consilium istud tunc esset prudens, si nostras rationes
ad Hispaniensem casum accommodaturi essemus. Cic. Att. x. 8.

(b) Modo (for mi dato, ' grant me this,' Trans. Phil. Soc . 1854 ,
p. 97) implies the concession of the very shortest time preceding
the present ; commode or commodum expresses exact coincidence in
time ; and nuper indicates that the time referred to is absolutely
distinct from the present, and may be relatively long gone by.
The following passages make good these distinctions : In qua urbe
modo gratia, auctoritate, gloria floruimus, in ea nunc his omnibus
caremus. Cic. Div. IV. 13. Commodum discesseras heri, quum

Trebatius venit, ' you had but just gone yesterday, when Trebatius
came.' Cic. Att. XIII . 9. Hæc nuper, id est, paucis ante sæculis ,
medicorum ingeniis reperta sunt. Cic. N. D. 11. 50. Nuper homines
ejusmodi, et quid dico nuper? immo vero modo ac plane paulo ante
videmus. Cic. Ven. IV. 3.
<
(c) Olim, at another time? ' (properly the locative of ille =
ollus) , refers to a distant time, whether past or future, and is opposed
1 Most ofthe examples illustrating the distinctive use of the particles are taken
from F. Schulz's Lateinische Synonymik.
2 In Hor. 1 Serm. 1. 25 ; Virgil, Æn . VIII. 391 , olim means ' sometimes, ' and after
si it is equivalent to quando in Virgil, Ecl. x. 33.
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 167

to nuper; quondam (properly the locative of quidam) refers in good

Latin prose only to the past, and is opposed to nunc; aliquando
denotes at some definite time, and is opposed to nunquam, whether
past, present, or future. It loses its first two syllables after ne and
si. Thus we have : Quid ostenta Lacedæmonios olim, nuper nostros
adjuverunt ? Cic. Divin. II . 25. Utinam coram tecum olim potius ,
quam per epistolas (sc. colloquar) ! Cic. Att. XI. 4. Omnia fere,
quæ sunt conclusa nunc artibus , dispersa et dissipata quondam
fuerunt. Cic. Or. 1. 42. Populus Romanus, qui quondam lenis-
simus existimabatur, hoc tempore domestica crudelitate laborat.
Cic. Rosc. Am. 53. Tandem aliquando Catilinam ex urbe ejecimus.
Cic. Cat. II. 1. Si placet, sermonem alio transferamus, et nostro
more aliquando, non rhetorico, loquamur. Cic. Or. 1. 29. Illucescet
aliquando ille dies. Cic. Mil. 26. Inquiritur, sitne aliquando men-
tiri boni viri ? Cic. Or. III. 29. Si , num, ne ... quando. Cic.
Rosc. Am. 13, 50 ; Am . 16 , 19. Si quando de amicitia disputabunt.
Am. 15.

(d) Semper denotes ' always ,' as a continued duration of time,

during which the events referred to happened either continually or
in every possible case ; usque denotes ' always, ' as an uninterrupted
continuance up to a given time ; perpetuo denotes ' always, ' as an
uninterrupted continuance without any limitation. Thus : Ea quum
tempore commutantur, commutatur officium, et non semper est
idem. Cic. Off. 1. 10. Quod semper movetur, æternum est. Cic.
Tusc. I. 30. Mihi usque curæ erit, quid agas, dum quid egeris
sciero. Cic. Div. XII . 1. Usque animadverti, judices, Erucium
jocari atque alias res agere, antequam Chrysogonum nominavi.
Cic. Rosc. Am. 22. Ut eam opinionem perpetuo retineatis. Cic.
Agr. III. 1.

Obs. It is observed by teachers that young scholars frequently con-

fuse between semper and unquam, because they are both occasionally
rendered by the English ' ever.' The following rhyme may assist in
correcting this gross mistake :
Dum pro semper scribis unquam
Probo stylo scribes nunquam.
But it may perhaps be sufficient to state to an intelligent student that
semper means ' ever' in the sense for ever,' but that unquam, which is
liable to the rule about quisquam and ullus (68, Obs. 3), is only used in
negative sentences, in questions implying a negation, and in conditions
excluding the affirmative result, so that it may always be rendered ' ever
168 UNDECLINED WORDS.

at all.' It sometimes follows quando in the phrase si quando unquam,

' if at any particular time at all' (Liv. vIII. 4). In Ovid, Amor. vi. 25,
it seems that we ought to read si cunquam for sic unquam (like sicubi,
&c. ) ; for otherwise it would be impossible to reconcile the use of unquam
with the established signification of the word ; the passage will there-
fore run :
Excute, sicunquam (' if ever at all ') longa relevere catena,
Nec tibi perpetuo serva bibatur aqua.

(e) The distinctions between statim, illico, e vestigio, extemplo,

continuo, protinus, actutum, confestim, as given in the list, are illus-
trated by the following examples : Verres simulac tetigit provin-
ciam , statim literas Messanam dedit. Cic. Verr. I. 10. Ad vadi-
monium non venerat ; illicone ad prætorem ire convenit ? Cic.
Quint. 15. Repente e vestigio ex homine, tamquam aliquo Circæo
poculo, factus est Verres. Cic. Caecil. 17. Quod fingat extemplo,
non habet. Cic. Rosc. Com. 3. Alia subito ex tempore conjectura
explicantur. Cic. Divin. 1. 33. Ignis in aquam conjectus continuo
exstinguitur. Cic. Rosc. Com. 6. Te hortor et rogo, ut Romam
protinus pergas et properes. Cic. Qu. Fr. 1. 3. Heus ! heus ! ape-
rite aliquis actutum ostium. Ter. Ad. IV. 4. 26. Cæsar cohortes ,
quæ in stationibus erant, secum proficisci ; reliquas armari et con-
festim se subsequi jussit. Cæs. B. G. IV. 32. Scribis, si secundum
mare ad me ire cœpisset, te confestim ad me venturum. Cic. Att.
VIII. 12.

(f) The distinction between repente and subito , as given above,

is shown by the following passages : Cæsar, accusata acerbitate
Marcelli, repente praeter spem dixit, se senatui roganti de Marcello
non negaturum. Cic. ad div. IV. 4. Divinus hic adolescens , subito
praeter spem omnium exortus, prius exercitum confecit, quam quis-
piam hoc eum cogitare suspicaretur. Cic. Phil. v. 16. Etsi utile est,
subito sæpe dicere, tamen illud utilius, sumto spatio ad cogitandum ,
paratius atque accuratius dicere. Cic. Or. 1. 33. Hostium repens
(often repentinus) adventus magis aliquanto conturbat, quam ex-
spectatus ; et maris subita (in Liv. often subitarius) tempestas,
quam ante provisa, terret navigantes vehementius. Cic. Tusc.
III. 22.

(g) Adhuc and etiamnunc, being both rendered by the same

English word ' still, ' are occasionally confused by modern writers
of Latin. As has been shown above, they belong to different
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 169

classes ; for while the former answers to the question, ' how long ?'
by expressing the duration of time down to the present moment,
etiamnunc answers to the question, ' when ? ' and does not express
the duration of time at all. There is a similar distinction between
usque eo, up to that time,' and etiamtunc or etiamtum, ' even then ;'
which is used regularly with the imperfect, and describes a state
which existed at a former time, but has since ceased. It is to be
observed that etiamnunc may be used with verbs in a past and
future tense ; as , Qua valetudine quum etiamnunc premeretur, C.
Flaminium Cos. occidit. Corn . Nep. Hannib. 4. Aut ad te con-
feram me aut etiamnunc circum hæc loca commorabor. Cic. Att.
III. 17. In this usage we may render it by our particle ' yet.'
Similarly adhuc may be used of the relative duration of time past ;
thus, Scipio, quamquam gravis adhuc vulnere erat, tamen quarta
vigilia noctis insequentis profectus ad Trebiam fluvium castra movet.
Liv. XXI. 48. For ' yet ' or ' still , ' after a negative, the best writers
use dum , and not adhuc. Etiam dum is rejected by many critics.
Adhuc seems to mean eatenus in one or two passages, e.g. , Ipse
Cæsar erat adhuc impudens , qui exercitum et provinciam invito
senatu teneret. Cic. ad div. XVI. 11. But generally while adhuc
refers to time, hactenus and hucusque are used to express place or
6
degree, up to this place, ' ' up to this point.' The following ex-
amples illustrate the distinctions between adhuc, hactenus, etiam
nunc and dum : Non commovi me adhuc Thessalonica ; sed jam
extrudimur. Cie. Att. III . 14. Cæsari, sicut adhuc feci, libentis-
sime pro te supplicabo. Cic. Div. VI. 14. Ergo hæc hactenus :
redeo ad urbana. Cic. Att. v. 13. Hactenus fuit, quod caute a me
scribi posset. Cic. Att. XI . 4. Quum iste etiam cubaret, in cubi-
culum introductus est. Cic. Verr. III . 23. Quamdiu etiam furor
iste tuus nos eludet ? Cic. Cat. 1. 1. Quæ spes si manet, etiam
nunc salvi esse possumus. Cic. Rosc. Com. 52. Ille autem quid
agat si scis, neque dum Roma es profectus , scribas ad me velim .
Cic. Att. XIV. 10. Gabinium statim, nihildum suspicantem , ad me
vocavi. Cic. Cat. III. 3.

(h) The distinction between rursus and iterum is often neg-

lected. Rursus is opposed to prorsus, ' in the same line , ' just as
transvorsus or trames is opposed to prorsus as cutting it at right
angles . Thus we have : Trepidari sentio et cursari rursus prorsus,
' backwards and forwards.' Ter. Hec. 111. 1. 35. While then rur-
 170 UNDECLINED WORDS.

sus implies returning along the same line, iterum means going for a
second time in the same direction ( prorsus). Accordingly, iterum
(avois) means repetition, or doing the same again ; but rursus
(máλ ) is reversing the operation . Hence iterum is generally used
instead of secunda vice, which is barbarous, or secundum, secundo,
in the sense of the second time ;' and iterum consul, consul for the
second time, ' is a very common phrase by the side of tertium (&c.)
consul. It is never used as a substitute for denuo , though this
confusion is often made by modern Latinists. Nor is denuo ever
written in its full and original form de novo, which is also a com-
mon modernism. The difference between denuo and de integro is
as follows : denuo implies that the first attempt was not complete or
successful, and must be regarded as though it was not available ;
while de integro means that the act must be repeated with the same
vigour as when it was first performed. Although iterum properly
denotes only the second occurrence, we may have iterum iterumque
of successive repetitions for any number of times (Virgil, Æn . II.
770). And although rursus properly signifies backwards,' it may
be used to indicate the recurrence of a similar act after an interval.
The following examples illustrate these usages : Facis , ut rursus
plebs in Aventinum sevocanda esse videatur. Cic. Mur. 7. Quid
est autem se ipsum colligere, nisi dissipatas animi partes rursum
in suum locum cogere ? Cic. Tusc. IV. 36. Estimatio, quæ à§ía
dicitur, neque in bonis numerata est, neque rursus in malis. Cic.
Fin. III. 10. Nemo est, quin sæpe jactans Venerium jactum jaciat
aliquando, nonnunquam etiam iterum atque tertium. Cic. Divin.
II. 59. Quinto quoque anno Sicilia censetur. Censa erat prætore
Peducæo. Quintus annus quum te prætore incidisset, censa denuo
est. Cic. Verr. II. 56. Quæ deinde interceptio poculi ? cur non de
integro datum ? Cic. Cluent. 60 .

(E)
Of the adverbs which introduce the qualification of manner or
degree, the following require particular attention on the part of the
student :

(a) The adverbs expressing the highest degree may be thus

'
distinguished : plane is quite,' ' entirely,' opposed to almost
(paene, propemodum) , or ' scarcely ' ( vix) ; omnino, ‘ altogether, ' ' in
all,' is opposed to ' in part ' (ex parte) ; prorsus (proversus) , ' all
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 171

through,' ' throughout, ' ' in short, ' ' absolutely,' is a general sum-
ming up opposed to exceptional statements ; utique, ' howsoever, ' ' in
any case,' which is also a concessive or affirmative particle, implies
that something holds good or must be done, whatever else may
possibly occur, and in Cicero at least is generally used with the
subjunctive or imperative ; penitus, ' thoroughly, ' ' deeply, ' ' to the
very bottom,' is opposed to ' superficially, ' ' on the surface.' Thus
we have: Effice id, quod jam propemodum, vel plane potius effe-
ceras. Cic. Brut. 97. Has res sustinere vix possum, vel plane
nullo modo possum. Cic. Att. XI . 9. Defensionum laboribus sena-
toriisque muneribus aut omnino, aut magna ex parte liberatus sum.
Cic. Tusc. I. 1. Sane frequentes fuimus, omnino ad ducentos . Cic.
Qu . Fr. II. 1. Si id dicis, nihil esse mundo sapientius, nullo modo
prorsus assentior. Cic. N. D. III . 8. In philosophos vestros si
quando incidi , verbum prorsus nullum intelligo . Cic. Or. II. 14.
Quo die venies, utique cum tuis apud me sis. Cic. Att. IV. 4. Si
quid acciderit, quid censeas mihi faciendum, utique scribito. Cic.
Att. x. 1. Penitus ex intima philosophia hauriendam juris disci-
plinam putas. Cic. Leg. 1. 5. Euhemerus videtur relligionem
penitus totam sustulisse. Cic. N. D. 1. 42.

(b) Valde is ' very much ,' and is used both with adjectives and
verbs ; perquam means ' in an extraordinary degree,' ' exceedingly ;'
admodum is ' to a considerable extent,' and may be used with nume-
rals and nihil; as, mille admodum occidit, Liv. XXVII . 30, ' quite a
thousand ; ' magnopere, ' greatly, ' is generally used with verbs. The
other adverbs expressing different degrees of exaggeration, as mire,
mirifice, mirum quantum, eximie, vehementer, do not admit of accu-
rate discrimination. The same may be said of oppido, which is a
rare synonym of plane. The following examples illustrate valde,
perquam, admodum, and magnopere : De Hispania novi nihil ; sed
exspectatio valde magna. Cic. Div. xv. 17. Gaudeo, vos signifi-
care literis , quam valde probetis ea, quæ apud Corfinium sunt gesta.
Cic. Att. IX. 6. Hic , quam ille, dignior : perquam grave est dictu.
Cic. Planc. 6. Perquam flebiliter lamentatur. Cic. Tusc. II. 21 .
Equidem etiam admodum adolescentis Rutilii familiaritate delector.
Cic. Am. 27. Alter non multum, alter nihil admodum scripti reli-
quit. Cic. Or. II . 2. Hi me admodum diligunt. Cic. Div. IV. 13.
Magnopere volo. Cic. Div. II . 6. Ut nunc est, nulla magnopere
exspectatio est. Cic. Div. VIII . 1. Magnopere is frequently divided
172 UNDECLINED WORDS.

into its two parts ; thus, Quum puerorum formas magno hic opere
miraretur. Cic. Invent. II. 1. We have also majore opere and
maximopere or maximo opere.

(c) The distinctions of satis , affatim and abunde, as given in

the list, are illustrated by the following examples : Sum avidior,
quam satis est, gloriæ. Cic. Div. 1x. 14. Hæc hominibus satis
multa esse debent. Cic. Rab. Posth. 16. Satis temporis habere.
Cic. Verr. II. 1. Seminibus et homines affatim vescuntur, et terræ
ejusdem generis stirpium renovatione complentur. Cic. N. D. II .
51. Satis est et affatim prorsus. Cic. Att. XVI . 1. Puto, me
Dicæarcho affatim satis fecisse. Cic. Att. II . 16. Toti huic quæs-
tioni abunde satisfactum erit. Cic. Div. II. 1.

(d) Apprime (which belongs rather to the older Latinity) and

imprimis apply to a distinction in some quality possessed in com-
mon with other persons, and indeed with the foremost of the class ;
praecipue is opposed to communiter, and does not admit that there
is the same classification ; it therefore means more than apprime
and imprimis ; praesertim is used to mark a special ground or con-
dition ; hence we have praesertim quum, praesertim si, though the
conjunction may be omitted , and the ground or condition may be
expressed by an adjective or participle ; potissimum, which differs
from all the adverbs just mentioned , has the same signification in
reference to many that potius has in reference to two, namely, the
separation and exaltation of some one person or act to the exclusion
of all others ; maxime does not involve any comparison, but merely
strengthens the predicate. Thus we have : Albutius homo apprime
doctus. Varro, R. R. III . 2. Id arbitror in vita apprime esse utile,
ut ne quid nimis . Ter. Andr. I. 1. 34. Lentulum quum ceteris
artibus, tum imprimis imitatione tui fac erudias : quem nos im-
primis amamus carumque habemus. Cic. ad divers. I. 7. Auditor
Platonis Ponticus Heraclides, vir doctus imprimis. Cic. Tusc. v. 3.
Labor in hoc defendendo praecipue meus est, studium vero con-
servandi hominis commune mihi vobiscum esse debebit. Cic . Rab.
Perd. 1. Dicendi ars in omni libero populo , maximeque in pacatis
tranquillisque civitatibus, praecipue semper floruit semperque domi-
nata est. Cic. Or. 1. 8. Sera gratulatio reprehendi non solet, prae-
sertim si nulla negligentia prætermissa est. Cic. ad divers. 11. 7 .
Non tam ista me sapientiæ fama delectat, falsa praesertim (i.e. præ-
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 173

sertim si falsa est) . Cic. Am. 4. E quibus (philosophandi gene-

ribus) nos id potissimum consecuti sumus, quo Socratem usum
arbitramur. Cic. Tusc. v. 4. Missi sunt, qui consulerent Apol-
linem, quo potissimum duce uterentur. Nep. Milt. 1. Hoc ad rem
mea sententia maxime pertinet. Cic. Rosc. Am. 31 .

(e) Eque and pariter (with atque, ac) denote an actual equality,
the former of validity, and the latter of efficacy ; perinde ac, on the
other hand, indicates only an assumed or supposed equality. Tan-
quam, ' as though, ' ' as much as,' quasi, ' as if ' (for quam si¹ ) , and
tanquam si, as much as if, ' denote not an equality, but a com-
parison ; but while tanquam generally requires the expression of
something corresponding to the antecedent tam, we may have quasi
alone ; thus we might say, est quasi parens, where tanquam could
not stand, but would require some adjunct, as in est benignus tan-
quam parens, i.e. tam benignus quam parens. Thus, Præsens me ad-
•
juvare potuisses et consolando et prope aeque dolendo. Cic. ad div.
IV. 6. Me colit et observat aeque atque illum ipsum suum patro-
num. Cic. ad div. XIII. 69. De industria elaboratur, ut verba ver-
bis quasi dimensa respondeant... et ut pariter extrema terminentur
eundemque referant in cadendo sonum . Cic. Or. 12. Domi tuæ
pariter accusatorum atque judicum greges videt. Cic. Par. VI. 2.
Brutus illud non perinde atque ego putaram, arripere visus est.
Cic. Att. XVI. 5. Is, qui pecuniam debuerit, perinde habeatur,
quasi eam pecuniam acceperit. Cic. Leg. 11. 19. E vita discedo,
tamquam (just as) ex hospitio. Cic. Sen. 23. Dolabellæ quod
scripsi, videas suadeo, tamquam si tua res agatur. Cic. ad divers. II.
16. Artium omnium quasi (to a certain extent) parens philosophia
judicatur. Cic. Or. 1. 3.

Obs. It is to be observed that, while atque or ac is used after

words expressing equality or difference, when the degree is indicated,
we have quam instead of atque or ac, when a negative precedes alius or
aeque. Thus we have ac after aeque, juxta and par, pariter, perinde
and proinde, pro eo, similis and dissimilis, similiter, alius, aliter, talis,
idem, totidem, contra, secus, contrarius, in such phrases as Dissimula-
tio est quum alia dicuntur ac sentias. Virtus eadem in homine ac Deo
est. Simile fecit atque alii. Honos talis paucis delatus est ac mihi.
But we have quam in such phrases as Virtus nihil aliud est quam in
se perfecta natura. Nihil aeque eos terruit, quam robur et calor im-

1 We have quansei for quasi in the Lex Thoria, see Varron . p. 281 , 1. 34, 3rd Ed.
174 UNDECLINED WORDS.

peratoris. Nihil aliud agit quam ut nos decipiat. Neque id aliter

fieri potest, quam si omnes nervos contenderis. We have quam after
perinde without a negative in Tacit. Ann. vI. 30 : perinde se quam Ti-
berium falli potuisse .

(f) Aliter is the common particle for expressing difference of

manner ; it may be strengthened by multo or longe ; it may be used
comparatively, as already explained , with atque (ac) or quam ; non
aliter quam si occurs, though not in any prose-writer earlier than
Livy, in the sense ' just as if, ' and the jurists use non aliter ac si in
the same manner. It is certain that in the best writers alias is as
much an adverb of time as alibi is an adverb of place ; but in
later authors, as Pliny, it means ' in other respects ,' and modern
Latinists often follow this mistaken usage. This meaning is given
by alioqui(n) , in Livy and later writers ; thus, Triumphatum de
6
Tiburtibus ; alioquin mitis victoria fuit, Liv. vII. 19, in other
respects the victory was gently used.' But Cicero uses alioqui(n)
much in the same way as aliter, ' otherwise, ' ' else ; thus , Credo
minimum olim istius rei fuisse cupiditatem : alioquin multa exstarent
exempla majorum, ' otherwise there would be many examples .' To
signifyin other respects,' Cicero generally uses ceterum or cetero-
qui. To imply that the circumstance is not only otherwise, but
wrongly so, we use secus. A provisional exception is expressed by
aliter nisi, ' except on the condition . ' The following examples will
illustrate these distinctions : Alias pluribus ; nunc ad institutam
disputationem revertamur. Cic. Divin . II . 2. Ego in Cumano et in
Pompeiano præterquam quod sine te , ceterum satis commode me
oblectabam. Cic. Qu . Fr. II. 15. Falernum mihi semper visum
est idoneum , deversorio ; si modo tecti satis est ad comitatum
nostrum recipiendum. Ceteroquin mihi locus non displicet . Cic. ad
div. VI . 19. Tu si aliter existimes, nihil errabis. Cic. ad div. III. 7.
Jus semper est æquabile ; neque enim aliter jus esset. Cic. Off. II.
12. Tecum agam non secus ac si meus frater esses . Cic. Mur. 4.
Recte an secus faciant, nihil ad nos. Cic. Pis. 28. Nobis aliter
videtur ; recte secusne postea. Cic. Fin. III. 13. Quod aliter non
potest fieri, nisi spatium habuero. Cic. ad div. XII. 14.

(g) Fere is used to deprecate an expectation of accuracy, as when

it is used with a definite number, in the sense about,' when circi-
ter is also used ; or with ad, if we wish to intimate that the amount
was approached rather than equalled . So also fere fit would mean
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 175

that the circumstance generally, not always, happens ; nemo fere

means hardly any one. ' Ferme has much the same signification
as fere; but although it is often used by Livy and later writers ,
Cicero hardly ever employs it except in a negative sentence . Paene,
' almost,' and prope or propemodum, ' nearly,' qualify a strong ex-
pression, or intimate that something is still wanting , or that there
is only an approximation to the truth . Thus, Probabile est,
quod fere fieri solet. Cic . Inv. 1. 29. Ex victoria bellica non fere
quemquam est invidia civium consecuta. Cic. Sext. 51. Brutum
abjectum, quantum potui, excitavi : quem non minus amo , quam
tu, paene dixi, quam te. Cic. Att. v. 20, post med. Dicendi Latine
maturitas jam ad summum paene perducta est, ut eo nihil ferme
quisquam addere possit, nisi qui a philosophia, a jure civili, ab
historia fuerit instructior. Cic. Brut. 43. Prope desperatis his
rebus te in Græciam contulisti. Cic. ad div. VII . 28. Propemodum
justioribus utimur illis, qui omnino avocant a philosophia. Cic.
Fin. I. 1 .

(h) Forte by itself denotes merely by chance , ' like casu,

which is opposed to consulto, ' designedly,' ' intentionally ; ' it some-
times approaches in meaning to temere, ' at random,' and to for-
tuito, which is opposed to causa ; and forte fortuna means ' by good
luck.' If, however, forte is combined with ne, num, și, nisi, quo,
&c., it may be rendered ' perhaps, ' ' perchance. ' Otherwise, we
must use fortasse and forsitan to express mere possibility of occur-
rence ; and with this distinction , that while fortasse, which is gene-
rally used with the indicative, intimates that there are probable
grounds for our belief, forsitan, even in the few cases in which it is
found with an indicative, generally implies that there is only a
possibility ; or it is used in anticipating some objection which is
answered in a sentence beginning with sed or verum tamen. A
sentence often begins with et (ac, aut) fortasse. It has been men-
tioned above (108 , ( A) (a) ) that haud scio an indicates a belief that
the thing is so . Thus, fortasse verum est is perhaps it is true-
it is probably true ; ' forsitan verum sit is ' it may be true perhaps
-it is possibly true ; ' haud scio an verum sit is ' I think it is true ,
though I will not positively assert it. ' The following examples
illustrate the distinctions between forte, fortasse, and forsitan : Est,
est profecto illa vis divina ; nisi forte idcirco esse non putant, quia
non apparet, nec cernitur. Cic. Mil. 31. Heri veni in Cumanum ;
176 UNDECLINED WORDS.

cras ad te fortasse. Cic . ad div. IX. 23. Raras tuas quidem (fortasse
non perferuntur) , sed suaves accipio literas. Cic. ad divers. II . 5.
Forsitan quæratis, qui iste furor sit et quæ tanta formido. Cic. Rosc.
Am. 11. Forsitan meliores illi accusatores habendi sunt ; sed ego
defensorem in mea persona, non accusatorem, maxime laudari volo.
Cic. Verr. 1. 38.

(i) Frustra, nequidquam, and incassum are all translated ‘ in

vain, ' but with the following distinctions : frustra implies the dis-
appointment of the agent ; nequidquam refers to the thing which
has been unsuccessfully attempted ; and incassum ( into empti-
ness ;' also casse, ' emptily, ' Liv. XXIV. 26) intimates that the under-
taking was idle from the first, -that it was only a beating of the
air. Thus we have : Neque enim ipse auxilium suum sæpe a viris
bonis frustra implorari patietur, neque id æquo animo feret
civitas. Cic. Or. II. 35. Dic, inquam, diem. Pudet dicere. In-
telligo ; verum et sero et nequidquam pudet. Cic. Quint. 25.
Senatus nequidquam Pompeii auxilium imploraturus est. Cæs.
B. C. I. 1. Incassum missæ preces. Liv. II. 49. Galli vana in-
cassum tela jactare. Liv. x. 29. If we compare the first and third
of these examples , we shall see that the frustra auxilium implorari
refers to the fruitlessness of the request, and the nequidquam auxilium
implorare to the ill-success of the application. Incassum, which is
a figurative expression, does not seem to occur in Cicero. It is to
be observed that frustra occasionally indicates that want of proper
forethought which leads to the frustration of a design, so that it is
equivalent to sine consilio, temere ; thus , Nec frustra ac sine causa
quid facere dignum Deo est. Cic. Divin . 11. 60. And in the comic
poets frustra habere (=fraudem facere) is ' to deceive, ' and frustra
esse is to be deceived. '

(k) Modo, the same as the temporal particle, signifying ' just
now ' ( 108, (c) , (D) , (b) ) , is used also as a particle of restriction in
6
the sense only. ' As it originally means ' grant me ' (mi dato) , it is
properly used before ut, ne, &c. , and with imperatives and subjunc-
tives. Tantum , which properly denotes ' so much,' is used in the
6
sense so much only, ' to oppose the part to the whole. Solum,
' alone,' opposes the thing itself to all others as one of a number of
different objects. Both tantum and solum may have modo added ,
but solummodo is not used by writers of the best ages. Nonnisi
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 177

gives the sense of ' only ' in a conditional sentence. Dumtaxat

(' provided one estimates it, ' i.e. dum aliquis taxat) denotes ' only,'
as expressing a limitation in the judgment of the speaker ; it means,
therefore, not less than,' i.e. at least ; ' or ' not more than, ' i.e.
at most.' Thus we have : Veniat modo, explicet suum illud
volumen. Cic. Rosc. Am. 35. Vide modo. Cic. Caecil. 14. Vide-
tur posse opprimi, modo ut salva urbe. Cic. ad div. XVI. 12. In
hac arte, si modo est ars, nullum est præceptum, quomodo verum
inveniatur . Cic. Or. 11. 33. Nomen tantum virtutis usurpas ; quid
ipsa valeat ignoras. Cic. Par. 2. Dixit tantum ; nihil ostendit.
Cic. Flacc. 15. Quasi vero atra bile solum, ac non sæpe vel ira-
cundia graviore, vel timore, vel dolore moveatur. Cic. Tusc. III. 5.
Amicitia nisi inter bonos esse non potest. Cic. Am. 5. Antonius
nil nisi de rei publicæ pernicie cogitabat. Cic. Phil. IV. 2. Hac
tamen in oppressione sermo in circulis dumtaxat et conviviis est
liberior, quam fuit. Cic. Att. II. 18. Valde me Athenæ delecta-
runt, urbs dumtaxat et urbis ornamentum. Cic. Att. v. 10. Non modo
-sed or non solum -sed may be used like our ' not only-but. '
If, however, the propositions are negative, and both clauses have
a common verb, non modo―sed ne-quidem is used for non modo non
-sed ne-quidem. Otherwise non modo non is expressed in the
first clause ; and non modo nullus, nihil, nemo, nunquam, nusquam,
are the general forms, even when both clauses are negative. Thus
we have : In privatis rebus si quis rem mandatam non modo mali-
tiosius gessisset, sui quæstus aut commodi causa, verum etiam
negligentius ; eum majores summum admisisse dedecus existima-
bant. Cic. Rosc. Am . 38. O rem indignam, in qua non modo
docti, verum etiam agrestes erubescant ! Cic. Leg. 1. 14. Tullus
Hostilius non solum proximo regi dissimilis, sed ferocior etiam
Romulo fuit. Liv. 1. 22. Qua in re Cæsar non solum publicas,
sed etiam privatas injurias ultus est. Cæs. B. G. 1. 12. Tu non
solum ad negligendas leges et quæstiones, verum etiam ad ever-
tendas perfringendasque voluisti. Cic. Cat. 1. 7. Talis vir non
modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quidquam audebit, quod non
honestum sit. Cic. Off. III. 19. Regnum video, non modo Romano
homini, sed ne Persæ quidem cuiquam tolerabile. Cic. Att. x. 8.
If the negative in the first clause belongs to a single verb, it must
necessarily stand by itself after non modo. Thus we have : Cæsaris
ac Pompeii non modo res gestas non antepono meis , sed ne for-
tunam quidem ipsam. Cic. Att. x. 4.
D. L. G. 12
178 UNDECLINED WORDS .

§ 2. Prepositions.

109 Prepositions are merely adverbs used in connexion with

cases of the noun, from which they derive their principal appli-
cation. The doctrine of the cases belongs to syntax ; but the mean-
ing of the prepositions may be explained here.

(a)A (ab, absque) , ad, adversus, apud, versus.

6
A or ab (more rarely absque, which signifies without' ) denotes
separation or removal from the side or surface of an object ; it
may generally be rendered by ' from ' or ' by,' and takes the
ablative. As the act of separating implies nearness at the time
of separation, we find that a (ab) is used to express relative posi-
tions, as a fronte, ' in front, ' a tergo, ' behind ; ' and our word
' amanuensis ' comes from the Latin phrase for a secretary : liber-
tus a manu, ' a freed-man at the hand ,' i. e. ' who had to do with
writing.'
Ad signifies the act of addition, or motion with a view to conjunc-
tion or juxtaposition ; it may generally be rendered by ' to ' or
' at,' and takes the accusative. It is often combined with versus
or versum in the sense of ' towards ' or ' against : ' as adversus
leges, against the laws. ' And versus alone may be used with
names of places ; as Brundisium versus, ' towards Brundisium. '
Apud, which is compounded of ab and ad, combines the meanings
of these two prepositions, for it signifies ' being by the side of
but not part of an object,' and this implies both juxtaposition
and separation ; it may generally be rendered by ' at' or ' with,'
and always takes the accusative.

(b) Ante, in, inter, intra.

In denotes position ' upon ' or ' within ' an object. It takes an accu-
sative when it denotes ' into,' ' unto,' ' to, ' and an ablative when
it signifies ' in ' or ' upon. ' In the former case it may be followed
by versus, as in Galliam versus, ' towards Gaul.'
Inter signifies between ' or ' among, ' and governs the accusative.
It is also used to express mutual agency, as inter se diligunt,
"
they love one another.'
Intra, which is only another form of inter, means ' within,' and
governs the accusative .
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 179

Ante means ' before, ' in place, time, or degree, and takes the accu-
sative.
(c) De, e (ex) , extra.
E or ex denotes motion from the interior of an object ; it may
generally be rendered ' out of,' and takes the ablative.
Extra, ' beyond' or ' without,' is the opposite of intra, and like it
takes the accusative.
De implies descent and derivation, and takes the ablative . Its
proper meaning is ' down from, ' as de rostris descendit, ' he
came down from the pulpit ; ' but it is very commonly used to
denote the subject from which an action or writing is derived,
i. e. the source of agency ; thus, scripsit de republica, ' he wrote
about or concerning the commonwealth ,' that was the source or
subject from which he derived his book.

(d) Cis (citra) , circa (circum, circiter) , trans, ultra.

Cis or citra, ' on this side,' and its opposites ultra, ' on that side,'
'beyond,' and trans, ' across,' take the accusative.
Circa, circum, ' around ' or ' about,' express approximate nearness
in space or time. The derivative circiter denotes indefinite time
or number. These take the accusative.

(e) Contra, erga.

Contra, against,' and its opposite erga, towards ' (of affection),
take the accusative.

(f) Juxta, ob, pěnes, prope, propter.

Juxta, ' close to,' and penes, ' in the power of, ' approach in meaning
to apud, and take the accusative.
Ob properly means circumposition at some height from the ground ,
i. e. ' upon ' (whence op-timus, ' uppermost ' ) , but is practically
used, like propter, with the accusative , to signify ' on account of."
Ob also means ' before, ' and propter, like prope, from which it is
derived, and which also takes the accusative, signifies ' near.'

(g) Per, prae, praeter, pro.

Per denotes through,' either in space or time, or as the instrument.
It takes the accusative.
Pro, which signifies ' for,' ' before, ' or ' proportionally to ,' and prae,
which denotes before, ' ' in comparison with , ' and ' owing to ,'
take the ablative. The derivative praeter, ' before, ' ' beside,'
' beyond, ' or ' except, ' takes the accusative.
12-2
180 UNDECLINED WORDS.

(h) Cum, pone, post, secundum, sine.

Post, ' after, ' ' behind , ' or ' since, ' and pone, behind, ' take the
accusative.
Cum, ' with, ' and sine, ' without, ' take the ablative.
Secundum, ' along, ' according to, ' ' following the course of,' some-
times agrees in meaning with cum, and sometimes with post. It
takes the accusative.

(i) Clam, coram.

Clam, without the knowledge of, ' concealed from,' stands in a
sort of opposition to coram, ' in the presence of, ' ' before the eyes
of,' and both take the ablative.

(k) Infra, sub, subter, super, supra.

Sub, ' under,' and super, ' above,' take the accusative when they
denote motion, and the ablative when they imply rest. Supra,
' above,' is always used with the accusative, and subter, ' under,'
generally with the accusative, but occasionally with the ablative.
Infra, beneath,' is always construed with the accusative.

110 It may be desirable to illustrate by a few examples the

distinctions in meaning of those prepositions, which are most nearly
synonymous, in regard to the English prepositions by which they
are generally expressed.

(a) The preposition ' from ' may be used to render by a (ab),
abs, de, e (ex) , but with marked differences of meaning or reference.
For a refers to the exterior, or to the thing regarded as a whole ;
de to an elevation ; and e (ex), generally and properly, to the in-
terior. These distinctions are given in the following passage : Quum
de vi interdicitur, duo genera causarum esse intelligebant, ad quæ
interdictum pertineret ; unum si qui ex eo loco , in quo esset ; alte-
rum si ab eo loco, quo veniret, vi dejectus esset... Si qui meam fami-
liam de meo fundo dejecerit, ex eo loco me dejecerit. Si qui mihi
præsto fuerit cum armatis hominibus extra meum fundum, et me
introire prohibuerit ; non ex eo loco , sed ab eo loco me dejecerit...
Unde utrumque declarat, et ex quo loco, et a quo loco . Unde de-
jectus Cinna ? Ex urbe. Unde dejecti Galli ? A Capitolio. Unde
qui cum Graccho fuerunt ? Ex Capitolio , &c . Cic. Caecin. 30.
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 181

(b) Ad, apud, penes, juxta, propter may all be rendered by the
synonymous expressions ' at, ' ' with, ' by, ' or ' close by ; ' but with
these distinctions : ad denotes the approximation or proximity
chiefly with reference to place or time ; apud denotes approximation
or proximity chiefly with reference to a person ; penes, which is
limited to a person, implies not only proximity, but dependence
on his will or power ; juxta, for which Cicero uses propter, is
used only with inanimate objects. Thus, Deinde iter faciam ad
exercitum, ut circiter Idus Sextiles putem me ad Iconium fore.
Cic. ad div. III. 5. Ab hora octava ad vesperum secreto collocuti
sumus. Cic. Att. VII. 8. Fuisti apud Leccam illa nocte. Cic.
Cat. 1. 4. Hoc apud Platonem est in philosophos dictum . Cic.
Off. 1. 9. Apud eosdem judices reus est factus. Cic. Cluent. 22.
Hi servi centum dies penes accusatorem (in his house, in his power)
quum fuissent, ab eo ipso accusatore producti sunt. Cic. Mil. 22 .
Eloquentia non modo eos ornat, penes quos est, sed etiam univer-
sam rem publicam . Cic. Or. 41. Atticus sepultus est juxta viam
Appiam ad quintum lapidem. Nep. Att. 22. Propter Platonis
statuam consedimus. Cic. Brut. 6.

(c) Adversus, in, contra may all be rendered by ' against,' and
adversus, in, erga may all be rendered ' towards , ' a rendering,
which, in a certain sense, may also be applied to contra ; but while
adversus (and versus) or in may retain their original meaning of
actual motion towards a place, contra and erga, especially the latter,
are used in a secondary sense, namely, contra implies ' against '
or ' towards,' in a hostile signification, erga has this meaning with
a friendly reference. Adversus and in may be used generally in
the expression of kindly feelings or the reverse. Thus, Quonam
modo me gererem adversus Cæsarem, usus tuo consilio sum. Cic.
ad div. XI. 27. Manlius perindulgens fuit in patrem ; idem acerbe
severus in filium. Cic. Off. III. 31. Te ex Asia Romam versus
profectum esse constabat. Cic. ad divers. II . 6. Detrahere aliquid
alteri est contra naturam. Cic. Off. III . 5. Ea nos utimur pro
salute bonorum contra amentiam perditorum. Cic. Mil. 5. Præci-
piunt, ut eodem modo erga amicos affecti simus, quo erga nosmet
ipsos. Cic. Am. 16.

(d) Ante, prae, coram may all be rendered before ; ' but while
ante signifies ' before ' in space or time, prae is ' before ' with an
implication of direct contrast and comparison ; and coram is used
182 UNDECLINED WORDS .

specially of some person , before him, in his presence or sight, in

conversation with him. When we speak of appearing before the
people, ' ' before the court,' &c., we must use apud. The phrase
prae se ferre is very common in the sense to carry before us, to
exhibit, ' and prae has often a causal signification . As denoting a
contrast or comparison we may have praeter ceteros for prae ceteris,
and this is a various reading in the passage from Cic. Am. 1 ,
quoted below. But Cicero and Cæsar avoid ante ceteros in this
sense, though the phrase is found in Livy. The following are ex-
amples : Ante tribunal tuum, M. Fanni, ante pedes vestros, judices ,
cædes futuræ sunt. Cic. Rosc. Am. 5. Jam ante Socratem omnes
pæne veteres ad ignorationis confessionem adducti sunt. Cic. Ac.
I. 12. Comitia in ante diem VI. Kal. Sextil. dilata sunt. Cic . Att.
I. 16. Beata vita prædicanda et prae se ferenda est. Cic. Tusc. v.
17. Stillantem prae se pugionem tulit. Cic. Phil. II . 12. Romam
prae sua Capua irridebunt. Cic. Agr. II. 35. Cato in ipsa senec-
tute prae ceteris floruit. Cic. Am. I. Solem prae jaculorum multi-
tudine et sagittarum non videbitis. Cic. Tusc. 1. 42. Prae gaudio
ubi sim nescio. Ter. Heaut. II . 3. 67. Reliqua prae lacrimis scri-
bere non possum. Cic. Att. IX. 12. Mihi ipsi coram genero meo
quæ dicere ausus es ? Cic. Pis. 6. Coram tecum eadem hæc agere
conantem me deterruit pudor. Cic. ad div. v. 12 .
6
(e) Pone, post, and secundum may all be rendered after ;'
but pone, which is of comparatively rare occurrence, is used only
of place ; post, as the opposite of ante, is used both of place and
time ; and secundum means ' next,' or ' immediately after,' ' closely
following,' ' in the steps of,' according to,' and is not used of
time. Thus, Totum animal movebatur et ante et pone. Cic. Tim.
13. Nam sic fac existimes, post has miserias nihil esse actum
aliud cum dignitate. Cic. ad div. IV. 4. Repente post tergum equi-
tatus cernitur. Cæs. B. G. VII. 88. Proxime et secundum deos
homines hominibus maxime utiles esse possunt. Cic. Off. II. 3.
Vultus secundum vocem plurimum potest. Cic. Or. 18. Finis
bonorum est secundum naturam vivere. Cic. Fin. v. 9.

(f) Circum, circa, circiter may all be rendered about ; ' but
while circum implies actual motion in a circle about an object,
circa merely denotes the vicinity within a certain circle ; and
circiter, in Cicero, corresponds to our ' about ' or ' nearly ' in an
estimate of time. Livy uses circa also in this sense. Thus we
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 183

have : Terra circum axem se summa celeritate convertit. Cic. Ac.

II. 39. Nævius pueros circum amicos dimittit. Cic. Quint. 6.
Verres multa sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos circa se
haberet. Cic. Verr. I. 48. Nos circiter Kalendas aut in Formiano
erimus aut in Pompeiano. Cic. Att. II. 4.

(g) Cis and citra, in and intra, sub and infra, all signify
' within,' in reference to an outer limit designated in the first
case by trans and ultra, in the second by ex and extra, in the
third by super and supra. But there are several distinctions to
be noticed. In the first class of opposites cis , citra, mean ' within, '
and trans, ultra, ' without,' ' on this or that side of a boundary
line, ' in reference to horizontal extension ; in the second class in,
intra, mean within, ' and ex, extra, ' without, ' in reference to a
surrounding circle ; in the third class sub and infra mean ' within , '
and super, supra, mean without, ' in reference to a boundary line
above us. And in the same class we distinguish cis, trans, in,
ex, sub, super, as indicating that which is nearer with reference
to a defined locality, from citra, ultra, intra, extra, infra, supra,
which do not imply a definition of the place ; for example, cis
Alpes, trans Alpes, indicate local proximity to the Alps on this
or that side of the mountains, but citra Alpes, means anywhere
between us and the Alps, and ultra may denote any extent be-
yond. When we say in urbe or ex urbe, we consider the city
as a point, and therefore the locality indicated is sufficiently de-
fined ; but if we write intra or extra urbem, we regard only the
outer bounds indicated, and do not refer to any definite place
within those limits . When we use sub and super, we presume
a proximity to the objects above and below respectively ; but
when we write infra and supra, any distance from the limits
given may be implied . Thus, Me omnium illarum diœcesium ,
quæ cis Taurum sunt, omniumque earum civitatum magistratus
legationesque conveniebant. Cic. ad div. III. 8. Gallia Cisalpina,
Cispadana ; Transalpina, Transpadana. Decretum est, ut exerci-
tum citra flumen Rubiconem educeret, dum ne propius urbem
Romam cc millia admoveret. Cic. Phil. VI. 3. Belgæ proximi sunt
Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt. Cæs. B. G. 1. 1. Cæsar
paulo ultra eum locum castra transtulit. Cæs. B. C. III . 66. Memi-
nistine me hoc dicere in senatu ? Cic. Cat. 1. 3. Intra parietes
meos de mea pernicie consilia inibantur. Cic. Att. III . 10. Ampius
184 UNDECLINED WORDS.

conatus erat tollere pecunias Epheso ex fano Dianæ, ejusque rei

causa senatores omnes ex provincia evocaverat. Cæs. B. C. III. 105.
Apud Germanos latrocinia nullam habent infamiam, quæ extra
fines cujusque civitatis fiunt. Cæs . B. G. vI. 23. Sub radicibus
montis vi summa proelium commiserunt. Nep. Mil. 5. Res quæ-
dam ita sunt parvæ, ut sub sensum cadere non possint. Cic. Ac.
1. 8. 'Infra lunam nihil est, nisi mortale et caducum ; supra lunam
sunt æterna omnia. Cic. Rep. vi . 17. Demetrius super terræ
tumulum noluit quid statui , nisi columellam, tribus cubitis ne alti-
orem. Cic. Leg. II . 26. To indicate the place at table the proper
words are supra and infra. Supra me Atticus accubuerat, infra
Verrius. Cic. ad div. IX . 26.

(h) The following pairs of words may be rendered respec-

tively by the same English prepositions : in, inter, among ; ' sub,
subter, ' under ; ' prae, praeter, ' before ; ' prope, propter, ' near ; '
but the first in each pair indicate a point, and the second an
extension ; compare the compound verbs interjicere, subterfugere,
praetermittere, with injicere, suffugere, praemittere, and the follow-
ing examples of the separate prepositions : Codrus se in medios
immisit hostes . Cic. Tusc. I. 48. Classis communis Græciæ inter
Euboeam continentemque terram cum classiariis regiis conflixit.
Nep. Them. 3. Virtus omnia, quæ cadere in hominem possunt,
subter se habet. Cic. Tusc. v. 1. Subter tertium orbem mediam
fere regionem sol obtinet. Cic. Rep. VI . 17. Servi hæc omnia
praeter oculos Lollii ferebant. Cic. Verr. III. 35.

(i) Both usque ad and tenus may be rendered ' up to,' ' as far
as ; but usque ad (sometimes ad or usque alone) denotes both the
extension and the direction ; it stands always with reference to the
starting-point, generally indicated by the preposition a (ab) ; and it
may refer to time as well as space ; on the other hand , tenus
denotes only the further limit, the nearer being assumed as known,
and refers only to space. In the phrase verbo tenus, we under-
stand only as far as words go ' in opposition to the truth. The
following are examples : Ab hora octava ad vesperum secreto col-
loquuti sumus. Cic. Att. vII. 8. Nihil difficilius est, quam amici-
tiam usque ad extremum vitæ spiritum permanere. Cic. Am . 10.
Usque Ennam profecti sunt. Cic.Verr. IV. 49. Antiochus Magnus
Tauro tenus regnare jussus est. Cic. Deiot. 13. Nam veteres
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 185

verbo tenus, acute illi quidem, sed non ad hunc usum popularem
atque civilem de re publica disserebant. Cic. Leg. III. 6.

(k) Ob, propter, causa, and even de and per may be ren-
dered ' on account of ; ' but ob denotes the cause or reason as it
appears to our mind ; propter the real or actual ground ; causa
the motive alleged or supposed : and when de is rendered on
account of,' we mean the immediate occasion, and when per me
is rendered on my account,' we mean that there is a permission
or hindrance to be accounted for. The preposition ob is fre-
quently used with the words res and causa, as quam ob rem,
hanc ob causam , &c . The following are examples : Ob aliquod
emolumentum suum cupidius dicere videntur. Cic. Font. 8. Multa
mihi veniebant in mentem, quam ob rem istum laborem tibi honori
fore putarem. Cic. ad div. III . 10. Tironem propter humanitatem
malo salvum, quam propter usum meum. Cic. Att. VII . 5. Me
autem, propter quem ceteri liberi sunt, tibi liberum non visum
demiror. Cic. ad div. VII. 27. Qui sui defendendi causa telo est usus,
non hominis occidendi causa telum habuisse putatur. Cic. Mil. 4.
Sophistæ appellabantur ii , qui ostentationis aut quæstus causa phi-
losophabantur. Cic. Ac. 11. 33. Flebat uterque non de suo sup-
plicio, sed pater de filii morte, de patris filius. Cic. Verr. 1. 30.
His per te frui libertate non licet. Cic. Flacc. 29. Consequatur
summas voluptates, non modo parvo, sed per me nihilo, si potest.
Cic. Fin. II. 48.

111 Most of the prepositions are used in composition, and

generally add their own meaning to that of the verb ; they are
occasionally affected by the contact. The following list will show
their employment and modifications.

Ab, ' from,' appears as a (before m and v ) , abs (before c and t) ,

and ab in other cases ; as amitto, averto ; abscondo, abstinea ;
abeo, abduco, abrado. We have au for ab in aufero, aufugio, and
as for abs in aspello, asporto.
Ad, ' to, ' remains unaltered before yowels and j, m, v, as in adeo,
adjaceo, admiror, advolvo ; it is changed into ac before qu, as in
acquiro; it is shortened into a in ăperio, amoenus, adeps, atrox ;
in most other cases it is assimilated to the first consonant of the
following word, as in af- fero, ag-grego, al-loquor, an-numero,
ap-pono, as-sequor, at- tingo ; but the d is retained in some edi-
186 UNDECLINED WORDS .

tions of the best authors ; and this is generally the case before sc
and sp, as in ad-scisco, ad-spicio. In old Latin it was written
ar-, and this form is retained in ar-biter (from ad-bio, to ap-
proach') , in ar-cesso (for ac-cedso, also written accerso) , and in
ar-guo for ad-gruo. In approbo and affirmo, the preposition ad
merely strengthens the sense.
Ante, ' before ; ' as antepono.
Circum, around ; ' as circumeo.
Cum, ' with,' written con , is changed into co before vowels
and h, as in coalesco, cohibeo, and with an absorption of the fol-
lowing vowel in cogo for co-igo from ago ; it is changed into com
before b, m, and p, as in combibo , commoveo, compono ; it is assi-
milated to the liquids 1, n, r, as in colloquor, conniveo, cor-
rumpo ; in other cases it is always written con, as in conjungo,
conviva.
De, 'down from,' sometimes des- before t, as in destino ; before
a vowel either shortened, as in deorsum, or with an absorption of
the vowel, as demo for de-imo ; in other cases unaltered, as in
detraho, descendo. It is sometimes used with a negative force, as
in demens.
E, ex, ' out of,' retains the full form ex before vowels and c, p, q, s , t ;
it becomes ef- before ƒ, and e in all other cases ; as exigo, excipio,
expono, exquiro, exspecto, extraho, effero, emitto. We have also e
for ex in epoto, escendo. This preposition sometimes denotes
completion ; as in efficio, enarro, exōro.
In, 'into,' ' upon,' ' against,' is written im- before b and p, and assi-
milated before 1, m and r ; otherwise it remains unchanged ; as
imbibo, impono; illido, immisceo, irrideo ; incurro, induco . In
old writers or their imitators we have endo, or indu for in. With
adjectives in is a negative prefix ; as incautus, imparātus.
Inter, ' between ; as interpono: it is assimilated in intelligo .
Ob upon, ' against, ' ' around,' is assimilated before c, ƒ, and p,
as in occurro, offero , oppono ; it is shortened to o in omitto, õperio ;
and is written obs or os, in obs-olesco, obs-tinatus, os-tendo ; in other
cases it remains unaltered, as in objicio, obtineo. With some
verbs it denotes perseverance, as in obtineo, occupo, and our word
' obstinate . '
Per, through;' as in perlego, perago ; but we have pergo for perrigo ;
the 7 is assimilated in pellicio, pellectio, pellucidus, and shortened
in pejero for perjuro, and pējor for pĕrior.
 UNDECLINED WORDS , 187

Post, ' after ;' as in postpono; but we have pomoerium, pomeridianus,

and pono, posui for post-sino.
Obs. Post seems to denote ' beyond' in post-moerium or po-moerium,
the space beyond the wall ; ' postliminium, the space beyond the
threshold,' within which a resumption of rights is possible.

Prae, 'before ;' as praefero, praebeo for prachibeo.

Praeter, by;' as praetereo.
Pro, ' before ; ' as profero, projicio, promoveo ; but we have probeo
for prohibeo (Lucret.) ; pro is shortened before vowels, or sepa-
rated by an inserted d, as in prodeo, prodigo, and in some forms
of prosum, as prodest; and it suffers metathesis and assimilation
in pol-liceo, por-rigo.
Sub, ' under,' assimilates b to c, f, g, m, p, r ; as in succedo, sufficio,
suggero, summoveo, suppono, surripio ; but we have always sub-
rideo and subrado. Sub passes into sus , probably from subs, in
sus-cipio, sus-cito, sus-pendo, and while suscipio was anciently
written succipio ( Servius , ad Verg. Æn. 1. 148 ) , some MSS. on
the other hand give us suscenseo for succenseo (Drakenb. ad Liv.
xxv. 6, p . 951) , and this form is adopted by Bentley in his
Terence. In composition with some verbs sub implies secrecy,
as in subornare testem ; in others, as sufficio, succedo, substituo, it
implies putting one thing in the place of another.
Super, ' upon,' ' in addition ; ' as supersto, supersum.
Trans, beyond,' sometimes trā ; as transeo, transjicio or trajicio ;
but generally trado, trāno.

The following prepositions are used only in composition :

Amb- (another form of ob) , also am- or an-, ' around ; ' as ambio,
amplector, anceps.
Dis-, ' asunder,' retains its full form before c, j, p, q, t, and 8 fol-
lowed by a vowel ; as in discedo, disjicio, displiceo, disquiro,
distraho, disseco ; the s is assimilated to f, as in differo, diffundo ;
it becomes r in dirimo ; and we use di in dijudico , and before all
consonants except those, mentioned above, as in digero, dimitto,
&c.
Re-, ' back, ' also red- or ret- ; as revertor, redeo, rettuli. With
verbs of covering, closing, &c., it has the meaning of our prefix
un- or dis-, as re-tego, ' to un-cover, ' ' dis-cover,' re-velo, ' to
un-veil,' re-cludo, ' to un-close, ' ' dis -close , ' re-sero , ‘ to un-lock , '
 188 UNDECLINED WORDS .

&c. Sometimes re- denotes repetition or ' doing a thing over

again, ' as in re-peto, ' to repeat,' re-lego, ' to reperuse, ' &c.
Sē- (another form of sine) , ' apart,' ' without ; ' as sēcerno, sēcurus.
It is shortened into se in seorsim and also with a change of
vowel in socors, socordia. We have seditio from se and eo, and
this is the only instance of se used in composition before a vowel,
and retaining its full form and a long vowel : but sudus, ' warm, '
' dry,' is said by Festus (p. 294) to be for se-udus, and some
derive solus from se-alius or se-olus.

Ve- or vehe-, ' away,' ' out of;' as ve-cors or vehe-mens, ' out of
mind,' i. e. ' stupid or impatient, ' ve-stibulum, ' that which stands
out from the house.'

§3. Conjunctions.

112 Conjunctions are adverbs especially used for the purpose

of joining together words and sentences, from which circumstance
they derive their name (i. e. from conjungo, ' I yoke together') . In
regard to their form conjunctions are either simple or compound.
Thus et, at, sed, nam are simple conjunctions, but atque, itaque,
attamen, siquidem, enimvero, &c . are compound conjunctions. Ac-
cording to their position in the sentence, conjunctions are, (1) post-
positive, if they cannot stand first in the sentence, as enim, autem,
vero, quidem, quoque ; (2) prepositive, if they must stand first, at
least in prose, as sed, at, verum, etenim, nec, sin, sive, quare, &c.;
(3) common, if they may stand either first or second, as tamen,
igitur, itaque; (4) enclitic, when they are necessarily appended to
some other word, as -que and -ve. According to their signification
and usage they are divided into the following classes : (A) Copu-
lative Conjunctions, which join words and sentences on an equal
footing ; and these again are ( 1 ) Positive ; (2 ) Negative ; (3) Dis-
junctive ; (4) Alternative ; (B) Adversative Conjunctions, which
oppose words and sentences ; (C) Inferential Conjunctions, which
introduce a conclusion or inference ; (D) Causal Conjunctions,
which introduce a statement of the ground or reason ; (E) Condi-
tional Conjunctions, which introduce an hypothesis or assumption ;
(F) Concessive Conjunctions, which introduce an admission ; (G)
Final Conjunctions, which introduce an expression of the purpose ,
object, or result ; (H) Temporal Conjunctions, which introduce a
definition of time.
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 189

(A) Copulative Conjunctions.

(1) Positive, et
atque (ac) and
-que
quoquel also
etiam
quinetiam, moreover
neque non and besides
necnon }
itidem, item) likewise.
simul item}

(2) Negative, neque, nec, and not.

(3) Disjunctive, aut)

vel or.
-ve

(4) Alternative, sive, seu, or whether.

Copulative conjunctions of every kind are very frequently

doubled, as follows :

et-et, ' both —and, ' ' as well-as, ' ' partly-partly' (this is a com-
mon usage) .
et-que, ' both-and' (common in later writers, but of rare occurrence
in Cicero).
que-et (connect single words, but this combination is not found in
Cicero) .
que-que (only in poetry) .
et-neque, ' on the one hand,' i. e. ' partly so')
(this a very com-
-'not on the other,' i. e. ' partly not so'
mon usage).
neque -et, ' in part not so-partly so'
nec que (of rarer occurrence).
modo- modo
' at one time-at another time.'
modo- nunc
non modo-sed etiam
' not only-but also .'
non solum- sed etiam
quum- tum
tum -tum
'both- and.'
диа-диа
simul-simul
190 UNDECLINED WORDS.

neque (nec)-neque. (nec) (very common) .

neque nec (not unfrequent) .
nec-neque (of rare occurrence).
aut- aut)
' either-or.'
vel-vel
sive (seu) —sive (seu) , ' whether -or.'

(B) Adversative Conjunctions.

autem , however nihilominus)
nevertheless
at (ast), but yet tamen inus}
atqui, but for all that vero, in fact, however
attamen , but still verum en
verumtam still in fact
at vero, but in fact }
enim vero, but really now verum enimvero, but in solemn
sed, but on the contrary truth.

(C) Inferential Conjunctions.

ergo, therefore quare , on what account?
idcirco, on that account quamobrem on which account
ideo, for that reason quapropter
igitur , therefore proinde, wherefore
itaque, accordingly propterea , on that account
cur, why ? quocirca, wherefore .

(D) Causal Conjunctions.

quum , seeing that quial because
enim for quods
etenim , for indeed quoniam since, inasmuch as
nam for si quidem)
namque) quippe, forasmuch as
quando, whilst ut pote (with relative) , seeing
quandoquidem , since that, considering that.

(E) Conditional Conjunctions .

si, if sin autem, if, however, on the

siforte, if perchance contrary

si modo, if only sin minus, if not
si tamen, if otherwise sin vero, but if really
sin, but if nisi, ni, or even nisi si, unless
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 191

dum ne
nisi forte, unless perchance if only not, pro-
dummodo modo ne
vided only not
modo provided only dummodo ne)
dum quod si, but if
quod nisi, but unless .

(F) Concessive Conjunctions .

et si quamvis
even if
etiam si } quantumvis however much
tametsi quamlibet
if ever so much
tamenetsi) quantumlibet
licet, though it be supposed that ut, to whatever extent
quamquam , although quum, all the while that.

(G) Final Conjunctions .

ne, lest, to the end or extent that quo, in order that
not quominus, in order that- not
ne forte, lest perchance ut, uti, to the end that
neve, neu, and lest ut ne, to the end that- not
quin, so that- not ut non, to the extent that- not.

(H) Temporal Conjunctions.

antequam , before quoad until
donec , until dum
priusquam, before postquam , after
quamdiu, as long as quoties, as often as
simul, simulatque (ac) , as soon as.

The use of the conjunctions, considered according to these dif-

ferent classes, is best learned from their employment in the corre-
sponding forms of co-ordinate or subordinate sentences. It will be
sufficient here to subjoin a few remarks on those conjunctions
which require and admit of a special discrimination as synonymous
words.

(A)
(a) The copulative conjunctions et, -que, and at-que may be
distinguished as follows :
Et, which is another form of ad, merely denotes the addition of
one thing to another ; -que, which contains the same root as the
relative, places two objects on a parallel footing, and combines
 192 UNDECLINED WORDS.

them in one idea ; at-que, which is compounded of the other two,

implies that there is not only an addition , but also an intimate
connexion between the things coupled together, and therefore indi-
cates cause and effect, antecedent and consequent, &c. Ac is an-
other form of atque, as nec is of neque, and never stands before
vowels or h, although nec and neque are used indifferently before
vowels or consonants. The following examples, taken from the
first chapter of Cæsar, de Bello Civili, will show the use of et, -que,
atque (ac) . The chapter might be headed de causa et origine belli
civilis, because they are separate subjects ; and in the context we
find senatu reique publicae, because the senate and the state form
one connected , complex notion ; but we have audacter ac fortiter,-
sin Caesarem respiciant atque ejus gratiam sequantur,-gratiam
atque amicitiam, because the word or phrase which follows atque
(ac) is an extension or supplement of that which precedes. In
some copulative phrases the et is always omitted ; for example,
in Patres, Conscripti, for Patres et Conscripti, ' Patricians and new
Senators ; sarta tecta, ' sound in wall and roof ;' Populus Romanus
Quirites, the people of Roman and Sabine origin ; ' lis vindiciae,
' plaint and claim , ' &c. In these phrases we might of course insert
atque as correctly as et ; for it is sometimes a matter of indifference
whether we use et or atque in coupling similar objects ; thus in
Cic. Parad. 3 fin. , we have : Perturbatione peccetur rationis atque
ordinis ; perturbata autem ratione et ordine, &c. In introducing the
scrtence and that too, ' we may write either atque id, et id, or
idque, but with hic, idem, adeo, potius, utinam, &c . it is more com-
mon to use atque. The use of atque as a comparative particle has
been noticed above (p. 173) . The explanation of the idiom seems
to be this, -that atque in itself may express a meaning similar to
atque id. Thus we find in answers such usages as the following :
6
Cognostine hos versus? do you know these lines?' ac memoriter,
'yes, I do, and that too by heart. ' Num hic duae Bacchides habi-
tant, surely two women of the name of Bacchis do not live here.'
Atque ambae sorores, ' yes they do, and what is more they are both
sisters.' So in the comparative sentence, atque may be rendered
' and indeed ; ' thus, is tibi notus est aeque ac mihi, ' he is known to
you equally, and that too (i. e. and besides) to me ; ' aliud mihi ac
tibi videtur, ' it appears a different thing to you , and that too (i. e.
and besides) to me, ' in other words, ' both you and I perceive the
thing as different.'
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 193

(b) The difference between etiam and quoque consists in this,

that while etiam introduces a new circumstance, quoque merely de-
notes the addition of something similar ; so that etiam may be ren-
dered ' and farther ; ' quoque, ‘ and also . ' Hence etiam may qualify a
particular word, in which case it precedes , or may give emphasis to
a sentence, in which case its position is optional ; but quoque
always qualifies some single word, which it necessarily follows.
Thus, Cæsar splendidam quamdam dicendi rationem tenet, voce,
motu, forma etiam magnifica et generosa quodammodo. Cic. Brut
75. Me scilicet maxime, sed proxime illum quoque fefellissem .
Cic. Rab. Post. 12. These particles are so different in meaning
that they may occur together ; thus, Ego pol quoque etiam timida
sum, Ter. Hecyr. v. 1. 7, where quoque belongs to ego, and etiam
to timida; and this may of course happen when etiam is a particle
of time, as, Egomet quoque ejus causa in funus prodeo nihil suspi-
cans etiam mali. Ter. Andr. 1. 1. 89 .

(c) Item expresses only similarity, and is often a particle of

comparison followed by ut ; itidem presumes a repetition ; and
identidem a repetition after a short interval. Thus, Fecisti item,
uti prædones solent. Cic. Verr. IV. 9. Placuit Scævolæ itemque
ceteris. Cic. Leg. II . 21. Spectaculum uni Crasso jucundum fuit,
ceteris non item. Cic. Att. II. 21. Nunc itidem (ut in Aratio
carmine) ab eodem Jove et a ceteris diis immortalibus sunt nobis
agendi capienda primordia. Cic. Leg. 11. 3 ; cf. Cic . Top. 22. Re-
citabatur identidem Pompeii testimonium. Cic. Rab. Post. 12.

(d) Nec (neque) non is not used in good prose as a mere sub-
stitute for et to connect nouns together, but only to couple propo-
sitions, and the two negatives are often separated ; thus, Nemo
Attico minus fuit ædificator, neque tamen non imprimis bene habi-
tavit. Nep. Att. 13. Cicero has nec vero non , &c.; and in the later
writers, from Quintilian downwards, necnon is written as one word,
and used as precisely equivalent to et.

(e) We have nec rather than et non , if the negation belongs to

the whole sentence ; as, Expurgandus est sermo et adhibenda tam-
quam obrussa ratio, quæ mutari non potest, nec utendum pravissima
consuetudinis regula ( Cic. Brut. 74) , we must make our style pure,
and employ as our touchstone reason , which is not liable to change ;
and we must not act upon custom , the most faulty of all standards ,'
D. L. G. 13
194 UNDECLINED WORDS.

because all that follows nec is included in the negation . But if

the negation belongs to a single word or constitutes an antithesis ,
we must have et non or even ac non ; thus, Athenis apud Deme-
trium Syrum, veterem et non ignobilem dicendi magistrum , exerceri
solebam (Cic. Brut. 91 ) , because non belongs only to ignobilem.
Patior et non moleste fero (Cic. Verr. 1. 1 ) , because non belongs to
moleste. Si quam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine, ac non impulsu
tuo fecisset, because ac non, and not rather, ' belongs to impulsu
tuo, directly opposed to suo nomine. If et precedes, it is more
usually followed by et non than by nec ; thus, Manlius et semper
me coluit, et a studiis nostris non abhorret. Cic. ad divers. XIII . 23.
And we may have et non even when neque precedes ; as, Africanus
neque cessabat unquam, et interdum colloquio alterius non egebat.
Cic. Off. III. 1.

(f) of the disjunctives, aut, which is another form of haud or

haut, expresses total separation, vel suggests a choice, and -ve con-
veys an unimportant distinction ; thus, Quidquid dicam aut erit
aut non, ' whatever I shall say will either be, or, which is quite a
different thing, it will not. ' Hor. 2 Serm. v. 59. Hanc mihi vel vi
vel clam vel precario fac tradas (Ter. Eun. 11. 3. 28) , ' take care to
procure her for me either by stealth or, ifyou please, by entreaty,'
meaning that the mode was entirely indifferent and optional ; for
he adds, mea nihil refert dum patiar modo. Cf. Hor. 2 Epist. II .
173 : nunc prece, nunc pretio, nunc vi. And compare si plus
minusve dixero, if I shall have said more or less, ' the difference
being small (Cic. pro Flacco, 5) , with aut plus aut minus , quam
opus erat, multo, where the difference is expressly stated to be
great (Plautus, Menaechmei, IV. 2. 27) . From the exclusive force of
aut, it is often used after negatives ; as, Non mehercule unquam
apud judices aut dolorem aut misericordiam aut invidiam aut
odium excitare dicendo volui . Cic. de Oratore, II. 45, 189.

(g) The only pronoun used for the expression of an alternative

is sive (shortened into seu), which is really a combination of the
conditional si with the disjunctive ve. This word is sometimes
used as a substitute for vel si, as in Ter. Andr. I. 2. 19 : Postulo,
sive æquum est, te oro. Ib. 1. 5. 58 : Si te in germani fratris
dilexi loco, sive hæc te solum semper fecit maximi , seu tibi mori-
gera fuit, where we must translate sive or seu by ' or if.' The
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 195

alternative is therefore to be understood as the option between two

conditions. This is readily seen when the alternative sentence
contains a verb ; as , Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minos
sanxit, laboribus erudiunt juventutem (Cic. Tusc. II. 14) , ' either if
it was Juppiter or if it was Minos who made these laws , take
which alternative you please ; they produce the same effect.' But
if there is no verb the conditional sentence is lost, and we must
translate sive-sive by ' whether-or. ' Thus we have this conjunc-
tion repeated with an oblique case : Sive certaminis periculo , sive
subito adventu, sive exspectatione nostri consilii. Cæs. B. G. VIII . 9 .
Or alone, in the sense of ' or : ' Adjungit agros in Macedonia , qui
regis Philippi sive Persæ fuerunt. Cic. Agr. II. 19. Or in a sen-
tence containing si : His in rebus si apud te plus auctoritas mea
quam tua sive natura paulo acrior sive quædam dulcedo iracundiæ,
sive dicendi sal facetiæque valuissent, nihil sane esset quod nos
pæniteret. Cic. Quint. Fr. 1. 2. By a singular change of applica-
tion sive is regarded as equivalent to an indirect interrogative
particle, and is followed by an; thus, Sed Plautum ea non movere ;
sive nullam opem providebat inermis atque exsul, seu tædio ambiguæ
spei ; an amore conjugis et liberorum. Tac. Ann. XIV. 59. If the
second alternative is merely the negative of the first, it may be
expressed simply by sive non ; thus, Sive referent ad me sive non,
mea tamen benevolentia fidesque præstabitur. Cic . ad divers. XII. 2 .

Obs. How far we are at liberty to substitute the form of the double
question (above, 108, (A), (c)) for the expression of the alternative by
means of sive may be regarded as an open question. Hand thinks
(Tursellinus, 1. p. 300) that the use of an for dubium an was a collo-
quialism, and he adds : ' interpositum an non mutat verborum constructio-
nem, quæ, ut incepit, pergit per indicativum.' When he maintains that in
the former member of the disjunctive sentence the particle is necessarily
omitted, it is to be remarked that although this is the most usual form,
it is not and cannot be invariable. Thus in Cic. Resp. 11. 15, we have a
variety of reading : ' verene hoc memoriæ proditum sit [est] regem istum
Numam Pythagoræ[ne ] ipsius discipulum an certe Pythagoreum fuisse ?'
On this Hand remarks : est vero bimembris dubitatio verbis expressa,
nec debebat illud an pro aut accipi, ut fecit Moserus. ' He adds the
(
following quotations with the accompanying comments : Plin. Ep. v.
4, 2, dixerunt se deceptos, lapsine verbo, an quia ita sentiebant.
Gesnerus hæc verba addi a Plinio tanquam interpositam interrogatio-
nem : sed eodem modo Dictys Cret. I. 19 : neque multo post irane
cælesti, an ob imitationem aeris corporibus pertentatis, lues invadit ;
ubi Mercerus multa exempla affert per ne-an formata.' That these
13-2
196 UNDECLINED WORDS.

sentences, are not dependent, but that the indicative construction is

proper, appears from such passages as the following :
O felix, tantis quam primum industria rebus
Prodidit auctorem, deus ille, an proxima divis
Mens fuit, in cæcas aciem quæ magna tenebras
Egit, et ignarum perfudit lumine vulgus.
Gratius Faliscus, Cyneget. 95-98.

In Varro, L. L. 8, 61 : quod sit an non, nihil commovet analogiam,

the last words are equivalent to nihil refert, so that the double interro-
gative is dependent, and the subjunctive is in its proper place. Schwartz
renders this passage allein es mag dies seyn oder nicht, so thut es
doch der Analogie nichts ;' and adds, ' versio quidem nostra loci Var-
roniani docet, quod lingua nostra vernacula aut ferat aut postulet.'
And as Hand tells us, ' Facciolatus in Epist. Meieri, p. 12 , notaverat in
Varronis loco an eleganter quidem, non pro sive positum esse. " Si quid,”
inquit, "pro an non reponi posset, non sive reponeretur sed necne.
But Hand himself (p. 302) supposes the sit annon of Varro to be equi-
valent to sive sit sive non sit, and quotes besides Ovid, Remed. Amoris,
797 : Daunius an Lybicis bulbus tibi missus ab oris, an veniat Megaris,
noxius omnis erit. He remarks that in Statius, Silva. 1. 3, 40, ' per
an exprimitur sententia, quæ antea, v. 34, per ve dicta erat ;' and he
quotes many passages in which sive, seu, and an are placed in juxta-
position, e.g. Tac. Ann. xI. 26 ; Ovid, Fasti, III. 773 : sive -sive quia
-sive- an quia, cf. 1. 327 ; III. 231. In Tac. Annal. XIV. 7, we
have : Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne irriti dissuaderent an eo
descensum credebant, ut, &c., where an appears to be equivalent to an
quia. On the whole it seems that the transition from the mere alter-
native expressed by the conditional sive to the interrogation expressed by
an must be reserved for those cases in which the alternative suggests
some question, as in Milton's phrase : or hear'st thou rather pure
ethereal stream, whose fountain who shall tell ?' There can be no
doubt at any rate that the use of sive is much more common, and the
young student may safely confine himself to this mode of expressing
the alternative sentence.

(B)

Sed, which is another form of sine and the prefix se- , con-
veys a direct opposition or contradiction ; autem, which is a length-
ened form of aut, states that the new matter is different, but
not necessarily inconsistent ; at, which is another form of ad and
et, merely denotes continuance, or the addition of something farther,
so that the contrast is produced not by any thing in the meaning
of at, but in the assertion of contemporaneous but opposite pheno-
mena, which it introduces. Thus sed means ' but on the contrary ;'
autem, but, which is a different matter ;' and at, joined even to
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 197
6
that,' still,' ' yet, ' ' notwithstanding ;' as in the following exam-
ples : Non mihi, sed tibi, ' not to me , but, on the contrary , to you ;'
Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat, ' Gyges was
seen by no one, but he himself, which was quite a different matter,
saw all things ;' Cæsar fuit vir fortis, prudens, clemens : at ambi-
tiosus, at patriæ proditor, ' Cæsar possessed fortitude, prudence ,
and clemency, still, yet, continuing all this state of things, and in
addition to them he was, at the same time, ambitious, and a traitor
to his country. Sometimes at means ' therefore' or ' well then,'
as in Livy, 1. 38 : at ego recipio, ' well then, therefore, as a con-
tinuance, necessary and expected, I receive the surrender,' which is
the natural consequence of the capitulation ; and so in imprecations,
as in Virg. Æn. 11. 538 : At tibi pro scelere, &c., ' therefore may
the gods punish thy wickedness.' Verum and vero are merely cor-
rective, but verum etiam and sed etiam are Synonymous. Tamen
comes as nearly as possible to our nevertheless ; '- and the com-
pounds attamen, sed tamen, verum: men combine the notion of an
objection, a correction , or a corroboration, with that of a concession,
which is more or less contained in tamen. The following examples
will illustrate these usages : Atque hunc ille summus vir scelere
solutum periculo liberavit ; insidiatori vero et latroni quæ potest
inferri injusta nex ... Est enim hæc, judices , non scripta, sed nata
lex ; quam non didicimus, suscepimus , legimus, verum ex natura
ipsa arripuimus, hausimus, expressimus ; ad quam non docti, sed
facti ; non instituti , sed imbuti sumus : ut, si vita nostra in aliquas
insidias...incidisset, omnis honesta ratio esset expediendæ salutis.
Cic. Mil. 4. Nunc quod agitur agamus ; agitur autem, liberine
vivamus, an mortem obeamus. Cic. Phil. XI. 10. Quid porro
quærendum est ? factumne sit ? At constat. A quo ? At patet.
Cic. Mil. 6. Canes aluntur in Capitolio, ut significent, si fures
venerint. At fures internoscere non possunt. Cic. Rosc. Am. 20.
Ego (Crassus) , quamquam memet mei pænitet, cum hoc (Antonio)
maxime tamen in comparatione conjungar. Cic. Or. III. 9. Verum
enimvero legibus id prohiberi, id demum contumeliosum est plebi .
Liv. IV. 4.

(C)
Ergo is the most appropriate word to express our ' therefore '
in its logical sense ; igitur, which originally meant thereupon,'
' thereafter, ' merely continues the thought by some inference
198 UNDECLINED WORDS.
$

obvious at first sight ; itaque, and so, ' ' accordingly, ' introduces an
explanation naturally flowing from the previous statement ; proinde
generally confines the inference to the wish of the speaker, and is
used in good prose only with the imperative or subjunctive ; and
all these four particles strictly refer to what has gone before. On
the other hand, ideo, idcirco, and propterea, which do not indicate a
fact, but an aim and object, connect themselves with what follows ,
and are generally supplemented by quod, ut, ne, &c. Although idcirco
is properly the antecedent of quocirca, the two words are not used
in combination ; but quocirca takes the place of proinde when we
express ' wherefore ' with an indicative . The same may be said of
quare, quamobrem, quapropter, which do not follow the correspond-
ing antecedent expression, propterea, but introduce a sentence in
much the same way as quocirca. Quare is also an interrogative par-
ticle, demanding the cause or reason why ; and this is properly the
use of cur. · Thus we have : A. Malum mihi videtur esse mors.
M. Iisne, qui mortui sunt, an iis , quibus moriendum est ? A. Utris-
que. M. Est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. A. Certe. M. Ergo
et ii, quibus evenit jam, ut morerentur, et ii , quibus eventurum est,
miseri. A. Mihi ita videtur. M. Nemo ergo non miser. A: Prorsus
nemo. Cic. Tusc. 1. 5. Est igitur ambulantibus ad hunc modum
sermo ille institutus. Cic. Tusc. II . 4. Bestiolæ quædam unum diem
vivunt ex his igitur hora octava quæ mortua est, provecta ætate
mortua est. Cic. Tusc. 1. 39. Est enim metus, ut ægritudo præ-
sentis , sic ille futuri mali. Itaque nonnulli ægritudinis partem
quandam metum esse dicebant. Cic. Tusc. IV. 30. Si quis rem
mandatam gessisset negligentius , eum majores nostri summum
admisisse dedecus existimabant. Itaque mandati constitutum est
judicium, non minus turpe, quam furti. Cic. Rosc. Am. 38. Quæ
resecanda sunt, non patiar ad perniciem civitatis manere : proinde
aut exeant aut quiescant. Cic. Cat. II . 5. Proinde fac tantum
animum habeas, quanto opus est. Cic. ad div. XII. 6. Quis unquam
crederet, Verrem mulierum adversarium futurum ? an ideo aliquid
contra mulieres fecit, ne totum edictum ad Chelidonis arbitrium
scriptum videretur ? Cic. Verr. 1. 41. Ergo idcirco turpis hæc
culpa est, quod duas res sanctissimas violat, amicitiam et fidem.
Cic. Rosc. Am . 39. Hæc propterea de me dixi, ut mihi Tubero
conquiesceret. Cic. Lig. 3. Affers hæc omnia argumenta, cur dii
sint. Cic. N. D. III. 4. Afferunt rationem, cur negent. Cic. ad div.
VI. 8. Quid est, cur sedeas ? Cic. Cluent. 53. Cur Marcellum
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 199

Hannibal interemit ? cur Paulum Cannæ sustulerunt ? cur Afri-

canum domestici parietes non texerunt ? Cic. N. D. III . 32.
Quare nihil potuit confici ? Cic. Att. XI. 15. Utendum est ex-
cusatione, quare id necesse fuerit. Cic. Off. II . 19. Agusius fuit
omnium periculorum meorum socius ... Quare sic eum tibi commendo ,
ut unum de meis domesticis et maxime necessariis. Cic. ad div.
XIII. 71. Permulta sunt, quæ dici possunt, quare illud intelligatur .
Cic. Rosc. Am. 33. Honos virtutis est præmium. Quamobrem,
mi Planci, incumbe toto pectore ad laudem. Cic. ad div. x. 10 .
Meminero, me recepisse, quem defenderem : quapropter nihil est,
quod metuas. Cic. Verr. II . 73. Meas cogitationes omnes expli-
cavi tibi superioribus literis ; quocirca hæ sunt breves. Cic. Att.
x . 6.

Obs. Ergo is sometimes an expression of sorrow ; as, Ergo Quin-

tilium perpetuus sopor urget ! So then eternal sleep cppresses Quin-
tilius !'

(D)

(a) Nam is our for,' when it introduces a proof or reason ;

enim is for, ' when it merely explains ; accordingly nam is used to
strengthen a preceding negative sentence, whereas enim explains a
positive clause ; and conversely, while nam non is of rare occur-
rence, nothing is more frequent than non enim or neque enim; nam
has frequently an adversative sense, nearly equivalent to sed ; but
enim in an adversative clause must be preceded by at or sed, and
we have even at enim vero, or verum enim vero. With the addition
of the copulative conjunctions, que and et, namque and etenim not
only refer to the preceding sentence, but introduce as something fresh
the first clause of a new argument. We often find nam before etsi,
quod (= quod ad id attinet), but etenim before si. Thus we have :
Exiguum hoc tempus tamen mihi nimium longum videtur. Habeo
enim nihil, tentatis omnibus rebus, in quo acquiescam. Nam dum
illud tractabam, de quo antea scripsi ad te, quasi fovebam dolores
meos.....Solitudinem meam non obturbavit Philippus. Nam, ut
heri me salutavit, statim Romam profectus est .....Sed omnia, ut
voles . Ego enim, quidquid feceris , id quum recte, tum etiam mea
causa factum putabo . Cic. Att. XII . 18. Nam (elliptically for sed
supervacanea dico ; nam) quid argumentamur, quo pecunia ista
pervenerit. Fecit . ipse judicium. Cic. Verr. 1. 57. Tum ille :
200 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Namque quod tu non poteris aut nescies , quis nostrum tam impu-
dens est, qui se scire aut posse postulet ? Cic. Or. 1. 22. Intel-
ligetis, nullis hominibus quemquam tanto odio, quanto istum Syra-
cusanis et esse et fuisse. At enim (elliptically for at hoc nihil
efficit; nam) istum soli Siculi persequuntur, cives Romani salvum
esse cupiunt. Cic. Verr. II . 6. Similarly, Sed enim. Cic. Arch. 3 .

(b) Quia gives the grounds, as resting on absolute fact, which

is supposed to be known ; otherwise we must use nam ; quod gives
the grounds, as merely our own or some other person's thought,
and the verb is subjunctive, if it is left uncertain whether we really
accept the implied reason, but indicative, if the conviction of the
speaker is expressed. Quippe, like our ' as, ' merely expresses the
correspondence of the alleged ground with the facts of the case ; it
is both used alone in this sense, and is also frequently joined with
quum, quod, quia and the relative qui, in the sense of inasmuch
as.' The same remark applies to utpote. Quum is properly an
adverb of time, and is not used as a causal conjunction, except so
far as the effect follows in course of time. Quoniam = quum jam
expresses the motive as springing from the existing state of the
case. Quando is almost always a mere particle of time, and this is
the predominant meaning where it seems to be a causal conjunc-
tion. Quandoquidem, owing to the concessive quidem, makes the
present state of affairs a reason for an admission of the grounds .
And siquidem similarly passes from the condition to the concession.
Thus, Tertia est urbs, quæ, quod in ea parte Fortunæ fanum anti-
quum fuit, Tycha nominata est. Quarta est urbs, quæ, quia pos-
trema ædificata est, Neapolis nominatur. Cic. Verr. IV. 53. Dolorem
ob id ipsum, quia dolor sit , fugiendum putat. Cic . Tusc. v. 33.
Aristides expulsus est patria, quod præter modum justus esset.
Cic. Tusc. v. 36. Num propterea nulla est rei publicæ gerendæ
ratio atque prudentia, quia multa Pompeium, quædam Catonem,
nonnulla etiam te ipsum fefellerunt ? Cic. Divin. 1. 14. Minari
denique divisoribus ratio non erat, propterea quod eos intelligere
videbam (nearly - quod illi intelligebant) , me hoc judicio districtum
atque obligatum futurum. Cic. Verr. 1. 9. Prædia mea tu possides ;
ego aliena misericordia vivo. Concedo, et quod animus æquus est,
et quia necesse est. Cic. Rosc. Am. 50. Sol Democrito magnus
videtur, quippe homini erudito in geometriaque perfecto. Cic. Fin.
1. 6. Convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 201

quidem, nisi perraro, veniret. Cic. Rosc. Am. 18. Non intelligo ,
quare Rullus quemquam intercessurum putet ; quum intercessio
stultitiam intercessoris significatura sit. Cic. Agr. 11. 12. Quoniam
semel suscepi, succurram atque subibo . Cic. Rosc. Am. 11. Itaque
quando vestræ cautiones infirmæ sunt, Græculam tibi misi cautionem .
Cic. ad div. VII. 18. Quandoquidem tu istos oratores tanto opere
laudas, vellem aliquid Antonio, plura Crasso libuisset scribere.
Cic. Brut. 44. Confiteor, jure mihi contigisse, quandoquidem tam
iners sum. Ter. And. III. 5. 2. Quare non olxera tua industria,
sed præclare ponitur ; siquidem id egisti, ut ego delectarer. Cic.
Att. VI. 1 .

(E)
The distinction between nisi (ni) and si non deserves the best
attention of the student. A negati . assumption or concession
can only be expressed by si non, and this is generally followed by
tamen, at, or some other particle of limitation. On the other hand,
nisi, which seems to contain the prohibitive ne, rather than the
direct negative, implies rather an exception, than a negation of the
condition ; and the frequent addition of another si shows that it is
used rather as an adverb than as a conjunction . It is often found
after non, but not immediately, or as a compound particle. We
have also very frequently the combination nisi forte, nisi vero.
The shortened form ni is for the most part poetical, but it occurs in
Cicero. If it is necessary to negative a preceding condition, we use
si non when the verb is repeated ; but sin minus, when we do not
repeat the verb. Thus, Memoria minuitur, nisi exerceas (' except
when ') . Cic. Sen. VI . Non tam perspicue istorum maleficia vide-
remus, nisi ipsos cæcos redderet cupiditas. Cic. Rosc. Am. 35.
Dolorem justissimum, si non potero frangere, occultabo. Cic. Phil.
XII. 8. Perfectionis laudem si non assequimur, at quid deceat
videmus. Cic. Or. 30. Si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non
feceris , ignoscam. Cic. ad div. v. 19. Moriar, ni, quæ tua gloria est,
puto te malle a Cæsare consuli, quam inaurari. Cic. ad div. vII. 13.
Is sponsionem fecit, ni vir bonus esset. Cic. Off. III. 19. Quod si
assecutus sum, gaudeo ; sin minus, tamen me consolor. Cic. ad div.
VII. 1 , extr. Dolores si tolerabiles sint, feramus ; sin minus, æquo
animo e vita exeamus. Cic. Fin. 1. 15.
202 UNDECLINED WORDS.

(F)
Etsi and etiamsi, ' even if, ' express the concession in the form
of a restricted condition, and take their colour from the sentence
which follows. Tametsi or tamenetsi, if ever so much,' throw a
greater emphasis on this restriction. Quamquam, although,' pre-
sumes that the statement conceded is true. Licet merely allows
the supposition. Quamvis, quantumvis, with the less usual quam-
libet, quantumlibet, concede an unlimited amount of assumption .
Quum, when used as a concessive particle, falls back on its
meaning as an adverb of time, and implies a contemporary ex-
istence of the circumstance conceded. Ut, like our phrase ' all
he while,' indicates the extent to which the concession reaches,
d may be rendered by ' granting that going to the extent
of allowing. All these particles of concession may be followed
by the adversative tamen or even tamen nihilominus, which are
found especially after the correlative tametsi. Thus we have :
Optimi homines faciunt, quod honestum est, etsi nullum emo-
lumentum consecuturum vident. Cic. Fin. II. 14 . Habet res

deliberationem ; etsi ex parte magna tibi assentior. Cic. Att. VII . 3.

Etiamsi quod scribas non habebis, scribito tamen. Cic. ad div. XVI .
26. Neque ea quisquam, nisi diu multumque scriptitarit, etiamsi
vehementissime se in his subitis dictionibus exercuerit, consequetur.
Cic. Or. I. 33. Tametsi statim vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure
decedam. Cic. Rosc. Am. 27. Rem publicam more nostro tuebi-
mur, quamquam admodum sumus defatigati. Cic. ad div. XII . 25.
Quamquam quid loquor ? Quamquam quis ignorat ? Cic. Cat. I.
8; Flacc. 27. Quamvis prudens ad cogitandum sis, sicut es ; tamen,
nisi magnæ curæ tibi esset,...nunquam ea res tibi tam belle in
mentem venire potuisset. Cic. Att. XII . 37. Quam volet, jocetur.
Cic. N. D. II. 17. Non enim possis, quantumvis licet excellas,
omnes tuos ad honores amplissimos perducere. Cic. Am. 20. Licet
omnes in me terrores impendeant, tamen succurram atque subibo .
Cic. Rosc. Am. 11. Has tabulas Marcellus, quum omnia profana
fecit, non attigit. Cic . Verr. IV. 55. Ut illud non cogitares, tamen
ad ejusdem ordinis homines te judices esse venturum. Cic. Verr.
III. 45.

(G)
Either ut or quo may be used to express affirmatively the end of
an action. Thus we may say either ut sit studiosior, or quo sit stu-
 UNDECLINED WORDS . 203

diosior, to signify in order that, to the end that, he may be more

studious.' To express the end negatively, the most common par-
ticle is ne, for which we may have the fuller form ut ne, when the
sentence is really final, but ut non, ut nunquam, &c. , when we
denote rather the consequence or extent of the action. If we wish
to couple two final sentences dependent on one main sentence, we
introduce the second by neve (neu) , which means ' or in order that
not' or ' and in order that not.' For ne, ut ne, ut non, we substitute
quin or quominus, when the main sentence implies a negation, pro-
hibition, omission, or prevention. The distinction between these
particles demands the best attention of the student. Quin is pro-
perly the old ablative quê (above, 64, Obs.) with the negative ne for
non, and it may be used interrogatively in the sense ' why not?"
as quin imus ? ' why do we not go ?' But it is also used relatively
in the sense ' in what manner not,' ' in such manner that not.'
Quominus is the common ablative quo with minus used negatively,
as in sin minus, &c., and therefore means ' in what manner the
less,' ' in such manner that so much the less. ' Generally therefore
these conjunctions may seem to agree in meaning ; but practically
quin is rather used to denote a consequence, and quominus to
denote a purpose. Accordingly, quin is used rather than quominus,
when the main sentence is negative, or when the negative force of
the impersonal verb abest or of a verb or phrase signifying to doubt
thus we
or omit, is destroyed by a negative or interrogative particle ;
have quin after nemo, nullus, nihil, non, nunquam, nusquam, vix, aegre,
&c.; after interrogatives ; after nihil, paulum, non procul, haud mul-
tum abest; non dubito, non est dubium, non ambigo ; non possum ;
non, vix, aegre abstineo, me contineo ; nihil praetermitto, and the
like ; and we have also quin after negative expressions of time.
But we have quominus (or ne) rather than quin after verbs signi-
fying to hinder or refuse , such as impedio, prohibeo, intercedo, inter-
dico, detineo, per me fit or stat, moror or in mora sum, recuso, re-
pugno, and the like. The following examples will suffice to illus-
trate the distinction : Nihil est quod sensum habeat quin id in-
tereat. Cic. N. D. III . 13. Haud multum abfuit, quin Ismenias
interficeretur. Liv. XLII . 44. Num dubitas quin specimen naturæ
capi deceat ex optima quaque natura ? Cic. Tusc. 1. 14. Vix me
contineo quin involem in eum. Ter. Eun. v. 2. 20. Nihil praeter-
misi, quin enucleate ad te perscriberem. Cic. Quint. Fr. III. 3.
Neque ullum fere totius hiemis tempus intercessit sine sollicitudine
204 UNDECLINED WORDS.

Cæsaris, quin aliquem de conciliis et motu Gallorum nuntium ac-

ciperet. Cæs. B. G. v. 51. Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse, quo-
minus de te certum haberemus. Cic. Div. XII. 5. Deterrere eum
voluit, quominus medicamentum biberet. Curt. vI . 40. Cæsar cog-
novit per Africanum stare, quominus dimicaretur. Cæs. B. C. 1. 41 .
Non recusabo quominus omnes mea scripta legant. Cic. Fin . 1. 3.

( H)

The temporal adverb quum and the local adverb ubi are also
used as temporal conjunctions. It is to be observed that quoad,
6
donec, dum, and usque dum signify both as long as' and ' until.'
In quoad the end is regarded rather than the duration ; this particle
always implies limitation, and may be rendered ' and then no
longer or farther.'Donec, which is not used by Cicero, expresses
the whole of the intervening period, and may be rendered ' conti-
nually or uninterruptedly until.' Dum always expresses a con-
temporaneous occurrence, and must be rendered whilst.' These
three words may denote any lapse of time, whether long or short ;
to express exclusively a long time we must use quamdiu, which is
also distinguished from the other particles by its use as an in-
terrogative ' how long ?' Quoad or quousque (the former only in
the poets) is used to signify not ' how long ?' but ' up to what
time ?' Thus we have : Quoad exspectatis ? Ter. Phorm . 1. 2. 98.
Quousque ? inquies ; quoad erit integrum. Cic. Att. xv. 23. Tam
diu velle debebis, quoad te, quantum proficias, non pænitebit. Cic.
Off. 1. 1. Ea vero continebis, quoad ipse te videam. Cic. Att. XIII .
21. Scire autem nos oportet, cognitis, quoad possunt ab homine
cognosci , bonorum et malorum finibus , nihil a philosophia posse
aut majus aut utilius optari, quam hæc, quæ a nobis hoc quatriduo
disputata sunt. Cic. Tusc. IV. 38. Quoad facere potui, or quoad ejus
facere potueris . Cie. Or. 11. 72 ; Div. III . 2. Donec armati confer-
tique abibant, peditum labor in persequendo fuit. Liv. vi. 13.
Nunquam destitit orare, donec perpulit. Ter. Andr. Iv. 1. 37 .
Catilina erat unus timendus, dum moenibus urbis continebatur.
Cic. Cat. III. 7. Exspecta, dum Atticum conveniam. Cic. Att.
VII . 1. Subtrahendi sunt iratis ii , in quos impetum conantur facere,
dum se ipsi colligant. Cic. Tusc. IV. 36. Quamdiu etiam furor
iste tuus nos eludet ? Cic. Cat. 1. 1. Se oppido tam diu tenuit,
quamdiu in provincia Parthi fuerunt. Cic. ad liv. XII . 19.
 UNDECLINED WORDS. 205

§ 4. Interjections.

113 Interjections or exclamatory words, which are used paren-

thetically for the expression of strong emotions, may be divided
into three classes : (1 ) indeclinable words, which are never used
except in these forms and for this purpose ; ( 2 ) other parts of
speech occasionally used in this way ; (3) invocations of the gods.

(1 ) Interjections exclusively so used are the following :

(a) Of joy : io, iu, ha , he, hoi, hahahe, euoe, euax.

(b) of pain or grief : heu, eheu , vae, vah, au, hei, proh, ohe.
(c) of astonishment : o, en, ecce, hui, hem, ehem, aha, atat,
papae, vah, tatae.

(d) Of disgust : phui, apage.

(e) Of calling : heus , eho, ehodum, o.
(f) of attestation : proh.
(g) of encouragement : eia.
(h) Of praise : euge, eugepae, heia.

(i) Of calling attention : en, ecce.

(k) Of enjoining silence : st!

(2) Other parts of speech , which may be used as interjectional

words, are nouns, as malum, indignum, turpe, miserabile, nefas ;
and in the vocative, as macte, macti ; verbs, as quaeso, obsecro,
amabo, oro, precor, used in entreaties. So also the hortative age,
agite, cedo, sodes = si audes , sis = si vis , sultis = si vultis, agesis =
=
age si vis, agedum, agitedum, &c. And the adverbs nae, profecto,
cito, bene, belle. Of the last, nae stands only before pronouns in
the best writers, as, Nae ego, si iterum eodem modo vicero, sine ullo
milite in Epirum revertar.

(3) Invocations of the gods have sometimes passed into mere

interjections or even adverbs . Of this class the following are the
most usual : mehercule, mehercle, hercule, hercle, mehercules, her-
cules, medius fidius, mecastor , ecastor, pol, edepol, per deum, per
deum immortalem, per deos, per Jovem, proh Juppiter, proh sancte,
supreme Juppiter, proh dii immortales, proh deum fidem, proh deum
206 UNDECLINED WORDS.

atque hominum fidem, proh deum (scil. fidem) , &c. Of these , meher-
cule, ' may you help me, O Hercules, ' is the form approved by
Cicero ( Orat. 47) ; and this, or Hercule, is the emphatic interjec-
tion most frequently found in his writings. Me deus fidius, ' may
Jove's son (fidius for filius) help me, ' is also an appeal to Hercules.
The weakest adjuration is pol, i.e. ' by Pollux ,' and this is the
woman's interjection in comedy. Edepol or Epol, &c . , stand for
per aedem Pollucis, &c.
 CHAPTER VI.

DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

§ 1. Derivation.

(a) Derived Nouns.

114 (a) DERIVED SUBSTANTIVES.

(1) Substantives derived from Verbs.

(aa) In some cases the formative syllable is represented

merely by the vowel a, the sibilant s, or the termination -us,
appended to the root of the verb ; thus we have scrib-a from
scrib-o, in-col-a from in-col-o, ad-věn-a from ad-ven-i-o, per-fug-a
from per -
fug-i-o, &c.; also, dux from duc-o, rex from reg-o, pel-lex
from pel-lic-io, ob-ses from ob-sid-o , &c.; and coqu-us from coqu-o,
merg-us from merg-o ; with a number of words like dol-us, riv-us,
mod-us, which seem to involve the roots of verbs no longer extant
in a simple form .

(bb) Nouns in -or, so far as they can be referred to simple

verbs , denote the action of the verb, as fur-or, ' a raging,' from
fur-o, am-or, ' habitual choice, selection or preference, ' from emo,
' to select or take up ; ' the majority of these words, though with a
verbal meaning, cannot be referred to any known simple verb, but
have on the contrary contracted verbs derived from them ; thus
from am-or we have amo = ama-o, ' to love,' from fav-or, which
we refer conjecturally to a root fav-o (cf. fav-onius) , we have
fav-eo, to be favourable,' and from lab-or, which we refer to an
original lab-o (cf. lab-or) , we have the derivative verbs lab-o = lab-ao
and labor-o = labor-ao.

(cc) Nouns in -us (gen. -ûs) formed like those, which appear
as supines , express the action of the verb. Thus from latro we
208 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

have latra-tus, ' a barking ;' from moveo we have mo-tus, ' a
moving ; ' from audio we have audi-tus, ' a hearing ; ' from video
we have vi-sus, ' a seeing ; ' from haurio we have haus-tus, ' a draw-
ing ;' from traho we have trac-tus, ' a dragging ; ' from orior we
6
have or-tus, a rising ; ' from utor we have u-sus, ' a using.'

(dd) From the same source we have masculines in -or (-ōris) ,

denoting the agent ; thus from amo we have ama-tor, ' a lover ;'
from moneo we have moni-tor, ' an adviser ; ' from audio we have
6
audi-tor, a hearer ; ' from scribo we have scrip-tor, a writer ; '
from curro we have cur-sor, ‘ a runner ; ' from peto we have peti-tor,
' a seeker ; ' from fodio we have fos-sor, ' a digger.' Many of these
have corresponding feminines in -trix from nouns in -tor, as vena-
tor, vena-trix, vic-tor, vic-trix, or, more rarely in -strix from nouns
in -sor, as ton-sor, ton-strix ; but expul-sor makes expul-trix.

Obs. 1 Some of these nouns in -tor appear to be derived from other

nouns, as gladiator from gladius, viator from via, funditor from funda.
But the affix seems to indicate that there may have been verbs from
which they were formed like the others.

Obs. 2. Nouns in -ō, -ōnis coexist with verbs of the first conjugation,
and seem to be derivatives ; thus from cachinnare we have cachinno,
' a laugher ;' from errare, erro, ‘ a wanderer ;' from palpare, palpo, ‘ a
flatterer.'

(ee) By a further extension , nouns in -tor (-sor) have derivatives

in -tura, -sura, indicating the particular employment of the agent
designated by the form in -or ; thus we have prae-tor, prae- tura,
merca-tor, merca-tura, pic-tor, pic-tura. It will be observed that,
as the noun of action in -us corresponds to the supine, those in -ura
correspond to the fut. participle in -rus.

(ff ) We have also nouns of action in -io formed on the basis

of the supine, as tracta-tio from tracto, cau-tio from caveo, largi-
tio from largior, divi-sio from divido.

(gg) From the root of the verb are formed nouns in -ium ex-
pressing the action, as imper-ium from impero, gaud-ium from
gaudeo, colloquium from colloquor.

(hh) In the same way are formed nouns in -ies, as conger-ies

fig- ies from ef-fi-n-go, &c.; but these rather
from con-ger-o, ef-
express the result of the action, than the action itself.
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 209

(ii) We have also some few in -ela or -ella , either formed

directly from the verb, as med-ēla, quer-ēla, from medeor, queror ;
or from the basis of the supine, as corrupt-ēla.

(kk) A few verbal derivatives are found in igo (-iginis) , as

origo from orior, or in -ido (-idinis) , as cupido from cupio.

(11) A sort of instrumental agency is expressed by a limited

number of verbal derivatives in -mus and -ma, as re-mus (root ret
or rot), ' a turning round' (in the water) , i . e. ' a rowing thing,' ' an
6
oar ; ' ani-mus, a blowing thing ; ' al-mus, ' that which nourishes'
(from alo) ; ar-mus, ' that which joins , '—' the shoulder ; ' fa-ma, ‘ that
which speaks' (fări) ; flam-ma, ' that which burns ' (flag-rare) ;
tra-ma, ' a drawing, or that which draws ' (trah-o) , i.e. ' a web,' &c.

(mm) By an extension of these last forms we have a certain

number of derivatives in -mnus, which seem to pass from the instru-
mental agency to its result, or to stand to the others in the relation
of passive to active ; thus by the side of al-mus, ' that which
6
nourishes,' we have alu-mnus, he who is nurtured , ' a foster-
child, ' a pupil ; ' similarly, vertu-mnus, ' that which is turned '
(verto), i. e. ' the year in spring , ' cf. auctu-mnus ; colu-mna, ' that
which is raised up ' (cello) by the side of cul-mus, that which
raises,' i. e. the stalk ;' da-mnum , ' that which is given' (do) , i. e.
' a penalty, a loss,' &c .

(nn) The derivatives in -mnus, -a, -um, appear also in the

neuter form -men, originally -men-t (above , 25, (B) ) , as car-men =
quod creatur (Gr. Toin-μa) ; cri-men - quod cernitur; legu-men - quod
legitur ; se-men = quod seritur ; su-men = quod sugitur ; volu-men =
quod volvitur.

(00) Of these last we have a fuller form in -mentum , to de-

note the thing which carries out the action of the verb ; thus we
find ali-mentum, that which nourishes ' (alo) ; argu-mentum , ' that
which tests' (arguo) ; ar-mentum , ' that which ploughs ' (aro) ; atra-
mentum, ' that which makes a black mark' (atro ? ) , i.e. ‘ ink ; '
condi-mentum , ' that which seasons ' (condio) ; docu-mentum, ' that
which shows' (doceo) ; fo-mentum, ' that which warms ' (foveo) ; leni-
mentum, ' that which alleviates ' (lenio) ; monu-mentum , ' that which
reminds ' (moneo) ; nutri-mentum , ' that which nurtures ' (nutrio) ;
orna-mentum, ' that which adorns' (orno) ; pig-mentum, ' that which
D. L. G. 14
210 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION .

paints' (pi-n-go) ; testa-mentum, ' that which testifies ' (testor) ; vesti-
mentum, ' that which clothes ' (vestio), &c.

(pp) Nouns in -bulum, and in -culum or -clum, denote either the

implement or the place necessary for the completion of the verb's
action ; as in -
fundi-bulum, an implement for pouring in liquid '
(in-fundo), ' a funnel ; ' sta-bulum, ' a place for standing ' (sto) , ‘ a
stall ; ' oper-culum, ' a thing for covering ' (operio) , ‘ a lid ; ' (coena-
culum, a place for dining' (coeno) . If the verb has an 7 within a
syllable or two of the affix, we have -brum for -bulum, and -crum for
-culum or -clum ; thus we have fla- brum from flo ; sepul- crum from
sepelio. Sometimes these derivatives end in -bula, -bra, as fă-bula
from fari, dola-bra from dolare. If the verb ends in c or g, the
termination is -ulum only, as in jac-ulum from jacio, vinc-ulum
from vincio, cing-ulum from cingo. In some few instances we have
a termination -lum only, as in cae-lum, ' the hollowed vault of
heaven' (from an obsolete verb ca-ho) , tem-p-lum, ' the divided
heaven' (from tem-no, in its old sense, ' to cut ).

(qq) There are a few verbal nouns in -tis and -tus which can-
not be referred to the form of the supine, but have the same mean-
ing as those mentioned above (cc), as pes-tis, ' a destroying, ' ves-tis,
a clothing,' spiri-tus, ‘ a breathing.'

(rr) A very few with the same meaning end in -sa, as noxa,
' hurt,' from noc-eo, cau-sa, ' an excuse , ' from cav-eo. Most verbal
nouns in -sa are really feminines of the passive participle ; such are
fossa, sponsa, tonsa.

(2) Substantives derived from other Substantives.

(aa) Nouns in -ium, denoting a condition or employment, are

formed from substantives of various kinds denoting personal agency ;
thus from collega, ' a colleague, ' we have colleg-ium, ' an association
of colleagues ; ' from conviva, a guest,' conviv-ium, ' a meeting of
guests ;' from sacerdos (-tis) , a priest, ' sacerdot-ium, ' a priesthood.'
We have mater-ia or mater-ies from mater.

(bb) Nouns in -tor, -ter have occasionally derivative forms in

-trum, -tērium, -tōrium, denoting the instrument, the office, or place
appropriate to the agency ; thus we have ara-tor, a ploughman ,'
ara-trum, ' a plough ;' minister, ' a subordinate agent,' ministerium,
' a subordinate office ; ' audi-tor, ' a hearer,' audi-torium, ' a place for
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 211

hearing.' Hardly any of the nouns in -trum can be immediately

referred to nouns in -tor ; some have corresponding verbs ; but
others are of uncertain origin. Of those in s-trum several owe the
s to d or r in the verb to which they belong, as claus-trum (claud-o) ,
haus-trum (haur-io) , plaus-trum (plaul-o) , ras-trum (rad-o) , ros-
trum (rod-o) ; but we have not this means of accounting for fenes-
tra, a window,' mons-trum, a prodigy.' In cas- trum we have
6
probably the same element as in cas-a, a house, ' cas-tus, ' religi-
ously protected,' and in the Greek κáσ-Twp, ' a mailed warrior.'
Antrum is the Greek ἄντρον.

(cc) The termination -monium is found only in the words

merci-monium from merx, testi-monium from testis, vadi-monium
from vas (vădis), in which it bears the same meaning as the termi-
nation in -ium (aa) ; and in matri-monium, ' marriage,' patri-
monium, ' inheritance,' in which the meaning is exceptional.

(dd) The termination -atus indicates the office or functions of

the person indicated by the noun, which is thus extended ; as con-
sul-atus from consul, tribun-atus from tribunus, triumvir-atus from
triumvir.

(ee) Nouns in -arius denote an employment, as statu-arius

from statua, tabern-arius from taberna, vexill- arius from vexillum,
&c.; those in -arium signify a place or receptacle, as aer-arium,
' a place for money,' avi-arium, ' a place for birds ; ' or a thing, as
"
calend-arium, an almanack,' sud-arium, ' a napkin.'

(ff) Nouns in -ina or -inum denote the place or employment of

the person indicated by the primary noun ; thus from tonsor we
have tonstr-ina, ‘ a barber's shop, ' from medicus we have medic-ina,
' the art of healing, ' from pistor we have pistr-ina or pistr-inum,
' the grinding-house. ' These words seem to be only the feminines
of adjectives in -inus (below, 115, (2 ) , ( S) ) , and in reg- ina, ‘ a
queen, ' we have merely an indication of a female person ; compare
the names of goddesses, Luc-ina, Libit-ina, &c . In other cases the
noun in -ina seems to refer immediately to a verb, though we
have perhaps lost the intervening substantives : thus we have rap-
ina, ru-ina, by the side of rapio and ruo.

(gg) Nouns in -al, -ar (properly the neuters of adjectives in

-alis, -aris, below, 115, (2 ) , (8) ) denote a derivative object, as
14-2
212 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION .

anim-al, ' a living thing,' from animus, calc- ar, ' a spur,' from calx,
' the heel.'
(hh) Nouns in -tum or -ētum are generally formed from the
names of plants, and denote the places where they grow ; as salic-
tum from salix, arbus-tum from arbos, oliv-ētum from oliva,
frutic-etum from frutex.
(ii) The affix -ile added to the names of animals denotes their
stall, as ovile from ovis. This is only the neuter of the adjective in
-ilis. In cub-ile, ' a place to recline , ' and sed-ile, ' a place to sit,' it
seems to be referred directly to the verbs. The primitive of mon-īle,
a necklace, is the Greek μάνος or μάννος.

(kk) Diminutives in -lus and -culus are formed as follows :

(a) Nouns of the first and second declensions have diminutives
in -lus (-la) , as arcula from arca, serv-u- lus from servus. If the primi-
tive nouns terminate in two vowels, the diminutive is formed in -olus
(-ola, -olum) , as fili-olus from filius, lineola from linea, ingeniolum
from ingenium. If the primitive form ends in -n , in -r preceded by
a consonant or e, or in -ul, we generally have diminutives in -ellus
(-a, -um) ; as agnellus from agnus, asellus from asinus, corolla
from corona, labellum from labrum, puella from puera (obsol.) ,
ocellus from oculus, tabella from tabula. These last sometimes
appear under the form -illus (-a, -um) ; as sigillum from signum,
bacillum from baculum . Sometimes we have a double or triple
diminutive in -ulus, -ellus, -ellulus (-a , -um) , as cista, cist-ula, cist-
el-la, cist-el-lu-la. From equus we have the irregular diminutive
eculeus.

(B) Nouns of the third declension have diminutives in -culus.

(aa) This affix is appended without a connecting vowel and

without any change in the word itself to nouns in l, r, and s for r ;
as animal-culum, tuber-culum, flos-culus ,frater-culus, opus-culum ; so
also vas-culum, and os-culum from os, oris ; but ossi-culum from
os, ossis, which is an - noun.

(BB) The affix is appended with a change of vowel to the

crude form of nouns in -o (-ōnis) , -o (-ĭnis) , as sermun-culus from sermo
(-ōnis), homun-culus (also homuncio) from homo (-inis) , carun-cula
from caro (-nis) , pectun-culus from pecten (-inis) , and we have a
similar formation in rumus-culus from rumor, arbus-cula from arbor,
gran-dius-culus from grandior.
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 213

Obs. The diminutives avun-culus, ranun-culus, furun- culus pre-

sume secondary forms of avus, rana, fur, such as avo (-ōnis), (cf. patr-
onus from pater, matr-ona from mater), rano (-onis), (cf. bufo), furo (-onis)
(cf. latro).

( y) The affix -culus is appended to the crude-form of nouns

in es, is, -8 (preceded by a consonant) , gen. -is, retaining the cha-
racteristic vowel of the nominative when s is preceded by a vowel,
and otherwise adopting the -i of the genitive, as nube-cula, die-cula,
pisci-culus, ponti-culus, parti-cula, and so also ventri-culus from
venter (ventris) . But the shorter form -ulus (-a, -um) is adopted
if the letter before s is c or g, and so we have fac-ula, voc-ula,
radi-cula, reg-ulus from fax, vox, radix, rex.
(88) The affix -culus is appended to -u nouns, which, however,
change their characteristic to -i, as versi-culus from versus, corni-
culus from cornu; but lacus makes lacus-culus, and the fem. acus
gives us the masc. acu-leus.

(ee) Greek patronymics in -ides (fem. -is) , -ides (fem . -ēis) , -eădes,
-iādes (fem. -iās) , are rather borrowed ready made than formed from
the primitives ; thus we have Priamides, ' a son of Priam, ' Tantalis,
6
' a daughter of Tantalus, ' Atrides, a son of Atreus , ' Nereis, ' a
daughter of Nereus, ' Æneădes, ' a son of Æneas ,' Atlantiădes, ‘ a
6
son of Atlas,' Thestias, a daughter of Thestius.'

(3) Substantives derived from Adjectives .

(aa) Nouns in -tas (-tatis) , or more rarely in -tus (-tutis) , denote

the quality indicated by the adjective, like our nouns in -ness, &c.
Generally we have the form -itas, as bon-i-tas, ' goodness, ' from
bonus ; asper-i-tas , ' harshness, ' from asper ; crudel-i- tas , ' cruelty,'
from crudelis. Adjectives in -ius give us the form -ětas, as pi-ětas
from pius, vari-ētas from varius. Some few adjectives , especially
those in r or l, omit the connecting vowel, as pauper-tas from pau-
per, difficul-tas from difficilis. Some substantives, which have occa-
sionally an adjectival meaning, take this ending, as auctor-itas from
auctor, civi-tas from civis, juven-tus from juvenis, vir-tus from vir
(cf. virili-tas). Adjectives already formed in -stus give us a sub-
stantive in -stas, as honestas, venustas . It would seem that potestas
must be formed from a lost adjective of this class .
(bb) Nouns in -ia, of much the same signification as the last,
are formed from adjectives of one termination or participles in -us
 214 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

and -dus ; thus we have audac- ia from audax (but felici-tas from
felix) , elegant-ia from elegans, magnificent-ia from magnum faciens
(cf. magnificentior, the comparative of magnificus) , iracund-ia from
iracundus (but jucund-itas from jucundus).

(cc) Nouns in -itia, also of the same signification , are generally

formed from adjectives of three terminations, as just-itia from
justus, pigr-itia from piger. But we have moll-itia and moll-ities
from mollis, and pauper-ies as well as pauper-tas from pauper.

(dd) Nouns in -i-tudo, with the same meaning, are formed from
adjectives in -us (-er) or -is, as magn-i-tudo from magnus, aegr-i-
tudo from aeger, pingu-i-tudo from pinguis. By the side of these we
have synonymous forms in edo, as dulc-edo instead of dulc-i-tudo
from dulcis, pingu-ēdo instead of pingu-i-tudo, &c.
(ee) A few nouns of this kind are formed in -monia, as casti-
monia from castus, sancti-monia from sanctus, acri-monia from acer.
We have also parsi-monia for parci-monia from parcus, and queri-
monia from a lost adjective , which may be presumed in querulus .
It will be observed that these words differ in meaning from the
neuters in -monium (above, (2) , (cc ) .

115 (8) Derived Adjectives.

(1) Adjectives derived from Verbs .

(aa) Participles of all kinds are used as regular adjectives .
(a) The regular and ordinary participles in -ns (-ntis) for the
active and -tus (-a, -um) for the passive not only appear as adjec-
tives, but are even employed as substantives. Thus sapiens , obe-
diens, conveniens, constans, &c. are constantly found as epithets ;
adolescens , serpens, parens, &c., natus, dictum, scriptum, praeceptum,
consultum , placitum, furtum, &c. are to all intents and purposes
nouns substantive ; and many participles have their degrees of com-
parison, as sapientior, potentior, appetentior, appetentissimus. Some
passive participles are almost confined to an adjectival use, as
acutus, argutus, altus, &c. , and secundus , whether it means following
as next in order (' second') , or following as a wind blowing from
the stern (' fair,' ' prosperous '), is always distinguished from sequens
by one of these applied and adjectival senses.

(8) Participles in -bundus, as lacrima-bundus, pudi-bundus,

mori-bundus, freme-bundus are used as adjectives or epithets.
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 215

(7) A smaller class of adjectives in -cundus seem to be really

extended participles from inchoatives in -sco or -scor. It is true that
thes is always wanting, and though its absorption is sometimes
represented by a long vowel, as in ira-cundus, fa-cundus, verē-
cundus, fe-cundus, it has not even this substitute in rubi-cundus.
Still the existence of ira-scor, the probability of such forms as
fa-scor (páσkw), fui-sco (κvl-σkw) , &c. , and the meaning of these
adjectives, which always denote a general tendency, inclination or
habit, justify their reference to inchoative verbs, and there are no
verb-forms ending in a simple c. In ju-cundus and perhaps in
fe-cundus (for fuvi-scundus) we have an absorption of v.

(bb) Verbal adjectives in -i-dus correspond in meaning to par-

ticiples, and are generally formed from intransitive verbs in -eo ;
thus we have cal- i- dus = calens from caleo, tim-i-dus = timens from
timeo, &c. They are also formed from other verbs, as turb-i-dus =
turbans from turbo , cup-i-dus = cupiens from cupio ; and some, as
lepidus, trepidus, gravidus, cannot be referred directly to any
existing verbs.

(cc) Verbal adjectives in -bilis express capability, either actively,

as terri-bilis, ' capable of frightening, ' passively, as placa-bilis, ' ca-
pable of being appeased, ' or both , as penetra-bilis, ' capable of
penetrating or of being penetrated . ' In the shorter form in -ilis,
which is attached only to consonant verbs, we have only the pas-
sive sense of capability, as facilis, ' capable of being done, ' i. e.
' easy,' fragilis, ' capable of being broken, ' i. e. fragile.' Both of
these forms are generally attached to the root of the verb with the
connecting vowel , but we have volubilis for volvi-lilis , mobilis for
movi-bilis, nobilis for nosci-bilis. They are sometimes formed from
the supine, as comprehens-ibilis, flex-ibilis, plaus-ibilis, fiss-ilis ,
versat-ilis. Of those in -ilis, some have much the same significa-
tion as the mere passive participle, for instance, alt-ilis , coct-ilis,
fict-ilis. To this class belong subtilis for subtex-ilis, and exilis for
exigi-lis.

(dd) Verbal adjectives in -ax (-ācis) express inclination or

disposition, as loqu-ax, ' inclined to talk,' pugn-ax, ' inclined to
fight.' Some of them have much the same signification as the
active participle, for instance fall-ax, ' deceiving,' min- ax, ' threat-
ening.'
216 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

(ee) Verbal adjectives in -ulus have much the same meaning

as those in -ax; compare garr- ulus, inclined to talk, ' with loqu-ax;
so also we have pat-ulus, ' opening or tending to open, ' quer-ŭlus,
' inclined to complain , ' cred- ulus, ' inclined to believe,' &c .

(ff )Verbal adjectives in -uus have sometimes the sense of the

active participle, as congr-uus = congruens, innoc- uus = innocens ;
6
sometimes that of the passive participle, as conspic-uus, ' seen ,' in-
dividuus (cf. viduus), ' undivided .'

(2) Adjectives derived from Substantives.

(aa) The following adjectives denote possession , and may be

6
rendered by of ' or ' belonging to.'

(a) in -ius (generally from nouns in -or) , as ora-tor-ius ; also

patr-ius, reg-ius, &c.

(B) in -icus, as bell-icus, civ-icus , host-icus.

(y) in -īlis, as civ-īlis , which is more common than civ-icus in

prose, except in corona civica ; and host-īlis, which is preferred to
hosticus, except in ager hosticus. We have curulis from curius, tri-
bulis from tribus , fidelis from fides, and humilis, parilis, from humus,
par.

(8) in -ālis, which is more common even than -īlis , and is ap-
pended not only to substantives, as reg-ālis from rex, nav-ālis from
navis, ann-ālis from annus, judici-ālis from judicium, but even to
an adjective, as liber-ālis from liber, ' free . ' If the primary noun
involves an 7 within the influence of the termination, we have -āris
instead of -ālis , as in popul-āris, milit-āris ; but pluvius and fluvius
make pluviālis, fluviālis.

(e) in -ārius (see above, (2) , (ee) ) , which are perhaps an extension
of those in -aris, as agrārius, gregārius, auxiliārius, tumultuārius.

( ) in -anus, -inus, -enus, and -unus, as oppid-anus, ' belonging

to a town,' urb-anus, ' belonging to the city, ' mont-anus, ' belonging
to the mountain, ' hum-anus (for hominanus) , ' belonging to man,'
germ-anus (for germinanus) , ‘ belonging to the same stem , ' mar-īnus,
belonging to the sea,' terr-ēnus , ‘ belonging to the land, ' tribūnus,
' belonging to the tribe,' &c. From numerals we have the adjec-
tives in -anus derived from ordinals (56 , Obs. 7) , and the distri-
butives in -enus from the numeral adverbs (57 , Obs. 1) .
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 217

(n) in -ensis, which seem to be an extension of the last (see

below, (4) , (cc) , (8) ) , as cāstr-ensis, ' belonging to the camp.'

(0) in -īvus, as furt-īvus, ' belonging to theft,' from furtum,

aest-ivus, ' belonging to summer or heat,' from aestas or aestus.

(1) in -ātīlis, as aqua-tilis, ' belonging to water, ' umbr-ātīlis,

'belonging to the shade.'

(bb) The following denote the material, and may be rendered

by ' made of,' ' consisting in.'

(a) in -eus, as lign-eus, ' made of wood,' ign-eus, ' consisting in

fire.'
(B) in -ìnus, -nus, or -neus, as fag-inus, ' of beech wood ,' ebur-
nus or ebur-neus, ' of ivory , ' quer-nus (for querc-nus) or quer-neus,
' of oak.'

(y) in -āceus, -icius and -uceus, as chart-aceus, ' of paper ; ' later-
icius, ' of brick, ' pannuceus, ' of rags, ragged.'

Obs. 1 If the primary noun does not denote a material, these adjec-
tives may be rendered by ' like' or ' belonging to, ' as virgin-eus, ' like a
virgin ; pater-nus, ' belonging to a father ; ' tribun-icius, ' belonging to a
tribune.'

Obs. 2 Some adjectives in -icius are formed from verbals in -tus, as

comment-icius ' feigned,' from commentum, &c . In the same way novicius
is for nov-it-icius, as nuntius is for novi-vent-ius.

(cc) The following denote abundance, and may be rendered by

' full of.'

(a) Those in -idus, as herb-idus, ' abounding in grass.'

(8) those in -ōsus, as pericul-osus, ' full of danger.'
(y) those in lentus preceded by u, or by ŏ after n and i, as
op-u-lentus, ' loaded with wealth , ' sanguin-o- lentus , ' full of blood ,'
vi-ŏ- lentus , ‘ full of violence.' These are properly compounds with
the adjective lentus.

(dd) Adjectives in -timus denote direction of motion, as fini-

timus, ' towards the borders, ' mari-timus, ' towards the sea.' Many
superlatives take this form, as in-timus, ' most inward,' op-timus,
' most upward.'

(ee) Adjectives in -rnus denote a state at a particular time, as

noctu-rnus, ' a condition relating to night,' hodie-rnus, ' a condi-
tion of to-day,' tacitu-rnus, a condition of silence after speaking.'
218 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

(ff ) Adjectives in -ātus, -ītus, -ūtus, have the form of passive

participles, and may have been derived from verbs no longer exist-
ing ; but they refer to the possession of that which is indicated by
the primary noun, as barb-ātus , ' having a beard, ' ' bearded,' crin-
-itus, ' having long hair,' ' long-haired ,' corn-ūtus, ' horned. ' The
secondary verb is still seen in sta-tūtus, cinc-tūtus , ver-sūtus, and
the particle act-ūtum .

(gg) Adjectives in -tus like the corresponding substantives in

-tas (above, (3) , (aa) ) , denote a quality, as hones-tus , ' honourable,
virtuous, ' onus-tus, ' heavy,' modes-tus, ' moderate, modest.'

(hh) Adjectives in -s -ter, -s-tris, signify locality, as campes-ter,

in the fields, ' palus-tris, ' in the marshes.' The isolated word
seques-ter from secus (cf. sequior) means one who is not in-
terested, a mediator or umpire between two parties.'

(3) Adjectives derived from other Adjectives.

(aa) Some adjectives are diminutives formed according to the

rules given above ; thus we have parv-ulus from parvus, levi-culus
from levis, misel-lus from miser. Also the irregular forms bellus
from bonus, novellus from novus, paullus from parvus.

(bb) Adjectives in -ox (-ōcis), -ūcus and -icus, seem to be exten-

sions of simpler adjectives, which are often lost ; thus fer-ox is clearly
an extension offer- us, cad-ucus must be referred to some form like
cad-uus (above, ( 1 ), (ff) ; cf. oc-cid-uus) ; ant-icus, post-icus, seem to
fall back on some derivative of anteo, posteo ; am-icus, pud-icus,
point to intermediate forms like ex- im-ius . As the substantive from
ferox is ferocia, whereas amicus, pudicus make amicitia, pudicitia,
the solitary form fiducia seems to imply an extension of fidus in
the form of fidux, rather than an adjective fiducus. As we have
Apr-ilis by the side of apr-icus, we may refer them both to some
one derivative from aperio.

(cc) Comparatives and superlatives (above, 36) are derived not

only from positive adjectives but from adverbial forms.

(4) Adjectives derived from Proper Names.

(aa) The gentile name in ius (below, Appendix III . (a) ) is

used as an adjective to denote a man's public doings ; thus we have
via Appia, ' the road constructed by Appius,' Liciniae rogationes,
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 219

' the bills brought in by Licinius, ' circus Flaminius, ' the circus
made by Flaminius. '
(bb) Derivatives in anus from the gentile name express
transference by adoption from the family so named, as Scipio
Emilianus, the younger Scipio Africanus, who had belonged to
the gens Emilia, but was transferred by adoption to the gens
Cornelia. The same affix also expresses the possessive relation in
any case except those mentioned under (aa) ; for example, ' Pompey's
6
law' is lex Pompeia, but Pompey's fleet ' is classis Pompeiana.
Sometimes in the latter case we have derivatives from the cogno-
men in -ianus, -anus, or -inus , Ciceron-ianus, Gracch-anus, Verr- inus.

(cc) From names of towns we have the following derivative

adjectives :

(a) in -anus from words in -a , -ae, -um, as Romanus, Formia-

nus, Tusculanus, from Roma, Formiae, Tusculum.

(B) in -inus from words in -ia, -ium, -e, as Amerinus, Lanu-

vinus, Praenestinus, from Ameria, Lanuvium, Praeneste.

(y) in -as (-atis) from Roman names only in -a, -ae, -um,
as Capenas, Fidēnas, Arpinas, from Capena, Fidenae, Arpīnum.
(8) in -ensis from Roman and foreign words in -o (-onis), and
from some in -a, -ae, -um, as Sulmonensis, Bononiensis, Cannensis ,
Atheniensis, from Sulmo, Bononia, Cannae, Athenae.

Obs. 1 Adjectives in ensis sometimes represent a temporary as

distinguished from a fixed residence in a country. Thus Siculus, Corin-
thius are natives of Sicilia and Corinthus, but Siciliensis, Corinthiensis,
are foreigners settled or living in Sicily and Corinth.
Obs. 2 Greek names in -ius, as Corinthius, in -enus, as Cyzicenus, in
-aeus, as Erythaeus (Cumanus in prose, but Cumaeus in poetry), in -tes, as
Abderites, Spartiates (but the adjective is Spartanus), Tegeates, Hera-
cleates, are retained in Latin.
Obs. 3 Greek feminine forms in -is (-idis), -as (-adis), and in -ssa,
as Pelias, Hesperides, Cilissa, Cressa, retain their place as Latin ad-
jectives.

(b) Derived Verbs.

116 Derivative verbs are either extensions of other verbs, or
are formed immediately from nouns. In either case the variety in
form is conjugational, and, as such , has been already discussed . The
proper classification of these derivative verbs is attended with certain
220 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

philological difficulties, for the loss of intermediate forms of the

verb has led grammarians to refer immediately to nouns more than
one class of verbs, which are really derived from other verbs, and,
on the other hand, to derive immediately from primary verbs those
derivative forms which rest on verbal substantives . Thus, in the
former case they have divided verbs in -sco into inchoativa verbalia
and inchoativa nominalia ; for instance, in-cale-sco is an extension of
caleo , but mature-sco is supposed to be a derivative from the adjective
maturus. As, however, the formation in -sco is limited to the present
in both cases, and as the primitive caleo is reproduced in the perfect
in-calui, so the perfect maturui leads us to a lost primitive in -eo, which
is the neuter correlative of the transitive maturare (below, 117 , ( 2) ,
(cc) ) . A similar inference may be drawn from the perfects obmutui,
percrebui, irrausi, vesperavi, iratus sum, &c. , although these have no
present in use except the inchoatives obmutesco, percrebresco, irrau-
cesco, vesperasco, irascor, &c. In the second case, when the gram-
marians say that the frequentative verbs in -ito are derived from
their primitives by the mere addition of this syllable, they forget
that mil-it-are, for example, has no primitive verb, but that it is
formed directly from miles (-itis) , which is formed from miles and
eo, and that the same is the case with interpretari from interpres ;
and they forget also that there are frequentatives in -to, -so, which
are directly formed from the supine or verbal noun derived from the
primitive verb, as curso from cursus the verbal of curro. The fol-
lowing arrangement places first the verbs really derived from nouns ,
whether those nouns are or are not themselves verbal forms, and
secondly, the verbs which are really extensions of other verbs,
without an intervening noun.

117 (1 ) Verbs derived from Nouns.

These are always contracted verbs in -a, -e, -i ; and it is to

be observed, that while most verbs thus derived in -a and -i are
transitive, -e verbs formed from nouns are always intransitive. Thus,
from emo, to take up , ' comes amor, ' habitual selection or prefer-
ence,' and from this again, amo (-ao) , ' to love ; ' but from favor
comes faveo, ' to be favourable.'

(aa) Transitive verbs in -are are derived from substantives

of all kinds, as curare, numerare, fraudare, onerare, vulgare, from
cura, numerus, fraus, onus, vulgus. Some few of these are in-
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 221

transitive, as militare, cursare, laborare, germinare, from miles,

cursus, labor, germen.

(bb) Transitive verbs in -are are also formed from adjectives,

as cavare, maturare, levare (for leviare) , ditare (for divitare), pro-
bare, celebrare, memorare, from cavus, maturus, levis, dives (-itis),
probus, celeber, memor. Some few of these are intransitive, as
nigrare, ' to be black, ' from niger ; concordare, ' to be agreed, ' from
concors ; and durare, from durus, means both to make hard' and
'to last or endure.'
(cc) Deponents in -ari are formed from substantives and adjec-
tives to denote an occupation or situation ; generally in an intrans-
itive sense, as piscari, ' to be occupied in fishing, ' philosophari,
'to play the philosopher, ' laetari, ' to be glad ;' rarely with a trans-
6
itive signification, as interpretari, to interpret,' furari, ' to steal,'
osculari, 'to kiss.'
(dd) A few transitive verbs in -ire are formed from substan-
tives of all kinds , as punire, audire, finire, vestire, custodire, from
poena, auris, finis, vestis , custos ; but servire is intransitive. A few
also from adjectives in -is, as lenire, mollire, stabilire, from lenis,
mollis, stabilis ; but superbire, ferocire, blandiri, from superbus,
ferox, blandus, are intransitive.
(ee) Intransitive verbs in -eo are formed from substantives, as
ardere, florere, frondere, lucere, from ardor, flos, frons, lux, and a
few from adjectives, as albēre, canere, from albus, canus.
(ff) Desiderative verbs in -ŭrio are formed from the future
participle in -ūrus, with a shortening of the penultima, as in
minister compared with ministerium. Thus, from edo , esūrus, we
have esurio, to desire to eat ; ' from pario, partūrus, we have par-
turio, ' to desire to bring forth.' With the exception of these two,
the desideratives are not in very common use. The verbs ligūrio
or ligurrio, and scaturio or scaturrio, are not desideratives , but
derived from some lost verbals.

(gg) A few verbs in -ūtio , as caec-utio, balb-utio, are derived

not immediately from the adjectives (as caecus, balbus) which they
include, but from participial adjectives, caecutus, balbūtus, of the
class mentioned above ( 115 , (2) , ( ff) ) .
(hh) Some verbs in -ulo are derived from diminutives in -ulus,
as modulo from modulus ; others, as postulo, are, as we shall see
((2) , (bb) ) , verbal extensions .
222 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION .

. (2) Verbs formed from other verbs.

(aa) Verbs in -sco are generally formed from -e verbs , which

exist or may be presumed ; and they very often appear with pre-
positions prefixed, as taceo, conticesco; valeo, convalesco ; frigeo,
refrigesco, &c.; but they are also formed from other verbs, the a
and being retained in the conjugations characterized by those
vowels, and the vowel being inserted before the affix in deriva-
tives from consonant verbs ; thus , from labare we have labasco ;
from gelo, congelasco ; from dormio, obdormisco ; from gemo, inge-
misco ; from vivo, revivisco, &c.

(bb) Some few verbs are formed in -illo (-āre) and -ŭlo (-āre) ; in
the former case, as it seems, from the infinitive, as in cavillor for
cavere-lor, ' I let myself take care ; ' conscribillo for conscribere-lo,
' I let write, I write at random ; ' sometimes from the supine, as
postu-lo for poscitum- lo, ' I let ask, ' cantillo for cantum- lo, ' I let
sing, ' &c.

(cc) A change in the form of the verb produces sometimes a

change in the meaning from transitive to intransitive, and it is not
easy in every case to determine the process of derivation by which
the change is effected . Sometimes it is merely conjugational, as
when we have the neuter verbs, fugio, ' I flee ; ' jaceo , ' I lie ; '
liqueo, I am clear ; ' pendeo, ' I hang ; ' sedeo, ' I sit ; ' by the side
of the transitive verbs , fugo (-are) , ' I put to flight ; ' jacio, ' I throw ;'
liquo (-are) , ‘ I make clear ; ' pendo, ' I weigh ' (by hanging up in a
scale) ; sedo (-are) , ' I pacify .' Sometimes the form of the root-
syllable is changed, as in caedo, ' I fell' or ' cause to fall,' by the
side of cado , 'I fall ;' and we have both differences in pando, ' I open ;'
scando, ' I climb ; ' by the side of pateo, ' I am laid open ; ' scateo,
I rise up' (of water, &c.) . In ven-do, ' I give for sale, I sell,' by
the side of ven-eo, ' I go for sale, I am sold, ' we have probably a
combination with the verbs do and eo ; cf. per-do and per-eo.

§ 2. Composition.

118 A compound is an union of two or more words of which

the last only is inflected , the preceding word or words being in a
dependent or construct state, and having consequently lost all in-
flexion. If both parts retain their inflexion , or, if the first part,
though an oblique case, is separable, the composition is only appa-
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 223

rent ; thus, respublica, ' the commonwealth, ' jusjurandum , ‘ an oath, '
in which both parts are declined throughout, and senatusconsultum,
. ' a resolution of the senate,' verisimilis, ' like the truth ,' are not
compounds, but juxtapositions of separable elements, and we may
say resque publica, senatusve consulta.

Obs. Even in regular compounds this tmesis or separation may take

place in poetry ; thus we have in Virgil inque ligatus for illigatusque,
inque salutatus for insalutatusque; and the emphatic prefix per may
suffer tmesis even in prose, as per mihi mirum videtur ; pergratum perque
jucundum est, &c. The adverbial combinations hactenus, eatenus, qua-
damtenus, are also divisible into their component parts ; as est quadam
prodire tenus, si non datur ultra ; and the affix cunque may be detached
from its relative, as qua re cunque possum ; quo ea me cunque ducet ;
quam rem cunque ferox miles gesserit.

I. The formation of compounds.

119 The first part of a true compound is either an indeclin-

able word, or a noun, whether substantive, adjective, or numeral,
and the latter part of the word always determines to what part of
speech the whole belongs.

(a) When the first part is a particle, the vowels and di-
phthongs ă, ě, ae, au in the root of the word which follows are liable
to be changed into i, e, i, u or ē respectively (above, p . 8) ; thus,
from amicus, capio, we have in-imicus, ac-cipio ; from teneo we
have con-tineo ; from aequus, aestimo, we have in-iquus, ex-istimo ;
from claudo, causa, ex-cludo, ac-cuso ; from audio, obedio, &c.; but
before two consonants, and sometimes before a consonant and the
semi-consonant i, a is represented by e; compare barba, im-berbis ;
scando, as-cendo; spargo, con-spergo ; &c., with facio, pro-fic-iscor,
pro-fectus; jacio, ab-jicio, ab-jectus ; cano, concino, con-centus; pario,
peperi; and before and a consonant a may become u : compare
calco, con-culco, with colo, cultura. In some cases an e is retained,
as in peto, ap-peto ; tego, con-tego ; fremo, per-fremo ; and lego exhi-
bits in its compounds both e and i, as per-lego, intel-ligo ; the com-
pounds of traho, caveo and haereo retain the vowel or diphthong
unaltered, and the same applies to all the compounds of maneo, and
to the adjective concavus.

Obs. 1 The particles, which may form the first part of a compound,
are either adverbs, prepositions, or the inseparable words mentioned
above (111). Of these latter, it seems that amb- sometimes appeared in
the fuller form ambi-, more directly referring to ambo, and in one par-
224 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION .

ticular case, that of ambidens, scil. ovis, ' a sheep having both the upper
and lower teeth,' and therefore of fit age for sacrifice (Festus, p. 4), this
form has suffered apocope, and under the usual form bidens this name of a
sheep is liable to confusion with bidens, a mattock' (from bis-dens, cf.
tridens). The word ambiegnus, ' having a lamb on both sides' (Varro,
L. L. vII. 31 ), was also written ambegnus (Fest. p. 4). Semis, ' a half,’
appears in compounds as semi-, e. g. in semi-supinus; sesque, and a
half,' appears as sesqui-, e.g. in sesquipes ; and we have also ses-, as in
sestertius.

Obs. 2 The negative prefixes in Latin are in- and ne- or nec-.
The prefix in- is found only with adjectives, adverbs, and a few par-
ticiples used as adjectives, as incultus, indoctus ; or with derivatives from
substantives, as the adjective informis from forma, and the substantive
injuria fromjus. It is liable to the same modifications as the preposition
in, from which it must sometimes be distinguished, as infectus, ' undone,'
by the side of infectus (from inficio), ' dyed, stained ; ' indictus, ' unsaid,'
by the side of indictus (from indico), ' enjoined. ' The prefix ně- or nec-
is of rather rare occurrence. We have ne in nequeo, nefas, něfarius,
něfandus, něfastus ; nē- in nequam, nequitia, nequaquam, nequicquam,
nēdum; nec- in něcopinatus, něcopinus, negligo, nego (nec-aio), negotium.

(b) When the first word is a noun and the second begins with
a vowel, an elision takes place, as in magn'animus ; but if the
second begins with a consonant, the connecting vowel is generally
ì, as causi-dicus, corni-ger, aedi-fico. Sometimes, however, the is
omitted, as in naufragus (from navis and frango), puer-pera (from
puer and pario) , mus-cipula (from mus and capio) , and sometimes a
characteristic letter and its preceding vowel are left out before i, as
in lap-i-cīda for lapidi-cida, hom-i-cida for hominicida, op-i-fex for
opěrifex, &c. When the first is a numeral, it is either unchanged,
as in decemvir, or is specially changed , as in biceps, triumvir, ' one
man of three.' In some few cases the connecting vowel is ou; = as
Aheno-barbus, Troju-gena , vio- lentus, opu-lentus, turbŭ-lentus, quad-
rupes ; and in tibi-cen for tibi-i- cen, we have a contracted i, though
tub-i-cen follows the general rule. In some compounds with manus
the second vowel is represented by u or i, as manu-pretium or
mani-pretium, mani-festus, mani-plus, &c.; and we have a contrac-
tion in manubrium for manu-hibrium. In other compounds with
this word the n alone is retained, and , in some cases , assimilated to
a succeeding consonant ; thus we have man-do, man-ceps, man-
suetus, man-tele, mal-luvium. The adverbs bene, male, retain the
final e in bene-ficus, male-ficus, but change it into i in beni-gnus ,
mali-gnus.
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 225

II. The classification ofcompounds.

Considered as a declinable whole, a compound word is either a

substantive, an adjective, or a verb.

(A) Compound Substantives.

(1) Most compound substantives are derivatives of compound

verbs, as ad-ven-a (advenio) , trans -fug-a (transfugio) , de-lec-tus
(deligo), pro-gres-sus (progredior) , &c.

(2) Some are compounded of a substantive and a verb, as arti-

fex (arte facio) , aurīga (auream ago) , lani -
ficium ( lana facio),
au-spicium (aves specio) , agri-cola (agrum`colo) , agri-peta (agrum
peto), caeli-cola (caelum colo) , homi-cida (hominem caedo) , caussi-
dicus (caussam dico), &c.

(3) Some are compounded of a preposition and a noun, as ab-

avus, ag-nomen (ad-nomen), com-mercium (cum-merx) , pro-consul,
&c.

(4) Some are compounded of a numeral and a noun, as decem-

vir, tri-duum, quadri-ennium.

(5) Some are compounded of two substantives, as rupi-capra

from rupes and capra.

(6) Some of an adjective and a substantive, as rect-angulum,

stulti-loquum; but these generally belong to Latinity of a later
age.

(B) Compound Adjectives.

(a) The last part is a substantive.

(a) If the last part is a substantive, and is a consonantal noun

masc. or fem., it often remains unchanged, as in bi-pes, bi-color,
de-mens ; and then it retains the inflexions of the original substan-
tive, except that ex-sanguis has for its gen. exsanguis , not exsan-
guinis ; acc. exsanguem, not exsanguinem. If the substantive in-
volved is neuter, or of the 1st or 2nd declension, or of the semi-
consonantal declension, the compound adjective ends in -is, -e, or
-us, -a, -um, as de-vius (via) , e-nervis (nervus), bi-maris (mare) ,
centi-manus (-a, -um) , cog-nominis (nomen) .
D. L. G. 15
226 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

Obs. Except the compounds with caput, as bi-ceps, bi-cipitis ; with

corpus, as bi-corpor, bi-corporis ; and with cor, as con-cors, con-cordis ;
which retain the inflexions of their primitives.

(B) The first part of a compound adjective , whose last part

is derived from a substantive , is either

(aa) Another substantive, as in aeri-pes, angui-manus.

(bb) An adjective or numeral, as in bi-linguis, long-aevus,

lati-fundium.

(cc) A preposition or other particle , as in a-mens, per- vius, in-ers.

(b) The last part is a verb.

(a) Ifthe last part is a verb, the compound adjective generally

ends in -us, -a, -um appended to the verb-root, as luci-fugus, fati-
loquus, monti-vagus. But compounds with gero and fero generally
end in -ger and -fer, those from capio end in -ceps , and those from
frango and dico shorten the ending into frăgus, -dicus ; thus we
have igni-fer, flammi -ger, parti-ceps, nau -frăgus, veri-dicus.

(B) The first part of a compound adjective, whose last part

is derived from a verb, is either

(aa) A substantive, which is generally an accusative, more

rarely an ablative dependent on the verb, as caduci-fer (caduceum
ferens) , igni-vomus ( ignem vomens) , monti-vagus (in monte vagans) ,
nocti-vagus (nocte vagans) , &c.

(bb) An adjective, either substantively, as the object of the

verb, or adverbially, as a secondary predicate ; thus we have
falsi-dicus (falsa dicens), multi-loquus (multa or multum loquens) ,
alti-sonus (alte sonans) , soli-vagus (solus vagans) , bene -ficus (bene
faciens), &c.

(c) The last part is an adjective.

If the last part of the compound adjective is itself an adjective,

the first part is either a preposition or an inseparable particle ; thus
we have per-difficilis, prae-dives, sub-agrestis, sub-pallidus, im-
memor, im-pudens, in-imicus, &c.
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 227

(C) Compound Verbs.

A compound verb is either (a) a primary compound or (B) a

derivative compound.

(a) A primary compound retains, with occasional abbrevia-

tions, the conjugation of the original verb which stands at the end ;
it is

(aa) The original verb with a prepositional prefix, as damno,

con-demno; moneo, ad-moneo ; salio, de-silio ; scribo, de-scribo , &c.

(bb) The original verb with an adverb prefixed, as volo,

magis-volo = malo, non-volo = nolo ; lego , nec-ligo ; satis-do, sat-ago,
& c.

(cc) The original verb, with another verb prefixed ; as assue-

facio, perterre-facio, arces-so (for arces-
facio, pate-facio, condoce -
sino), venum-do, &c.

(B) A derived compound verb is of the first or fourth conjuga-

tion ; it is formed from a compound noun, and changes the conju-
gation of the verb which stands at the end, if the compound noun
ended in a verb-root, unless the original verb was also of the first
conjugation ; thus we have per-nocto (-are) from pernox, tergi-versor
(-āri) from tergum vertens, im-pedio (-ire) from in pede, ir-retio
(-ire) from in reti, il-laqueo (-āre) from in laqueum, e-rudio (-ire)
from e rudibus, ' out of foils ; ' aedi -fico (-āre) from aedem faciens,
multi-plico (-are) from multi-plex, ampli-fico (-are) from amplum
facio, mori-geror (-āri) from morem gerere, &c.

Obs. Verbs, which have reduplicated perfects, generally lose the

reduplication when they are compounded with a preposition. Thus from
tondeo, totondi we have detondeo, detondi. But compounds with do, sto,
disco, posco, and most of those with curro, retain their reduplication ;
thus we have circumdedi, adstiti, edidici, repoposci, excucurri. But in
circumcurro, recurro, succurro, transcurro we have no reduplication of
the perfect.

120 Compounds are called (a) determinative when the first

part of the word defines the second ; as interrex, cognomen, benefi-
cus, latifundium, laticlāvus, &c.; (b) syntactical, when the first
word is governed by the second ; as agricola, opulentus, signifer,
15-2
228 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

aequiparo, breviloquens, &c.; (c) auxiliary, when two verbs come

together, and the second helps the former ; as ama- vi for ama-fui,
ven-do for venum do, arcesso for ac-cedere sino ; (d) possessive, when
the first part denotes the manner of the thing possessed ; as cras-
sipes, ' thick-footed,' alipes, ' wing-footed ,' and the negatives expers,
' without a share in ,' inermus, ' without arms, ' &c. Those compounds
which consist of more than two constituent parts are called decom-
posita; as su-ove-taur-ilia, in-de-fessus, &c.; and those which are
made up of words from different languages are termed hibridae ;
as epiredium or epirrhedium, from èrí and rheda, dextrocherium
from dexter and xeíp, monoculus from μóvos and oculus.
 PART II .

SYNTAX , OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS.

CHAPTER I.

FIRST PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL RULES .

§ 1. Subject and Predicate.

121 (1) Syntax or construction (i . e. arrangement ' or ' put-

ting together in order ') gives the rules of speech or speaking.

(2) Speech or speaking consists of sentences or thoughts ex-

pressed in words.

(3) A sentence or expression of thought (propositum effatum)

is called a Proposition or Enunciation, and consists of, or may
be resolved into, three parts-the Subject, the Copula, and the
Predicate.

(4) The Subject is some noun substantive, pronoun , or other

designation of a person or thing, about which we say, predicate,
or tell something ; the Copula is some finite mood and tense of the
verb ' to be,' or some other verb not involving a distinct predicate ;
and the Predicate is some adjective or other general term , which is
predicated or asserted of the subject : thus, in the sentence, Deus
est bonus, ' God is good,' Deus is the subject, est the copula, and
bonus the predicate .

(5) The Predicate and Copula are very often included in some
form of a finite verb, thus equus currit, ' the horse runs , ' is equi-
valent to equus est currens, ' the horse is running.'
230 SYNTAX OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

(6) The whole sentence may be contained in a finite verbal

form . This is especially the case when the nominative is one of
the personal pronouns ; indeed, these are never expressed unless
some emphasis is intended ; as in the lines of Terence (Adelph.
III. iv. 10 sqq.) :
'In te spes omnis, Hegio, nobis sita est :
Te solum habemus ; tu es patronus, tu pater ;
Si deseris tu, periimus.'

But Cæsar, writing to the senate, after his victory over Pharnaces ,
says, Veni, vidi, vici, where three complete sentences , ' I came , I
saw, I conquered, ' are included in three words : because every one
knew who was the agent.

(7) The nominative is also very frequently omitted when the

verb shows what it must be: thus we say pluit, ' it rains,' i . e.
caelum ; advesperascit, ' it grows towards evening,' sc. dies : some-
times with a pronoun ; as luciscit hoc jam, ' this is growing light, '
sc. caelum (Plautus, Amphitr. 1. iii . 45) .

(8) Impersonal verbs supply their nominative from the parti-

cular word, phrase, or sentence which depends upon them ; as
pudet me errare, ' to err shames me, ' the fact of erring causes
shame unto me, ' i . e. ' I am ashamed to err ; ' pudet me facti, ' that
which belongs to the action causes me shame, ' i. e. ' I am ashamed
of the action ; ' curritur a me, it is run by me, ' ' there is running
caused by me,' i. e. ' I run. '

§ 2. Different kinds of Predicates.

122 There are three different kinds of Predicates :

(A) Primary, when there is nothing between the subject and

predicate except the copula, either expressed or implied ;
as in the instances given above.

(B) Secondary, when the predicate is connected with the

subject through a verb, which already contains a pri-
mary predicate ; as pii orant taciti, ' the pious pray in
silence ;' which is equivalent to pii sunt orantes et sunt
taciti, the pious are ( 1 ) praying and they are (2) silent, '
or ' the pious are silent when they pray.'
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREDICATES. 231

(C) Tertiary, when the secondary predicate is used in an

oblique case ; thus in tu solus es, ' you are alone,' solus is
a primary predicate ; in tu solus adjuvisti nos, ' you alone
have assisted us ,' i. e. ' you have assisted us, and you are
alone in that,' solus is a secondary predicate ; but in te
solum habemus, ' we have you alone, ' i. e. ' we have you,
and you are the only one whom we have,' solum is a
tertiary predicate.
According to these definitions, (A) primary predicates are
direct ; (B) secondary predicates are oblique or adverbial ; and (C)
tertiary predicates are both oblique and adverbial : in other words,
(A) primary predicates are either finite verbs including a copula, or
the nominatives of nouns and participles predicated through a
copula ; (B) secondary predicates are either adverbs , nouns used
adverbially, or the oblique cases of nouns with or without a pre-
position ; (C) tertiary predicates are words in agreement with
oblique cases of nouns.

§3. Accessory parts of a sentence.

123 In order to understand fully the application of the doctrine
that there are three kinds of predicates, it is desirable to enumerate
here all the accessory parts which can enter into a simple sentence
in Latin, and also the most obvious of the subordinate sentences
which serve as secondary predications .
A simple sentence may consist of the following parts in addi-
tion to the subject and primary predicate :
(1) The object or person addressed in the vocative case, which
is merely interjectional.
(2) A verb in the infinitive mood , when the verb which con-
tains the primary predicate does not convey a complete conception ;
as qui non vult intelligi non debet legi, ' he who is not willing to be
understood, is not entitled to be read.'
(3) A noun or pronoun in the accusative case expressing the
immediate object of a transitive verb ; as manus manum lavat,
' (one) hand washes (another) hand ; ' ego amo te, ' I love thee ;'
panem et aquam natura desiderat, ' nature requires bread and
water.'

(4) A noun or pronoun in the dative case limiting the action

to or for a particular object ; as pater filio librum emit, ' the father
232 ACCESSORY PARTS OF A SENTENCE.

bought a book for his son ; ' dedi tibi pecuniam, ' I gave money to
you ;' non scholae, sed vitae discimus, ' we learn not for the school ,
but for life.'

(5) A noun in the ablative case, indicating the time, the means,
or the instrument of the action ; as hieme bella conquiescunt,
' wars rest in the winter ;' concordia parvæ res crescunt, ' little
things grow by means of concord ; ' Alexander Clitum gladio inter-
fecit, ‘ Alexander slew Clitus with (by the instrumentality of) a
sword.'

(6) When the verb is changed from active to passive, the

accusative of the immediate object may become the subject, and
the subject of the active verb may be expressed by the ablative with
ab; thus : Alexander vicit Darium, ' Alexander conquered Darius ,'
may be turned into Darius victus est ab Alexandro, ' Darius was
conquered by Alexander .'

(7) Any noun, whether subject or object, may be defined by

an adjective or adjectival word agreeing with it in case, gender,
and number ; as Alexander magnus fidelem Clitum gladio suo inter-
fecit, the great Alexander slew the faithful Clitus with his own
sword.'

(8) The functions of the defining adjective may be repre-

sented

(a) By another substantive in the genitive case ; as amor

patriae nobis insitus est, the love of our country is implanted in
us,' where patriae, ' of our country,' defines the word amor just as
an adjective would have done ; maximum tui desiderium me
tenet, ' the great love of you possesses me, ' where tui might be
written in the adjectival form tuum, ' thine.'

(b) By a relative sentence ; as Alexander, qui tot populos

vicerat, iræ succubuit, ' Alexander who had conquered so many
nations, succumbed to passion, ' where the relative sentence merely
describes Alexander, as magnus had done, with a particular refer-
ence.

(c) By an apposition of another noun in the same case ; as

Alexander, Macedonum rex, Alexander, the king of the Macedo-
nians ,' for which we might substitute a relative sentence, as qui
fuit rex Macedonum, ' who was king of the Macedonians. '
 ACCESSORY PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 233

(9) Any predicate or even epithet may be qualified by an

adverb ; as longe pessimum consilium, ' by far the worst counsel ;'
mens ejus est valde prava, ' his mind is very depraved ; ' equus cito
currit, ' the horse runs swiftly.' Some adverbs, as those of affirm-
ing or denying, are construed rather with the whole sentence than
with single predicates ; such are sane, certo , fortasse, non, minime,
nequaquam, neutiquam , &c .

(10) An adjective may take the place of an adverb and appear

as a secondary or even tertiary predicate ; as lupus gregibus noctur-
nus obambulat, ' the wolf prowls about the flocks at night ;' where
nocturnus is equivalent to noctu, and is therefore a secondary predi-
cate ; te solum habemus, ' we have thee alone,' where solum is equi-
valent to solummodo, dumtaxat, or some adverb of similar signi-
fication. But sometimes the sense is changed when the predicative
adjective stands for the adverb ; thus, Cicero primus hoc fecit,
means ' Cicero was the first who did this, ' i . e . ' he did it before
all other men ;' but, Cicero primo hoc fecit, means ' Cicero first did
this,' and he did other things after it ; and, Cicero primum hoc fecit,
means ' Cicero did this for the first time,' but he may have done it
several times afterwards. Similarly we have , Thrasybulus non so-
lum princeps, sed et solus initio bellum tyrannis indixit, ' Thrasy-
bulus not only was the first, but also at the beginning was the only
person who declared war against the tyrants.'

(11) A participle is regularly used as a secondary predicate,

both in the same case with one of the ordinary members of the
sentence, and in the ablative absolute ; as omne malum nascens
facile opprimitur, inveteratum plerumque fit robustius, ' every evil,
when still growing, is easily kept down ; but when it has grown
old it generally becomes stronger ; ' Horatius , occisis tribus Curia-
tiis, et duobus amissis fratribus, domum se victor recepit, ' Horatius,
the three Curiatii having been killed, and his three brothers having
been lost, betook himself home as victor.'

(12) As the Latin language has no past participle of the active

voice, unless the verb is deponent in form, a secondary predication
of time in this tense, is either expressed in the ablative absolute ,
as in the example just given, or it is expressed by quum and the
pluperfect subjunctive ; as quum haec dixisset, hostes adortus
est, ‘ having said these things he attacked the enemy.' Similarly
234 ACCESSORY PARTS OF A SENTENCE .

contemporary time may be expressed by quum with the imperfect

subjunctive ; as Cæsar, quum iterum esset consul, multas res gessit ,
'Cæsar being consul for the second time, performed many ex-
ploits.'

(13) A mere apposition of the same case is sometimes equiva-

lent to a secondary predication of contemporary time, and in that
case we may use the adverb of time by the side of the noun in
(
apposition ; as Cæsar iterum consul, Cæsar being consul for the
second time ;' Appius tum decemvir, ' Appius being at that time
decemvir.'

(14) A word or phrase dependent on a preposition may serve

to qualify an epithet or secondary predicate, or may constitute an
additional predication ; as amor in me tuus, ' your love towards
me ; ' Augustus erga omnes benignus in multorum reprehensionem
incurrit, ' Augustus, being kind to all, fell under the censure of
many ;' pro patria quodvis periculum adeas oportet, ' you ought
to encounter any danger on behalf of your native country.' In
the first of these passages in me qualifies the epithet tuus ; in
the second, erga omnes qualifies the secondary predicate benignus,
and in multorum reprehensionem incurrit constitutes the main
statement or primary predication , ' he was blamed by many ;' and
in the third example, pro patria is equivalent to a secondary pre-
dication of the condition, namely, ' if our country is at stake.'

(15) The substitution of a sentence dependent on a relative.

or conjunction, for an epithet (8 , (b) ) or secondary predicate ( 12) ,
may be carried to any extent, and the rules for the application of
this machinery are called the doctrine of co-ordinate and subordi-
nate sentences.

§ 4. Epithets and Predicates.

124 It is of the utmost consequence that a predicate should

be distinguished from an epithet, and for this we give the follow-
ing rule : An adjective, or oblique case, or relative sentence, if
dependent merely on a noun, is an epithet or description ; if de-
pendent also on a verb, it is a secondary or tertiary predicate,
according as its case is direct or oblique. Thus , Gaius is merely
described, or we have merely epithets, attributes, or appositions,
when we add to this name such phrases as bonus puer, ' a good
 EPITHETS AND PREDICATES . 235

boy ;' Marci filius, ' the son of Marcus ; ' qui est bonus , ' who is
good ;' qui est Marci filius, ' who is the son of Marcus.'

125 That all adjectives , oblique cases, and relative sentences

dependent on verbs are subsidiary or accessory predicates, i . e.
adverbs, may be shown by a few examples. We have seen this
in the example pii orant taciti, ' the pious pray in silence, ' i. e.
' silently.' The meaning of this would not be altered if we wrote
in silentio, or silenter, or tacito ore, which are adverbial phrases ,
or ita orant, ut taciti sint, which is a relative sentence dependent
on orant, and of the nature called illative. In fact, the only differ-
ence between an undeclinable adverb, and the other forms of
secondary and tertiary predication, consists in the fact, that the
adverb is general, while the others denote special affections. Thus
if we say, habitabat ibi, ' he dwelt there ,' we do not specify the
place ; but if we say, habitabat Romae, ' he dwelt at Rome,' we
state where he lived . Again, if we say, ' he beat him violently, ' we
merely express the manner ; but if we say, ' he beat him with a
stick,' or ' so as to kill him , ' we add the instrument and the extent
or consequences. Again, if we say, 'he will go to London condi-
tionally,' it is a general predication of condition, but not more
adverbial than the specific condition in ' he will go to London,
if you will accompany him,' i . e. ' on the particular condition that
you accompany him.'

§ 5. Cases and Prepositions.

126 The general meanings of the cases have been given

above, 5 (1) ; and we may now add that the nominative or direct
case is subjective , but the oblique cases are objective. Regarded
as adverbial words or secondary predicates, the oblique cases
ought to denote ' motion from , ' ' rest at,' and ' motion to,' an
object. This distinction is accurately observed only in the nouns
mentioned below ( 128, vII. (b) ) . All others express motion
from by some preposition signifying ' from' or ' out of ' prefixed
to the ablative ; motion to, by some preposition signifying ' to ' or
'towards,' with the accusative ; and rest at, by some preposition
signifying ' in,' ' upon, ' ' before, ' or ' in presence of,' with the
ablative ; or by some preposition signifying ' at, ' ' before,' ' behind, '
' besides,' &c., with the accusative.
236 CASES AND PREPOSITIONS .

127 The general meanings of the prepositions have been given

above (109) . In the following lists, arranged according to the
case with which the prepositions are construed, f denotes ' motion
from,' t denotes ' motion to, ' and r signifies ' rest at.' But all
prepositions construed with the accusative, whether they denote
motion or rest, imply extension, or that the thing is stretched out
or extended ; and all prepositions construed with the ablative ,
though they denote that there has been derivation or motion from
the object, imply that the motion is terminated.

(a) Prepositions construed with the accusative are the follow-

ing :
' Adversum (adversus), cis (citra) , apud, ante, penes"-
que.
Intra, infra, contra, supra," post, circiter, inter.*
Circa (circum) , ultra,* juxta, erga,* praeter,* et extra.*
Ob, prope, per, propter, versus, trans, pone, secundum,"
ad."

These may also be remembered by the following arrangement

in lines of four words each :

Ante, apud, ad, adversus,

Circum, circa, citra , cis,
Erga, contra, inter, extra ,
Infra, intra, juxta, ob,
Penes, pone, post, and praeter,
Prope, propter, per, secundum,
Supra, versus, ultra, trans.

(b) Prepositions construed with the ablative are the fol-

lowing :
De, a (quod et ab') , cum, absque,' e' (quod et ex¹) , prae," pro,*
sine, coram."

Or those given in the rhymes :

A, ab, absque, abs and de,
Coram, clam, cum, ex and e,
Sine, tenus, pro, and prae.

Of these, however, coram, clam, and tenus, with procul, simul,

and some adverbs construed with the genitive, can be regarded
only as quasi-prepositions (see below, 169) .
 CASES AND PREPOSITIONS . 237

(c) Prepositions construed with an accusative, if motion or

extension is implied , with an ablative, if rest is signified, are the
following :

' In, super, et subter, pro quâ sub crebrius exstat ; ' that is :
In, ' into,' ' towards, ' ' to, ' ' upon,' ' against, ' governs the ac-
cusative ; but in, ' in, ' ' among,' governs the ablative.
Sub, or subter, ' under, ' ' beneath , ' ' about,' requires the accu-
sative ; but sub, or subter, ' just under,' ' just at,' requires
the ablative.
Super, ' above,' ' over,' takes the accusative ; but super, ‘ upon,'
"
concerning, ' takes the ablative.

§ 6. Main Rules of Latin Syntax.

128 The main rules of Latin Syntax are the following :

A. Tres Concordantiae.
I. Verbum personale cum nominativo concordat numero et
persona.-A personal verb agrees with its nominative case in
number and person ; as equus currit, a horse runs ; ' nos pueri
6
discimus, we boys learn.'

II. Adjectivum cujuscunque modi cum substantivo concordat ge-

nere, numero, et casu.-An adjective, whether nominal, pronominal ,
or participial, and whether predicate or epithet, agrees with its sub-
stantive in gender, number, and case ; as Deus est bonus, ' God
is good,' celeres equi, ' swift horses : ' where bonus is the predicate
of Deus, and celeres is a descriptive epithet of equi.

III. Relativum cum antecedente concordat genere, numero, et

persona.-The relative agrees with its antecedent, i. e. with the
substantive which it helps to define, in gender, number and per-
son, but derives its case from the verb with which it is construed ;
as adsum, qui feci, ' I, who did it, am here ; ' urbs, quam condi-
derunt,' ' the city which they founded ; ' phaselus ille, quem videtis,
C
that skiff which ye see.'
These are called the three concords.

B. Casus Nominum.

IV. Nomina ejusdem relationis aliis nominibus in eodem casu

apponuntur. - When two substantives refer to the same person or
238 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX.

thing, they are put in the same case by apposition ; as Æneas

filius, Eneas the son.'

V. Nomina diversae relationis aliis nominibus in genitivo sub-

junguntur.—When one substantive depends upon another, it is put
"
in the genitive case ; as Æneas filius Anchisae, Æneas the son of
Anchises .'

VI. Praedicata primaria subjecti casum obtinent.- When two

nouns are connected by a verb signifying ' to be, become, be called ,
thought, or appointed, ' and serving only as copula, they stand in
the same case ; as perpusilli vocantur nani, ' very little men are
called dwarfs."

VII. (a) Accusativo casu stat

Objectum, ad quod transeat
Transitivorum actio ;
Ut : 'filios meos amo.'

(b) Latina praepositio

Designat ubi,' ' unde,' ' quo.'
Exceptis his
Vocabulis :
'Militia,' ' humus,' ' domus,' ' rus ;'
Et urbium nominibus.

(c) Accusativus exprimit

Id tempus, quod extentum fit ;
In ablativo casu sit
Hora ipsa, qua quid evenit.

(d) Agentia rei gestae, quorum

Nominativi rite stant
Pro subjectis activorum ,
'A, ab' cum ablativo dant.

(e) Sed postulat Latinitas

Ut ablativis exprimas
Causas, modos, formas agendi,
Et instrumenta faciendi;
Et cave unquam scribas ' cum'
Doctoris ad fastidium.
 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX . 239

(f) Id quod eodem pertinet-

Sententiis quibuslibet
Ablativus assidet,
Ut absolute praedicet.

These rules are classed together, because they tell the young
scholar when to use and when to omit a Latin preposition in ren-
dering an oblique case, which is always his greatest difficulty.

(a) The immediate object of a transitive verb is put in the

accusative case, without a preposition ; as pater amat filium, ‘ a
father loves his son, ' i. e. his son is the object of his love. As the
case of extension the accusative denotes distance in space, as sub
monte consederunt millia passuum ab ipsius castris octo, ' they posted
themselves under the mountain 8000 paces distant from his camp. '
But the gen. and abl. may also be used with adjectives , to express
6
a measure, as fons latus pedibus tribus, a fountain three feet
wide ; ' area lata pedum denum, ‘ a floor ten feet broad .' As the
case of the object it may denote the part affected, as tremit artus,
he ' is trembling in or as to his limbs .'

(b) We must add a Latin preposition signifying ' in ' or ' at,'
'from' or ' out of,' 'to ' or ' into, ' if we wish to express the place
where, whence, or whither ; as restat in hoc loco, he remains in this
6
place ; ' profectus est ab illo loco, he set out from that place ; ' venit
ad hunc locum, ' he came to this place : ' except the nouns militia
(or bellum), humus, domus, and rus, and the names of cities, which
express these relations without the assistance of prepositions ; as
una semper militiae et domi fuimus, ' we were always together on
service and at home ; ' Româ profectus est, he set out from Rome ; '
ego rus ibo, ' I will go into the country.' (For the form of the
locative in different declensions , see p. 13.)

(c) As a general rule, the accusative expresses duration of

"
time, in answer to the question, how long ?' but the ablative ex-
presses the exact time of an occurrence in answer to the question
'when?;' as proxima nocte castra movit, ' he marched on the follow-
ing night ;' septem horas dormiebat, he slept (to the extent of)
seven hours.'

(d) We may put the object of the active verb in the nomina-
tive case of the passive, and substitute for the subject an ablative,
240 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX .

which must be accompanied by a, ab ; as filius a patre amatur,

'a son is loved by his father.'

(e) While the person by whom the action is performed is thus

expressed in the ablative with a, ab, the thing (whether cause,
manner, form , or instrument) by or with which the action is effected
must be expressed in the ablative without any preposition, and the
young scholar must be careful to resist the temptation to use cum ,
' with ,' which denotes only an accompaniment ; thus securi per-
cussus est a Pisone, ' he was smitten by Piso with an axe,' as an in-
(
strument ; but magnâ cum curâ scripsit, he wrote with (i. e. under
the accompaniment of ) great care. ' In accordance with this rule,
the ablative expresses the price or materials . And, as we have
seen (above, (c) ) , the ablative alone is also used to express the
time in answer to the question when?'

(f) To the same idiom we may refer the use of the ablative
absolute to express a subordinate predication of time, cause, or
circumstance ; as magna comitante catervâ, ibat ad tumulum, ' he
went to the tomb with a great crowd accompanying him ; ' nihil
de hac re agi potest, salvis legibus, ' nothing can be done in this
matter without violating the laws , ' i. e. ' with the laws in their
integrity.'

VIII. Si quis quid, diserte datum

Ut propositum effatum,
Infinitivo scripserit,
Subjecta res objecta fit.
"
Nam quod vales ' idem fere
Valet, atque te valere.'

The infinitive presents merely the objective notion of the verb,

without any personal relation . If, therefore, its subject is ex-
pressed, it must be in an objective case, or in regimine verbi finiti.
This case will generally be the accusative, which is the most usual
expression of objectivity or regimen. Thus we say, gaudeo te
valere, ' I am glad as to you being well,' i. e. that ' or ' with
reference to the fact that you are well,' which is much the same as
quod tu vales, gaudeo, ' as to the circumstance that you are well, I
am glad.' But if the main verb requires a dative, the subject of
the infinitive may be in this case ; as licet tibi esse beato or beatum,
' it is permitted to you to be happy,' or ' that you should be happy .'
 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX . 241

This objective construction is not affected by the fact that the

main verb may be impersonal, in which case the whole clause
explains the subject of the verb ; thus, pudet me errare, ' with
reference to the fact that I am in error, there is a feeling of shame,'
i. e. ' to err causes me shame. ' The same rules apply to the case
when the infinitive is used without any finite verb in a narrative.

IX. Dativus limitationem qualemcunque denotat. - The limita-

tion or destination of an action , whether expressed or not by ' to' or
' for ' in English , may always be conveyed by the dative in Latin ;
as dedit mihi librum, he gave me the book,' i . e. ' he gave the
book to me, ' or ' the book was the object given, but I was the limita-
tion or destination of the gift. ' We may even have two datives ;
as exitio est mare nautis, ' the sea is destined or designed for destruc-
tion to sailors .' This rule finds a particular application in the use
of the adjectival infinitive in -ndus (79 , Obs. ) , which has the force
of an active infinitive , and expresses the limitation to a particular
subject by the dative case ; as proelia conjugibus loquenda, ' battles
for wives to talk about, ' i . e . ' destined or designed for talking to or
for wives.'

C. Verborum Modi.

X. (a) Relativa praedicant ,

Si cum subjunctivo stant.

(b) Si cum primo modo sunt,

Qui, quae, quod' definiunt.

(a) A relative sentence with the subjunctive mood is a se-

condary predication of end, cause, consequence, or concession (below,
205, (B) ) .

(b) A relative sentence with the indicative mood is equivalent

to a definition or epithet (below, 204) .
Thus we have missi sunt, qui urbem oppugnarent , ' they were
sent, and I will predicate, or tell the end for which they
were sent to besiege the city ; ' but, qui urbem oppugnabant Ro-
mani erant, those who besieged the city (i . e. the particular per-
sons so defined) were Romans .' Again : stultus es qui hoc feceris,
' you are foolish, and I will predicate or tell you the cause—
because you did this ; ' but, qui hoc fecit stultus est, ' he who
did this (i.e. the particular person so defined) is foolish . ' Quod
D. L. G. 16
242 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX.

vales, mentioned above, expresses the object or reference of the

action, not a fresh predication of cause ; and the same may be said
of all causal sentences with the indicative.

XI. Relativa, quae conceptus

Alienos exprimunt
In sententiis obliquis,
Subjunctivum exigunt.

The subjunctive is invariably used when the relative sentence

is oblique, or expresses the thoughts or words of a third person ; as
Socrates dicebat omnes in eo, quod scirent, satis esse eloquentes, be-
cause in eo quod scirent depends on the oblique expression of the
opinion of Socrates. Again : Socrates accusatus est quod corrum-
peret juventutem , ' Socrates was accused of corrupting the young ;'
not that it was a fact, but the accuser said so (below, 205, (y) , (d) ) .

XII. Interrogatio obliqua subjunctivum requirit.- The indica-

tive is always used in direct questions ; as quis est, ' who is it ?'
But the subjunctive is invariably found in indirect or oblique ques-
tions ; as nescio quis sit, ' I know not who it is ' (below, 205 , (a) ) .

XIII. Ut finalis et illativa subjunctivum postulat. —The sub-

junctive is necessarily used after ut, (a) in final sentences denoting
the end, or (b) in illative sentences signifying the extent or conse-
quence; as (a) missi sunt, ut specularentur, ' they were sent to the
end that they might act as spies ; ' (b) Titus ita facilis fuit, ut ne-
mini quidquam negaret, ' Titus was so good-natured that, as a con-
sequence, he could not deny anything at all to anybody.' The final
ut is sometimes omitted before the subjunctive, especially after fac,
velim, licet, necesse est, and oportet ; as tu velim animo sapienti sis
(for velim ut sis) , ' I wish that you may be wise.'

XIV. Ne prohibitiva vel imperativum vel subjunctivum ad-

mittit ; ne pro ut ne finalis, pro ut non illativa, subjunctivum de-
poscit.-Properly speaking, the prohibitive is a remnant of the
final sentence with ut ne ; but in this case the ut is regularly omit-
ted, as in the idioms mentioned at the end of the last rule ; and if
cave precedes, even ne may be dropt in the final prohibition ; as
cave scribas, for cave ne scribas, ' take care, to the end that you
may not write.' In the full final sentence, when the end is prohi-
bited, it is a matter of indifference whether we write ne or ut ne ;
 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX. 243

and in the illative sentence, we may have either ne alone (as in vos
adepti estis ne quem civem metueretis, ' you have gained an advan-
tage to such an extent or consequence that you are not obliged to
fear any one of your fellow-citizens' ) or ut non, ut nunquam, and
the like.

Obs. It is to be observed that ut and ne are regularly opposed

in expressing wishes and fears. Thus ut or utinam introduces a wish,
while ne forbids it. For ut or utinam veniat means ' O that he may
come !' But ne veniat signifies ' I wish that he may not come.' As
this is tantamount to a prohibition, it may be said that ne veniat, as the
opposite of ut veniat, must be equivalent to ut ne veniat. But this
explanation will not apply to theopposition of ut and ne after verbs of
fearing ; for vereor ut veniat means I fear, how he can come,' i. e. ' I
fear he will not come ;' whereas vereor ne veniat means I fear lest he
come,' i. e. ' I fear he will come. ' If we said efficio ut veniat, we should
mean ' I manage to the end that he may come,' and efficio ne veniat or
ut ne veniat would mean ' I manage to the end that he may not come.'
And as the dependent sentence in each case is the same, the opposite
meaning given by the use of ut and ne after verbs of fearing must be
caused by the peculiar force of the main verb, namely, by the fact that a
verb of fearing qualifies the whole sentence with a negative or prohi-
bitive meaning, which annuls the dependent wish or prohibition ; so that
vereor ut veniat means ' O that he may come ! but I fear that he will
not ; and vereor ne veniat means ' may he not come ! but I fear that he
will.' This construction belongs to the indirect interrogation (below,
205, (a), (bb) ).

XV. Consecutio temporum valet in subjunctivo. If one sentence

is dependent on another, the verbs must be in congruous tenses.
Thus (1 ) a present or future is followed by a present, a perfect,
or a periphrastic future, to express that something predicated in the
subjunctive is still continuing, is completed, or is about to happen.
The imperative is regarded as a present or future. Hence we may
write :

(quem oratio tua non delectet.

Nemo est, quem oratio tua non delectaverit.
(cui carmina tua non placitura sint.

[quid frater tuus agat.

Scribam tibi quid frater tuus egerit.
quid frater tuus facturus sit.

[quid agas.
Veniam, ubi cognovero quid egeris.
Iquid facturus sis.
16-2
244 MAIN. RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX.

(quid rerum agas.

Scribe mihi quid consilii ceperis.
quando profecturus sis.

(2) The historical tenses , as they are called, namely, perfect,

imperfect, and pluperfect, which narrate a past occurrence, are fol-
lowed by the imperfect, if the event predicated in the subjunctive
was contemporary with the main action ; by the pluperfect, if it
was anterior to the main action ; by the imperfect of the peri-
phrastic future, if it was subsequent or was so regarded. Hence we
may write :
(quid rerum agerem.
Quaesivit ex me quid rerum egissem.
Iquid facturus essem.

(num faceret, quod jusseram .

Dubitabam
num fecisset, quod jusseram.
[num facturus esset, quod jusseram.
[quamobrem non veniret.
Scripserat mihi quamobrem non venisset.
(quamobrem non venturus esset.

The following special cases must be noticed :

(a) The perfect subjunctive may be used for the imperfect,

after a perfect indicative, when we wish to limit the dependent cir-
cumstances to a single act ; as Aristides, quum tantis rebus præ-
fuisset, in tanta paupertate decessit, ut qui efferretur, vix reliquerit,
because we should certainly have used reliquit, and not relinquebat,
to express the fact that he left very little at the moment of his
death.

(b) If the present indicative is used historically to describe a

past event, it may be followed by a present subjunctive ; as Tum
ille scribit ad quosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa perquirant. But the
imperfect may be used by the side of the other construction ; thus
in the passage from which the last example is taken (Cic. Verr. IV.
18) we read : Diodorus ad propinquum suum scribit, ut iis, qui a
Verre venissent, responderet, illud argentum se paucis illis diebus
misisse Lilybæum .

(3) As the perfect may be used, not only as an historical tense ,

but also as indicating the completed result of past actions, it may
 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX. 245

be followed by the present subjunctive ; thus we may say both

cognovi ex tuis litteris, quam tibi carus essem, I learned from
your letter, how dear I was to you, ' and also , cognovi ex tuis
litteris, quam tibi carus sim, ' I have learned (i.e. I know) from
your letter, how dear I am to you.'

(4) In the oratio obliqua (above, XI) ,

(a) if the verb declaring the thought or opinion is in a finite

mood, its tense will generally regulate that of the dependent verbs ;
as Sapientissimum dicunt eum, cui quid opus sit , ipsi veniat in
mentem. But a present tense may be followed by an imperfect or
pluperfect, if a definite time is specified , which requires these
tenses ; and a perfect is followed by a present or perfect, when a
proverb or some saying perpetually applicable is cited ; thus we
find : Verres ita dictitat, iis esse metuendum, qui quod ipsis solis
satis esset surripuissent ; se tantum surripuisse (i . e. habere) , ut id
multis satis sit. Turnum dixisse ferunt, nullam breviorem esse
cognitionem, quam inter patrem et filium ; ni pareat patri, habi-
turum infortunium esse.

(b) If the verb of declaration appears as an infinitive or parti-

ciple, the tense of the subjunctive verb is regulated by that of the
verb on which the infinitive depends or by that of the temporal
sentence into which the participle might be resolved ; thus we have
Negabat Cato quidquam utile esse, quod idem non esset hones-
tum , because negabat defines the tense of esse, and we have Cogi-
tanti mihi, quid optimum factu esset, litteræ tuæ allatæ sunt, be-
cause cogitanti is equivalent to dum cogitabam.

XVI. Quatuor sunt conditionalium formulae. The same rule

of congruity is of course applicable to the different forms of con-
ditional sentences, which imply respectively,

(1) Possibility, without the expression of uncertainty ; as Si

quid habet, dat, ' if he has anything , he gives it. '

(2) Uncertainty, with some small amount of probability ; as

(a) Si quid habeat, dabit, if he shall have anything (which

is not improbable), he will give it.'

(b) Si quid habuerit, dederit, if he shall have (on a particular

occasion) had anything, he will have given it (once for all).'
246 MAIN RULES OF LATIN SYNTAX.

(3) Mere assumption , without any subordinate idea ; as Si

quid habeat, det, if he were to have anything (i. e. as often as he
had anything), he would give it. ' The present tense is used
because the results are supposed to be still within the reach of the
speaker.

(4) Impossibility, or when we wish to indicate that the thing

is not so ; as

(a) Si quid haberet, daret, ' if (which is not the case) he had
anything, he would give it. '

(b) Si quid habuisset, dedisset, ‘ if (which was not the case) he

had had anything, he would have given it.'

The four modes of expressing a condition and its results may

be regarded as supplying the general rules for such expressions.
It will be found , however, that they admit of certain modifications ,
which do not violate the principle that, in all conditional proposi-
tions, the present or the perfect, properly so called , is used to inti-
mate that the circumstance assumed is possible or at least con-
ceivable, and the imperfect or pluperfect is employed to express
that, in the opinion at least of the speaker, it is impossible . Pre-
cisely the same distinction is observable in the use of the subjunc-
tive as an optative, i . e. as the expression of a wish. For in this case,
we have merely a condition without a statement of the result. And
if we say si or ut or utinam veniat, ' if' or, ‘ O that he would come,'
we merely suspend the expression of our consequent satisfaction.
The rule for the tense of the subjunctive in this optative use is
therefore the same as that in the conditional clause. Accordingly,
if we say cupiam scire, ' I may wish to know,' we imply that our
desire might be realized ; but if we say cuperem scire, ‘ I might
wish to know,' we imply that the condition of possibility is not
forthcoming. Similarly, quam velim hoc fiat, or utinam hoc fecerit,
imply a possibility that the wish may be fulfilled ; but quam
vellem hoc fieret, or quam vellem hoc factum esset, exclude the possi-
bility. In carrying out this distinction in the uses of the present
or perfect, and of the imperfect or pluperfect tenses of the sub-
junctive mood, the student experiences two difficulties. On the
one hand, he finds that the past tense is used in English to trans-
late both the present and the imperfect in these sentences ; and on
the other hand, the present is used in Latin, where there seems to
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE . 247

be no actual possibility in the condition. Both of these difficulties

are illustrated by cases like the following. We may say, tu si hic
sis, aliter sentias, ' if you were in my place, you would think other-
wise ; ' si exsistat hodie ab inferis Lycurgus,. ' if Lycurgus were to
stand forth to-day from the shades below. ' Here the correspond-
ing English phraseology would imply that the hypothesis in either
case was not within the reach of possibility ; but the mere use of
the present in Latin shows that the circumstance, however impro-
bable in itself, is at least supposable for the sake of argument, and
we have the same use of the Greek optative , which is regularly
appropriated to this form of the conditional sentence (see Greek
Grammar, 502, (y) , p . 539) .
These are the main or general rules of Latin Syntax. For
convenience sake, the details of their application will be exhibited
afterwards in the order suggested by the accidence. But we may
from the first presume a knowledge of the constructions here
explained.

§7. Order of Words in a Latin Sentence, and their English

Construction.

129 Among the peculiarities of the Latin language, the ar-

rangement or order of the words demands the earliest attention of
the student, because it is the necessary converse of the process of
construing Latin into English, which is one of the first duties of a
learner. There are no two languages which differ more in this
respect than the English and the Latin . For while the merely
syntactical condition , to which modern English has been reduced ,
by the loss of nearly all its inflexions, obliges us to maintain the
logical and grammatical construction of every sentence, the Latin
language, which has not even a definite article, and depends entirely
upon its inflected forms, not only admits, but requires a con-
siderable variety in the relative position of the words , in order
to make the inflexions as serviceable as may be in giving per-
spicuity, emphasis, and harmony to the style. We must here
consider separately (I. ) the order to be adopted , when we trans-
late English into Latin ; (II . ) the process of construing Latin into
English.
248 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

I. The Latin Order.

The two general rules by which the Latin order is governed

are the following :
(a) That the most emphatic words take precedence in the
sentence.

(b) That, if emphasis does not interfere, the explanatory or

additional word follows the subject but precedes the predicative word
or phrase to which it belongs.

From this it will follow that the subject will generally stand
first and the predicative verb last, while the intervening particles,
dependent cases, &c. , will stand between them in an order regulated
by their weight in the sentence. That the verb is most properly
and naturally placed last, is expressly stated by Quintilian (I. O.
IX. 4, § 26) : Verbo sensum cludere, multo, si compositio patiatur,
optimum est. In verbis enim sermonis vis. How regularly this is
the case in Latin prose may be seen in such a passage as the follow-
ing (Cic. Leges, I. 9) : Hominem natura non solum celeritate mentis
ornavit, sed etiam sensus tanquam satellites attribuit ac nuntios ;
figuramque corporis habilem et aptam ingenio humano dedit. Nam
quum ceteras animantes abjecisset ad pastum, solum hominem erexit,
ad cælique quasi cognationis domiciliique pristini conspectum exci-
tavit; tum speciem ita formavit oris, ut in ea penitus reconditos
mores effingeret. The words intervening between the subject and
predicate in this natural order may change their relative places and
form new permutations according to the emphasis intended. Thus
we may say, Romani Jovi templum in Capitolio condiderunt, ' the
Romans to Jove a temple in the Capitol erected , ' if we mean to
direct attention to the fact that the god to be honoured was the dis-
tinctive circumstance ; but we might say also : Romani templum in
Capitolio Jovi Junoni Minervae condiderunt, if we wished to lay a
stress on the foundation of the temple without such a special refer-
ence to the worship to be carried on in it. The same law of
emphasis will even qualify the position of the subject and predica-
tive verb themselves, and we not unfrequently find that the subject
concludes the sentence, if we wish to make it bear a particular
stress ; as sensit in se iri Brutus (Liv. II . 5) ; cujus in oratione
plerumque efficit numerum ipsa concinnitas (Cic. Orat. 50) ; in
Academia recentiore exstitit divina quadam celeritate ingenii dicen-
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 249

dique copia Carneades (Cic. de Orat. III. 18) ; semper oratorum

moderatrix fuit oratorum prudentia (Cic. Orat. 8).
Obs. In Latin poetry the natural order of the words is disturbed not
only by a greater variety of intended emphasis, but also by the occa-
sional exigencies of the metre. Ausonius apologizes for a deviation from
the usual order of the epistolary address by saying (Ep. 20, 1) :
Paulino Ausonius. Metrum sic suasit ut esses
Tu prior, et nomen prægrederere meum.

130 As the Latin language has no article, the definite epithet

cannot very well precede its noun, unless it has some distinctive
emphasis of its own. The same rule applies to the genitive case
in regimen, and to the apposition of a title or definition . Hence,
in all ordinary cases, the adjective follows the noun , the genitive its
governing substantive, and the apposition the word which it qua-
lifies ; as

(a) res familiaris , ' property ; ' res publica, ' the state ; ' bellum
sociale, ' the social war ; ' jus civile, ' the civil law ; ' civis Romanus,
"a Roman citizen ; ' senatus populusque Romanus, ' the senate and
people of Rome ; ' aes alienum, ' debt ; ' via Appia, ' the Appian
road,' & c .

(b) filius Anchisae, ' the son of Anchises ; ' magister equitum,
' master of the knights ; ' tribunus militum, ' tribune of the soldiers ;'
jus gentium, ' the right of nations ; ' lex naturae, ' the law of
nature ;' & c.

(c) Q. Mucius augur, M. Tullius Cicero consul, Cyprus insula,

Tiberis fluvius.
But although this arrangement is the most natural, it is
abandoned, whenever the emphasis or perspicuity requires a
different order. Thus, although we should say, ager Tuscus, ager
Romanus, if those phrases stood alone, we must put the epithet
first when we wish to give prominence to the distinction which
it involves, for example, in such a sentence as Tuscus ager Romano
adjacet. Similarly, mors fratris tui, and fratris tui mors, are
equally allowable, but the former lays the stress on the death as
contrasted with the previous life, and the latter makes an emphatic
reference to the particular person, whose death is mentioned .
Again, in some cases the adjective or qualifying word is so essen-
tial to the idea, which we wish to convey, that it necessarily pre-
cedes. Thus Pliny's great work is styled Libri Naturalis Historiae,
 250 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE .

because it is the adjective which gives its distinctive subject, so

that the noun and its epithet might be regarded as one compound
word ; so also we have Theodosianus codex, Julium sidus, Mariani
consulatus, because the emphasis necessarily falls on the adjective.
For the same reason the genitive precedes its noun in such combi-
nations as animi motus , terrae motus , corporis partes , &c., because
the specific meaning is given by the genitive. And this is particu-
larly the case with certain adjectives which get their special mean-
ing from the genitive of a noun, as juris prudens, juris consultus,
& c.; hence we have even in the same sentence : reipublicae peritus
et juris consultus (Nep . XXIV. 3) . On the other hand, when the
genitive denotes the object, it properly follows ; thus we write ex-
pugnatio urbis, indagatio veri, scientia linguae, amor patriae, cura
rerum alienarum, fiducia virium suarum, &c. If the same noun
has both a genitive of the subject and a genitive of the object
dependent on it, the former generally precedes and the latter may
either precede or follow ; thus we have cognoscite hominis princi-
pium rerum gerendarum ; hominis amplissimi causam tanti peri-
culi repudiare ; Atheniensium populi potestatem omnium rerum , &c.
In appositions too the general rule that the defining word follows,
is neglected in certain cases. Thus rex as an hereditary title, and
Imperator, when it became a regular designation of the chief of the
Roman empire , are prefixed to the name, and we have rex Deio-
tarus, Imperator Titus. So also we have urbs Roma, not Roma
urbs.

131 If a substantive is explained by a genitive case or other

adjunct, as well as by an adjective, the combined epithet is suffi-
ciently definite to precede the noun , and the adjective generally
stands first ; thus, summum eloquentiae studium, nocturnus in
urbem adventus, & c. Between the preposition and its case we may
have not only an epithet or genitive case, but a relative sen-
tence or any other merely explanatory insertion ; as propter His-
panorum, apud quos consul fuerat, injurias ; in summa bonorum
ac fortium, qui tunc aderant, virorum copia ; ex illo caelesti Epi-
curi de regula et judicio volumine.

132 (a) A demonstrative pronoun will of course regularly

precede the noun to which it calls attention ; as haec mulier, ille
vir, hujus fratris mei. But if there is also an adjective , the pro-
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 251

noun and adjective may follow as in Greek ; thus, avǹp ó péyas

= vir ille magnus , or magnus ille vir ; and if the emphasis falls
upon the noun, the pronoun is placed after it ; as disputationem
hanc de oratore malo tibi et Bruto placere ; caedem hanc ipsam
contra rempublicam senatus factam esse decrevit ; virginem ego hanc
sum ducturus ; ab intimo sinu excurrit tumulus is ipse in quo
condita urbs est.

(b) The relative pronoun regularly stands first in the sentence,

and so completely appropriates this position , that it takes the place
of a demonstrative with et ; hence we have qui for et is, qualis for
et talis, quo for et eo, &c. It is even substituted for the demon-
strative when there is not only an et, but some particle such as
quum, si, quamvis, utinam, or another inflected relative : thus we
find quod quum audivissem, quod si audivissem, quod quamvis non
ignorassem, quam palmam utinam diï immortales vobis reservent,
quod qui facit, &c. for et quam hoc, et si hoc, et quamvis hoc, et
utinam hanc, et qui hoc facit, &c. From this usage arose the prac-
tice of using quod before certain particles, especially si and nisi,
without any force as a pronoun, and merely as equivalent to our
C
'but' or 'and.' Thus we find quod si illinc profugisses, but if
you had fled from thence ; ' quod nisi Metellus hoc tam graviter
6
egisset, unless however Metellus had done this with such energy ; '
6
quod etsi quidam dicendi copiam sine ratione consequuntur, and
although some attain to fluency without theoretical study.' We
have also quod quum, quod ubi, quod quia, quod quoniam, quod ne,
quod utinam. But even a relative may lose its place at the begin-
ning of a sentence, if emphasis requires it, and if its antecedent
follows ; as Romam quae asportata sunt ad aedem Honoris et Virtutis
videmus.
(c) If quisque follows a reflexive pronoun, the distribution is
expressly signified ; but the distribution is already given by some
other word, if quisque precedes ; thus we say on the one hand,
minime sibi quisque notus est, et difficillime de se quisque sentit ;
and on the other hand, Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas
dimisit.

133 (a) Adverbs (according to 129, rule (b) ) regularly pre-

cede the predicative word to which they are attached . This is
always the case with the categorical negative non, and almost
always with the adverbs expressing a degree, though the latter
252 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

are sometimes separated from their adjective, in order to increase

the emphasis ; as hoc si Sulpicius noster faceret, multo ejus oratio
esset pressior, where the adverb multo is placed at the beginning of
the clause merely to strengthen the assertion .
(b) Prepositions, especially monosyllables , are frequently
placed between an adjective or pronoun and its substantive ; as
multis de causis, paucos post menses, magna ex parte, summa cum
cura, ea de re ; especially in the case of the relative , as in qua
de re, quam ob rem, quem ad modum, &c . And the tendency
of the relative to take the first place allows it to appear before
a preposition even of two syllables when there is no following
substantive in agreement with it ; thus we have quorum de vir-
tutibus, quos inter erat, quem contra venerat, quo de agitur. This
usage is found, but less commonly, with other pronouns, as hunc
post, hunc propter , hunc juxta, hunc adversus. The Latin lan-
guage generally requires a repetition of the preposition in sen-
tences connected with et- et, nec- nec, aut- aut, vel- vel, and also
after nisi and quam, but not with words connected by enclitics ;
and it is not the usage to refer a substantive to two connected
prepositions ; thus we say et in bello et in pace ; and ante aciem
postve eam, not ante postve aciem.
(c) Conjunctions generally precede the sentence, which they
introduce ; but ut and ne have sometimes several words before
them ; as Catilina postulabat, patres conscripti ne quod de se
temere crederet ; and the illative ut is not unfrequently preceded
by a negative or qualifying adverbs such as vix, nemo , nihil, nullus,
prope, paene ; thus we have erant optimi cives judices, vix ut mihi
tenuis quaedam venia daretur excusationis.

134 Repeated words are placed in juxtaposition, the subject

preceding the oblique case (129 (b) ) ; thus, nulla virtus virtuti contra-
ria est ; vir virum legit ; ex domo in domum migrare ; diem ex die
exspectare ; nihil est unum uni tam simile ; laudando omnes omnium
imagines; Titus Berenicen ab urbe dimisit invitus invitam ; sequere
quo tua te virtus ducet. The same rule applies to contraries ; thus,
quaedam falsa veri speciem habent ; mortali immortalitatem non
arbitror contemnendam ; in custodia socer generi periit morbo.
Antithesis sometimes exhibits an inverted order, which is called
chiasmus (from xiálem , ' to put cross-wise, ' like the letter xî ) ; thus,
ratio nostra consentit, repugnat oratio ; fateor vulgi judicium a
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 253

judicio meo dissensisse ; quae me moverunt movissent eadem te pro-

fecto ; fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet ; leges supplicio
improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos ; errant, quod solum,
quod Attice, nonfalluntur.

135 Certain words have a fixed place in the clauses to which

they belong.

(a) Nam always stands first : generally also namque.

(b) Enim always after at least one word, seldom after two.
In the compound enimvero it may commence a sentence.

(c) Ergo either at the beginning or after another emphatic

word. Igitur always follows , and may be last word. Itaque gene-
rally begins the sentence.

(d) Quoque and autem immediately after the word which they
add or oppose .

(e) Etiam before the word to which it belongs , unless this

word is very emphatic.
(f) Quidem after the word which it qualifies, and to which it
is closely attached . If ne precedes, the meaning is ' not even '
(above, 105, (a) ) .

(g) Tamen stands at the beginning, unless a single word is to

be made emphatic.
(h) Autem always follows the first word in the sentence.

(i) No enclitic can stand first in a sentence¹.

(k) The verb inquit, ' says he, ' or ' said he,' is always inserted
parenthetically in the course of the words quoted ; as : Tum Cocles,
' Tiberine pater,' inquit, ' te sancte precor haec arma et hunc virum
propitio flumine accipias.' If the nominative of inquit does not
thus precede the citation of the words spoken, it is placed imme-
diately after the verb ; as ' mihi quidem,' inquit Cotta, videtur.'
We may place ait either before the words cited, or in the citation,
like inquit. The poets alone use dicit and dixit in this way.

1 Here learners may find it convenient to recollect the memorial lines :

Quoque, autem, quidem, que,
Second words must always be.
254 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

136 These are the general rules, and it seems unnecessary to

multiply illustrations, or to collect instances of the exceptions
necessitated by the variations of emphasis ; for after all it is only
a continued perusal of the best writers, and adequate practice in
prose composition, which can give that perception of rhetorical
symmetry on which so much depends, or enable the student to
frame perspicuous and harmonious periods. And even those who
have gone through a long course of reading and writing Latin too
often fail in producing a pleasing effect by the structure of their
sentences, when they have not received from nature the susceptible
and fastidious delicacy of ear (aures teretes et relligiosas) which
Cicero ( Orator. 9) regards as a distinguishing peculiarity of the
Attic orator.

II. The English Construction.

137 As the Latin order in most cases differs entirely from the
English, it is necessary that a student should acquire betimes the
art of reducing the elements of the Latin sentence to their proper
places in English syntax. This, although it is a process of decom-
position, as far as the Latin is concerned , is called construing or
construction, a term absolutely equivalent to the Greek word repre-
sented by the word syntax. The method to be adopted is pre-
sumed, in what has been already said on the parts of the sentence
(above, § 3). The order, therefore, of Latin construing will be as
follows :

(1) The interjection with its vocative .

(2) The conjunction.

(3) The subject of the sentence, with all that belongs to it,
whether it be a relative sentence , an epithet, an apposition , or a
dependent genitive.

(4) The copula with the predicate, that is either

(a) sum with a noun, and all that belongs to it ;
or (b) a finite verb ;
or (c) a finite verb and its dependent infinitive.
(5) The adverb or other secondary predicate.

(6) The accusative, as expressing the immediate object, and

all that belongs to it.
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE . 255

(7) The dative, as expressing the limitation, and all that

belongs to it.

(8) The ablative, as expressing the means or instrument, and

all that belongs to it.

It will be observed that, if the main verb is impersonal , it will

precede any expression of the subject, which is generally given in
the accusative case ; that an adverb will often be taken immediately
before the verb, especially a negative particle ; that prepositions ,
with their cases, will follow the word which they define ; and that
the accusative, dative, and ablative may be taken in an order dif-
ferent from that given above, if the verb requires that either the
dative or ablative should immediately follow it, rather than the
accusative.
The beginning of Caesar's speech ( Sallust, Cat. 51 ) will serve
The Latin order is : Omnes homines,
as an example of these rules.
Patres Conscripti, qui de rebus dubiis consultant, ab odio, amicitia,
ira atque misericordia vacuos esse decet. Haud facile animus verum
providet, ubi illa officiunt; neque quisquam omnium lubidini simul
et usui paruit. The English construing will be as follows : Patres
Conscripti (vocative) , decet (impersonal verb) omnes homines (accu-
sative of the immediate object with its epithet) , qui (relative with
its sentence, conveying an additional epithet or definition of the
accusative homines, which is here the real subject of the infinitive
which follows) consultant ( verb, containing the primary predicate
of the relative clause) de dubiis rebus (ablative with its epithet,
dependent on de, and expressing the object of consultant), esse
(copula of the sentence dependent on decet) vacuos (predicate of
homines) ab odio, &c. (ablatives dependent on ab and explanatory
of vacuos). Animus (subject) haud facile (adverbs) providet (verb
containing predicate) verum (accusative of the immediate object) ,
ubi (adverb of place, equivalent to case of relative) illa (subject)
officiunt (verb containing predicate) ; neque (disjunctive conjunc-
tion) quisquam (subject) paruit (verb containing predicate) simul
(adverb of time) lubidini et usui (datives of limitation) omnium
(dependent genitive) .
 CHAPTER II.

CASES OF NOUNS.

§ 1. The Nominative and its Adjuncts.

138 THE nominative is used to express not only the subject of

the sentence, but also the predicate, whenever the copula appears
in the form of a verb denoting existence and the like. In either
case it carries along with it the accompanying adjective, whether it
be an epithet or a secondary predicate, and the explanatory adjunct,
whether it be another noun in apposition or a relative sentence.
It is true that most of these adjuncts may be found with oblique
cases as well as with the nominative ; indeed, any nominative ,
which appears as the subject of a finite verb, may be turned into
the accusative when it appears as the subject of a verb in the
infinitive mood ; but it will be most convenient that all these
qualifying expressions should be discussed once for all in connexion .
with the nominative, not only because they belong primarily to the
subject, but also because they are sometimes referred to a depart-
ment of Latin syntax which is formally distinguished from that
which treats of the oblique cases. In some grammars it is the
practice to consider separately the Syntaxis Convenientiae, which
treats of the concord or agreement of the separate parts of a propo-
sition, and the Syntaxis Rectionis , which treats of the dependence
of one part of the sentence upon another, so that one member is
said ' to govern ' (regere) another member in the same clause. It
will be in accordance with this arrangement, if, in speaking of
the nominative, we consider in order (A) the agreement of the
nominative with its verb ; (B) the agreement of the adjective with
its substantive ; (C) the agreement of the relative with its antece-
dent ; (D) the apposition of a noun or participle in the same case ;
(E) the agreement of the subject and predicate.
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE . 257

(A) Agreement of the Nominative with its Verb.

139 (a) The number and person of the verb are regulated by
the number and person of the nominative or subject ; as
Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis ; ego libertatem peperi,
vos partam servare non vultis, ' I have expelled kings, you are in-
troducing tyrants ; I have procured liberty, you, after it has been
procured, are unwilling to keep it.'

(b) If there are two or more nominatives, the verb which

follows is in the plural, provided the nominatives indicate persons ;
but if the verb precedes, or if the nominatives do not indicate
persons, the verb may be either singular or plural ; as

Pompeius, Scipio, et Africanus foede perierunt, ' Pompey, Scipio,

and Africanus perished disgracefully.'
Beneficium et gratia sunt vincula concordiae, ' kindness and good
feeling are the bonds of harmony.'
Virtus et honestas et pudor cum consulibus esse cogebat, ' virtue,
honour, and shame compelled me to be with the consuls.'
Tempus necessitasque postulat, ' time and necessity demand it.'
Dixit hoc Zosippus et Ismenias, ' Zosippus and Ismenias said
this.'

(c) Collective nouns like pars, turba, vis , multitudo, when they
denote a number of persons, are construed with a plural verb. The
same is the case with distributive words and phrases like quisque,
pro se quisque, neuter, uterqué, alius-alium, vir-virum, which must
be regarded as a sort of parenthetical apposition to the plural
subject of the verb. The same principle explains the use of a
plural verb when another subject is added with the preposition cum.
Thus we have

Magna pars vulnerati aut occisi sunt, ' they, ' i.e. ‘ a great part
of them, were wounded or slain.'
Magna vis hominum segetem fuderunt in Tiberim, ' a great mass
of men cast the corn into the Tiber.'
Pro se quisque miles gaudio alacres fremunt, excited by joy
they shout, each soldier of them.'
Uterque exercitum ex castris educunt, both the one and the
other lead their armies from the camp.'
D. L. G. 17
258 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.

Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati sunt, ' they, that is , Ilia toge-
ther with Lausus, were sprung from Numitor.'
But unus et alter may have a verb in the singular ; as, dicit
unus et alter breviter, ' one and the other,' i.e. ' one after the other,
speaks briefly.'

(d) When the substantive verb stands between two nouns of

different numbers, it takes its number from that with which it is
most closely connected in meaning or position ; as
Praecipuum robur Rhenum juxta octo legiones erant, ‘ the main
force near the Rhine consisted in eight legions.'
Magnae divitiae sunt lege naturae composita paupertas, ' poverty
regulated by the law of nature constitutes great riches.'

(e) With regard to the person of the verb, if the pronouns ego,
nos, tu, vos, appear together, or by the side of some subject in the
third person, the verb is plural, but takes its person from the pro-
noun which stands first in the usual order of reference, that is , the
first in preference to the second person, and the second in prefer-
ence to the third ; as

Pater, ego, fratresque mei terra marique pro vobis arma tulimus,
my father, myself, and my brothers (we) have borne arms for you
by land and sea.'
Si tu et Tullia valetis, bene est ; ego et Cicero valemus, ' if you
and Tullia are (both of you) in good health, it is well ; I and
Cicero (both of us) are in good health .'

(B) Agreement of the Adjective with its Substantive.

140 (a) The adjective, whether it be epithet or predicate,

agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and case ; as

Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur, ' a sure friend is distin-

guished in an uncertain matter.'

Sera nunquam est ad bonos mores via, ' the way to good conduct
is never too late.'

Sapientia est rerum divinarum et humanarum scientia, ' wisdom

is the knowledge of things human and divine .'
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE . 259

The apparent exceptions to this rule are the following :

(a) An adjective taken substantively in the neuter singular
may appear as the predicate to a masculine or feminine noun , either
singular or plural ; as
Triste lupus stabulis, maturis frugibus imbres, the wolf is a
baneful thing to the folds, and showers [are a baneful thing] to
ripened corn.'
Mors omnium rerum extremum est, ' death is the last thing of
all events .'
Varium et mutabile semper femina, ' a woman is always a fickle
and changeable creature .'

(B) If a substantive denotes a person of a different gender, the

adjective will generally agree with it in gender, when used as a
mere epithet ; but will take the gender of the person signified ,
when used as a primary predicate ; as
Dicaearchus, meae deliciae, ' Dicæarchus, my favourite author ;'
but, mea Glycerium, ' my dear Glycerium.'
And, Millia triginta servilium capitum dicuntur capti, ' thirty
thousand slaves are said to have been taken.'

(y) A predicative adjective is always in the neuter singular

when the subject is an infinitive verb or a sentence ; as
Errare humanum est, ' fo err is human. '
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, ' it is sweet and noble to
die for one's country.'

(b) An adjective in agreement with the noun very often ex-

presses the secondary predicate, or is used in cases when we should
employ an adverb of time, place, manner, or degree ; as Roma
parentem, Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit, ' Rome,
while still free, called Cicero parent, and father . of his country.'
Prudens, sciens, imprudens, invitus, frequens, and words of order or
position are most commonly used in this way. In some cases it
is quite optional whether we use an adjective or an adverb ; thus
we may say either tardus or tarde ad me venisti, ' you were slow
in coming to me, ' i.e. ' you came to me slowly ;' either laetus or
6
laete vivit, he lives cheerfully ;' either libens or libenter hoc feci,
' I did this gladly.' But sometimes it makes a great difference
whether we use the adjective or the adverb (123 , (10) ) , especially
in the case of primus and solus, which are used in Latin where
we should employ a relative sentence ; as
17-2
260 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.

Pericles primus adhibuit doctrinam, ' Pericles was the first who
brought in learning.'

And this predicative use occurs in a relative sentence ; as

Esculapius, qui primus vulnus obligavisse dicitur, ' Æsculapius,
who is said to have been the first who bound up a wound.'

In the same way we may employ ultimus, summus, imus, me-

dius, solus, and other adjectives denoting position . Sometimes the
secondary predicate bears all the stress of the passage ; as
Verebar, ne molestus vobis intervenirem, I feared lest I should
be troublesome to you by intruding.'

Sometimes it implies that the quality denoted by the adjective

is conveyed to the subject by the verb ; as
Stomachus flagitat immorsus refici, ' the stomach craves to be
restored by being stimulated . '
Paullatimque anima caluerunt mollia saxa, ' by little and little
the stones softened and grew warm with life.'

This use is also found in an oblique case, where we have a:

tertiary predicate ; as
"
Liquido cum plasmate guttur mobile collueris, when you have
rinsed your throat with a liquid gargle, so as to make it flexible .'
Praetor effusum agmen ad Mutinam ducit, ' the prætor leads his
army to Mutina, without keeping it together.'

The predicative adjective is particularly common with parti-

ciples used as substitutes for a temporal sentence ; as
Mortuo Socrati magnus honos habitus est, ' great honour was
paid to Socrates after his death .'
Quamdiu affuit, ne qua sibi statua poneretur restitit, absens pro-
hibere non potuit, as long as he was present he opposed the erec-
tion of a statue to himself, when absent he could not prevent it.'

It will generally be found that the predicative adjective is

more common in poetry than in prose ; thus Horace says : Per meos
fines lenis incedas abeasque parvis aequus alumnis, ' may you gently
pass over my boundaries and depart without hurt to my rising
flock.' Domesticus otior, ' I pass my time idly at home. ' Mane
forum, vespertinus pete tectum, ' repair to the forum in the morning,
and retire to your home in the evening. ' Virgil has : Volat avia
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE. 261

longe, she flies far from the road. ' Lucretius : Avius longe vagaris,
'you wander far from the road.'

(c) An adjective agreeing with two or more substantives of

different genders is in the plural number, and if one or more of
the subjects denotes a person, the adjective takes its gender from
the substantive which stands first in the usual order of priority,
namely, masculine, feminine, neuter ; as
Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt, ‘ my father and my mother are
dead.'

Domus, uxor, liberi inventi sunt invito patre, ' a house, a wife,
and children have been found against his father's will. '
Rex regiaque classis una profecti, ' the king and the royal fleet
started together . '

(d) If, in the case just mentioned, all the substantives denote
things, and not persons, the adjective is in the neuter plural ; as
Labor et voluptas societate quadam naturali inter sejuncta sunt,
' labour and pleasure are (things) connected together by a sort of
natural society.'
Catilinae bella intestina, rapinae, discordia civilis grata fuere,
intestine wars , plunder, civil discord, were (things) agreeable to
Catiline.'

(e) A neuter plural adjective may agree with two or more

nouns of the same gender, and not neuter, and even when persons
are in part denoted, if we can regard the subjects as implying
things rather than agents ; thus we may say,

Stultitiam et temeritatem, injustitiam et intemperantiam dicimus

esse fugienda, ' we say that folly and rashness, injustice and in-
temperance, are things to shun. '
Patres et plebem, invalida et inermia, cunctatione ficta ludificatur,
'by a feigned reluctance he sports with the senate and the com-
monalty, as things of no power.'

(f)An adjective really referring to two or more substantives

may be made to agree with the word to which it stands nearest ;
as

Verres perspicua sua consilia conatusque omnibus fecit, 'Verres

made his plans and efforts plain to all.' -
262 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.

Thrasybulus contemptus est a tyrannis atque ejus solitudo, " Thra-

sybulus was despised by the tyrants, and so was his isolation . '
Invidi virtutem et bonum alienum oderunt, ' the envious hate the
virtue and goodness which do not belong to themselves.'

(g) If a participle stands between two substantives, it agrees

generally with the word to which it stands nearest ; but if the sub-
ject is a person, the natural gender is retained ; thus we have
Non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, ' not every error is to be
called folly.'
Paupertas mihi onus visum est et miserum et grave, ' poverty has
appeared to me as a miserable and heavy burthen ;' but
Semiramis sexum mentita, puer esse credita est, ' Semiramis ,
having belied her sex, was believed to be a boy.'
Tulliae moriendum fuit, quoniam homo nata fuerat, ‘ Tullia had
to die, because she had been born a human being.'

Obs. Although the Latin language has no article, the adjective may
be used as a substantive, or with some substantive tacitly referred to,
especially in the masculine or neuter gender ; as Est miserorum, ut
malevolentes sint, atque bonis invideant, it is the part of the miserable
(i. e. of miserable men) to be malevolent and to envy the good (i. e. rich or
worthy men).' Tria genera sunt bonorum, maxima animi, secunda cor-
poris, externa tertia, ' there are three kinds of blessings (i. e. good
things), the greatest those of the mind, the second those of the body,
and external advantages the third.' Multi nihil prodesse philoso-
phiam, plerique etiam obesse arbitrantur, many (men) think that philo-
sophy is of no use, most (men) think that it is even hurtful.' Omne
tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, ' he has gained every vote, who has
mixed the useful with the pleasant.' Honestum praetulit utili, rejecit
alto dona nocentium vultu, he has preferred the honourable (thing) to
the useful, has rejected the bribes of the guilty (men) with uplifted coun-
tenance .'

(C) Agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent.

141 (a) The relative pronouns, qui, qualis, quantus, take their
gender and number from the word which they define, and which
is called the antecedent, but are placed, like nouns, in the case,
whether direct or oblique, which the sentence requires ; thus we
have

Accepi ab Aristocrito tres epistolas, quas ego lacrimis prope

delevi, I have received from Aristocritus three letters, which
(letters) I have almost blotted out with my tears.'
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE. 263

Nullus dolor est, quem non longinquitas temporis minuat ac mol-

6
liat, there is no sorrow such that length of time does not lessen
and assuage it (the sorrow) .'

Obs. 1 If the antecedent, though expressed figuratively as a thing,

really means a person, the relative agrees in gender with the person
signified ; as Habebam inimicum non Marium, sed duo importuna pro-
digia, quos egestas tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat, ' I had for my
enemy not Marius, but two strange monsters, whom their poverty had
made the bond-slaves of the tribune of the commons.'

Obs. 2 If the relative does not refer to a particular antecedent,

but to the general purport of the main sentence, it is put in the neuter
singular, or its antecedent may be expressed parenthetically by id; as
Rufus sponte decessit, [id] quod meum dolorem exulcerat, ' Rufus has de-
parted voluntarily, a circumstance which aggravates my grief.'

Obs. 3 A relative may be attracted into the case of its antecedent,

if it is easy to supply the necessary construction from the main sen-
tence ; as Quum scribis et agis aliquid eorum quorum consuesti
(aliquid scribere et agere), ' when you write and do some one of
those things (some one) of which you are accustomed (to write and do).'
Consulibus senatus permisit, ut de his rebus legem, quam (dicere) ipsis
videretur, dicerent, the senate permitted the consuls to propose a law
about these things such as it might seem good to them (to propose)."

Obs. 4 Conversely, the antecedent is attracted into the case of the

relative, when the latter stands first ; as Ad Caesarem quam misi epi-
stolam, ejus exemplum fugit me tibi mittere, ' I forgot to send you a
copy of the letter, which I sent to Cæsar. '
In the poets we have this attraction even when the noun stands
first ; as Urbem quam statuo vestra est, i. e. in prose, quam statuo
urbem, vestra est, the city, which I am establishing, is yours.'

Obs. 5 A relative may have for its antecedent a personal pronoun

included in a possessive ; as Omnes laudare fortunas meas, qui natum
haberem tali ingenio praeditum, ' all men cried up my good luck (the
good luck of me), who had a son blest with such a disposition.'

(b) When the relative refers to two or more nouns of different

genders, its concord follows the rule given for adjectives in the
similar case (140, ( c) ) ; and the neuter plural is similarly used
(140 , (d) ) ; as the following examples will show :
Duilius, rediens a coena, delectabatur crebro funali et tibicine,
quae sibi nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat, ' Duilius , on returning
from supper, was regaled frequently with torches and flute-players,
which things no man out of office had taken to himself in any
previous example.'
264 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.

Fortunam nemo ab inconstantia et temeritate sejunget, quae digna

certe non sunt deo, ' no one will separate fortune from fickleness and
rashness, which things certainly are not worthy of a divinity.'

(c) If a relative stands between two substantives, it generally

takes its gender and number from that which is in the relative
sentence, especially if the relative sentence is parenthetical ; as

Animal plenum rationis, quem vocamus hominem, ' an animal

fraught with reason, which we call man.'
6
Thebae quod Boeotiae caput est, Thebes, which is the capital
of Boeotia.'

But we also find the relative in agreement with its grammatical

antecedent ; as

Apud vicum, qui Cannae appellatur, ambo Consules ab Hannibale

vincuntur, ' both the Consuls are conquered by Hannibal, at the
village which is called Cannæ .'

(d) If the relative sentence also contains an apposition to the

main sentence, the gender of the relative is regulated by the appo
sition ; as

Ipse exflumine, quam proximam oppido aquam diximus, jumenta

"
onerat, he himself loads the beasts of burthen from the river,
which we have mentioned as the stream nearest to the town. '

To this class belong the idiomatic phrases, qui tuus est erga
6
me amor, such is your love towards me;' quae tua est humanitas,
' such is your courtesy ; ' for which we might write, pro tuo in me
amore ; pro tua humanitate.

(D) Apposition of a Noun or Participle as secondary Predicate.

142 The relative sentence corresponds to the use of the adjec-

tive as a defining epithet. Accordingly, the apposition of a noun
or participle in the same case corresponds to the use of the adjec-
tive adverbially or as a secondary predicate ; and it is always
possible to pass from one construction to the other by substituting
the predicate of the relative sentence, in the form of a noun or
participle, for the whole sentence with the relative, and putting it
in the same case, and, so far as possible, in the same gender and
number with the antecedent. Conversely, the apposition may be
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE. 265

expressed by restoring the form of the relative sentence or substi-

tuting a conjunction for the relative. As the difference between
the relative sentence and the apposition is just that between the
epithet and the secondary predicate, and as the Latin language has
no definite article to mark this distinction in the case of single
words, the student should observe that the relative sentence , of
which the predicate alone may constitute an apposition, has neces-
sarily a definite antecedent, and that the relative sentence into
which the apposition may be resolved has necessarily an indefinite
antecedent, which constitutes it a subordinate or dependent sen-
tence. The following examples will show the processes of forming
an apposition from the predicate of a relative sentence, and of
resolving an apposition into a subordinate or dependent sentence
apparently relative.

(a) If the predicate of the relative sentence is a noun, it ad-

mits of direct apposition to the antecedent ; thus from the sentence,
Aristides, qui fuit Lysimachi filius, which means , the Aristides,
who was the son of Lysimachus, ' and gives us a definition of a par-
ticular person, we may make the apposition, Aristides, Lysimachi
filius, which means, Aristides, being the son of Lysimachus,' or
tells us, as a piece of information, who was his father ; and this
might be expressed in a subordinate sentence by Aristides, quum
esset Lysimachi filius, if we wished to make any thing follow from
the secondary predication . Similarly, we might say, Cicero, qui
tunc praetor fuit, legem Maniliam suasit, ' Cicero, who, as is well
known, was then prætor, recommended the Manilian law, ' where we
define Cicero by a notorious circumstance ; from this we might make
the apposition, Cicero praetor legem Maniliam suasit, which means ,
' Cicero, being prætor (or when he was prætor) , recommended the
Manilian law,' and tells us, as a piece of information , when it was
that Cicero did this ; or we might resolve the apposition into a sub-
ordinate sentence, and say, Cicero, quum praetor esset, legem Mani-
liam suasit, if we mean that by being prætor at the time he had
some special advantage in regard to what he then did .

(b) If the predicate of the relative sentence is contained in a

finite verb, a direct apposition will be effected by substituting the
participle for the verb in question ; thus from the relative sentence
in Quam miser est virtutis famulatus, quae servit voluptati, ‘ how
266 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.

wretched is the thraldom of that virtue which serves pleasure,' we

might make the apposition, Quam miser est virtutis famulatus servi-
entis voluptati, ' how wretched is the thraldom of virtue, when (or
if) it serves pleasure; ' which might be resolved into a subordinate
sentence, thus, Quam miser est virtutis famulatus, si voluptati ser-
viat, with a more distinct expression of the condition . By chang-
ing the voice we may get a participial apposition from a subordinate
sentence which has a subject of its own; thus for Hannibal Grac-
chum sustulit posteaquam eum in insidias duxit, ' Hannibal cut off
Gracchus, after he had drawn him into ambush , ' we might write
with much the same meaning, Hannibal Gracchum in insidias duc-
tum sustulit (see above, 140, (b) ) .

Obs. It has been remarked that the noun in apposition will agree
with the main noun, so far as possible, in gender and number ; thus we
should say, philosophia, inventrix legum, not inventor, and the like. The
following are necessary exceptions to the general rule :
(1) When the noun in apposition does not admit of a change of
gender; as Vitae philosophia dux.
(2) When the main noun is a collective word, or has no singular ;
as Athenae urbs celeberrima ; Aborigines, genus hominum agreste; opes,
irritamenta malorum.

(3) When a locative, preserved in the name of a town, is followed

by the ablative of the common word used locatively ; as Archias natus
est Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa.
(4) The words urbs, oppidum, flumen, mons, arbor may be followed
by a genitive of the name with which they would otherwise be in appo-
sition; as oppidum Antiochiae, flumen Rheni, arborfici.

(E) Case of the Primary Predicate.

143 As a general rule the case of the subject is repeated in

that of the primary predicate (above, 128, vI. ) , and this case in
most propositions is the nominative. It will be desirable, however,
to consider the primary predication both with the finite verb and
with the infinitive.

I. Case of the Predicate with the Finite Verb.

(a) A nominative of the predicate, as well as of the subject, is

used with finite verbs, denoting existence or coming into being;
such as sum, exsisto, maneo, appareo, videor, fio, nascor, evado.
 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE. 267

The subject indicates who any person or thing is ; the predicate

tells what he is or becomes . For example :

Etas praeterita irrevocabilis est, ' past time is irrevocable.'

Nemo nascitur dives, no one is born rich .'
M. Brutus per se magnus homo evaserat, ' Marcus Brutus had
turned out a great man by himself."

(b) A nominative of the predicate, as well as of the subject,

is used with finite verbs denoting ' to be named, chosen, considered,'
&c. The subject indicates who is named, &c., and the predicate
tells us how he is named , to what he is chosen, in what light he is
considered, &c. For example :

Qui erant cum Aristotele Peripatetici dicti sunt, ' those who
associated with Aristotle were called Peripatetics .'
Themistocles quum in epulis recusasset lyram habitus est indoctior,
"Themistocles having declined the lyre at an entertainment was
considered deficient in education.'
Servius Tullius magno consensu rex est declaratus, ' Servius
Tullius with much unanimity was declared king.'

Obs. 1 The ablative with pro, or the genitive with loco, in numero,
may sometimes be used instead of the predicative nominative with some
of these verbs ; thus we may have videri pro, haberi pro, haberi loco,
haberi in numero ; thus, Cur stulti non sanciunt, ut, quae mala per-
niciosaque sunt, habeantur pro bonis et salutaribus ?

Obs. 2 If we substitute the active for the passive of a verb signi-

fying to be named,' &c., the two nominatives will be represented by
two accusatives. Similarly, if the finite verb is expressed in the infi-
nitive mood and the subject is therefore ( 128, vIII.) placed in the accu-
sative, the predicate will be in the accusative also. And in the same
way we shall have two ablatives in the ablative absolute ; thus, Romani
Ciceronem creaverunt consulem ; nuntiatum est Ciceronem consulem
creatum esse; Cicerone consule creato.

Obs. 3 The subject of the infinitive after the impersonal expres-

sions, ' it seems,' &c. , ought to be in the accusative. But videor is always
construed as a personal verb ; for we do not say, videtur me, fratri tuo
carum esse, ' it seems that I am dear to your brother ;' but, videor fratri
tuo carus esse, videris fratri carus esse, videtur fratri carus esse, vide-
mur fratri cari esse, videmini fratri cari esse, &c. Similarly we may
construe the verbs credor, dicor, putor, &c.; for example, crederis hoc
fecisse; diceris mihi iratus esse; luna solis lumine collustrari videtur.
But we may also say, dicunt, ferunt, tradunt, &c. with the accusative
and the infinitive.
 268 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

II. Case of the Predicate with the Infinitive.

(a) When verbs, which take the double nominative , as esse,

fieri, appellari, creari, haberi, videri, &c. are used in the infinitive ,
the predicate stands in the nominative, if the infinitive depends on
a personal verb, as, for instance, the passive verbs videor, credor,
putor, habeor, dicor, &c.; as

Socrates parens philosophiae jure dici potest, Socrates may

rightly be called the parent of philosophy.'
Cato bonus esse quam videri malebat, ' Cato preferred to be,
rather than to seem, good .'
Xanthippe, Socratis uxor, morosa admodum fuisse fertur et jur-
giosa, ' Xanthippe, the wife of Socrates, is reported to have been
very ill-tempered and quarrelsome. '

(b) With the infinitive of the verbs just mentioned, the pre-
dicate stands in the accusative, if the infinitive depends on an im-
personal verb, or is regarded as an independent expression ; thus
Aliud est, iracundum esse, aliud iratum, ' it is one thing to be
(that a man should be) passionate, another thing to be (that a man
should be) angry.'
Nulla est laus, ibi esse integrum, ubi nemo est, qui aut possit aut
6
conetur corrumpere, there is no merit that a man should be up-
right, when there is no one who would be willing or would attempt
to corrupt him.'

(c) If a dative of the person is expressed after the impersonal

verbs licet, contingit, conceditur, expedit, necesse est, satius fuit, the
predicate is generally in the dative, though it may occasionally ap-
pear in the accusative ; thus,
Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse, vobis necesse est fortibus viris
esse, ' it is allowed to them to be timid and cowardly, it is neces-
sary for you to be brave men.'
Civi Romano non licet esse Gaditanum, ' it is not allowed to a
Roman citizen to be (that he should be) a citizen of Gades.'

§ 2. The Accusative.
144 The transition from the nominative to the accusative is
immediate ; for any sentence may become objective, that is, de-
pendent in the infinitive mood on another verb; and in this case
the nominative, or subject, becomes the accusative or object; thus
 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 269

the sentence, Eneas filius fuit Anchisae, might become the object
of the verb dixit, he said,' and we should then write, dixit, ' he
said,' -what ? Eneam Anchisae filium esse, ' that Æneas was the
son of Anchises '—that is what he said , or the object of his speak-
ing (see above, 128, VIII .) . But although the accusative represents
the subject of the verb in the infinitive mood, it cannot be said that
its use is subjective, for the whole sentence in which it appears is
objective, and is governed by the main verb, so that the accusative,
in this as in other usages , is a secondary predicate according to the
principle explained above ( 125) . The idiomatic usages of the
Latin accusative fall into two main classes , which may be dis-
tinguished by a reference to this relation between the accusative
and the nominative ; for the Latin accusative denotes either (A) the
immediate object of the action, or, as we might say, the patient as
opposed to the agent ; or ( B) the object to which the action refers,
or which defines the immediate object or patient. The distinction
between the accusative of the immediate object and the accusative of
reference depends upon the following simple consideration. In the
former instance, the accusative becomes the nominative when the
governing verb is changed from active to passive ; but in the latter
instance, the accusative is retained even with the passive . Thus
we have an accusative of the immediate object in dux urbem mili-
tibus diripiendam tradidit, because this may be expressed in the
passive by urbs militibus a duce diripienda tradita est ; and so also
when there is the apposition of a secondary predicate ; as invidiam
di fortunae comitem dederunt, which is expressed in the passive by
dîs comes data est. But we have an accusative
invidia fortunae a dis
of reference in rogo te sententiam, because the passive expression
would be rogaris sententiam.

(A) Accusative of the Immediate Object.

145 (a) All transitive verbs, whether their form be active or

deponent, and whether their use be personal or impersonal, require
an accusative of the immediate object ; thus ,

Haec studia adolescentiam agunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas

res ornant, adversis perfugium et solatium praebent, ' these studies
occupy youth, charm old age, embellish prosperity, supply a refuge
and consolation to adversity .'
270 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

Conqueri adversam fortunam, non lamentari decet, ' it is proper

to regret adversity, not to lament it.'
Pudet regem facti, ' it shames the king (the king is ashamed)
of the action.'
Oratorem irasci minime decet, ' it by no means becomes an
orator to be angry.'

Obs. 1 Many intransitive verbs, when compounded with preposi-

tions, become completely transitive, and not only govern the accusative,
but may be used in the passive voice ; thus we have both inire consilia,
or societatem, and consilia ineuntur, societas initur; both circumvenit
hostem, and ab hoste circumventus est. Some of these verbs change
their meaning, when instead of the accusative they repeat their preposi-
tion with the appropriate case ; thus, aggredi ad aliquam rem means,
'to attempt some business,' but aggredi aliquem is to attack some
one ; egredi e castris is to go forth from a camp,' but egredi modum is
'to overstep the limit.'

Obs. 2 Some writers, chiefly poets, use intransitive verbs in a

secondary signification, which is to all intents transitive ; thus we have
ardere aliquem, ' to burn for somebody, ' i. e. ' to be in love with him ; ’
olere antiquitatem, ' to have a smack of antiquity ; sapere crocum, to
savour of crocus ; ' saltare Ledam, ' to dance Leda,' i. e. to ' represent her
in a dance ; ' ambulare mare, ' to traverse the sea ; ' desinere artem, ' to
give up an art; ' perseverare inediam, ' to continue a fast ; ' vigilare
noctem, 'to pass the night awake,' &c.

(b) Intransitive verbs may often be followed by an accusative

of cognate signification, if it is accompanied by an epithet which
bears the stress of the secondary predicate ; thus we may say,
vivere vitam jucundissimam, ' to live a most pleasant life,' where
we might have written vivere jucundissime, ' to live most pleasantly; '
mirum somniare somnium, ' to dream a strange dream ;' risum
ridere sardonium, ' to laugh a sardonic laugh,' i. e. ' to laugh sardoni-
cally ; ' pugnam pugnare nobilissimam, ' to fight a most noble fight,'
i. e. ' to fight most nobly.' It has been mentioned already
(125) that all oblique cases are secondary predicates ; and in this
usage, which is called the figura etymologica, the secondary predi-
cation is virtually contained in the adjective.

(c) A double accusative of the object is used after verbs of

demanding, naming, choosing, regarding, &c. , the passives of which
take the double nominative ( 143, (b) ) ; as

Artaxerxes Iphicratem ab Atheniensibus petivit ducem, ' Arta-

xerxes demanded Iphicrates from the Athenians as (to be) general .'
 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 271

Invidiam fortunae di comitem dederunt, the gods have given

envy as a companion to fortune.'

Obs. This construction, in which the second accusative is really

a tertiary predicate, is especially common in such phrases as habere
aliquem amicum ; praestare se virum; facere aliquem certiorem ; planum
facere aliquid; reddere aliquem caecum, felicem, infelicem; dare alicui
pecuniam mutuam.

(d) A double accusative of the object is used after such verbs

as curo, do, loco, conduco, suscipio, trado, which denote the assign-
ment or undertaking of a work ; and here one of the accusatives
denotes the object and the other is a gerundive denoting the act
assigned or undertaken ; as

Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinquis sepeliendum tradidit,

' Antigonus gave over Eumenes when dead to his friends for
burial.'
Diomedon Epaminondam pecunia corrumpendum suscepit, ' Dio-
medon undertook Epaminondas, to corrupt him with money.'
Conon dirutos a Lysandro muros reficiendos curat, ' Conon
provides for the repair of the walls destroyed by Lysander.'

(B) Accusative of Reference.

146 The accusative of reference is very frequently supported

by one of the prepositions, which will be examined in their
proper place. It is found by itself in the following usages.

(a) Verbs of asking, begging, demanding, teaching, and con-

cealing, take two accusatives, of which one refers to the person, as
the immediate object, and the other is the accusative of reference ;
thus we have

Meo jure te hoc beneficium rogo, ' by a right of my own , I ask

of you this kindness,' i. e . ' I ask you with reference to this
kindness. '
Fortuna belli artem victos quoque docet, fortune teaches the
vanquished also (with reference to) the art of war.'
Te atque alios partum ut celaret suum, in order that she might
escape the notice of you and others with reference to her labour.'

Obs. 1 Another way of explaining this construction is by regard-

ing both accusatives as denoting the object of the verb, one denoting
the person, as the nearer object, the other indicating the thing, as the
272 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

more remote object ; thus, Posce Deos veniam, ask : whom ? the gods :
for what ? pardon .' Dedocebo te istos mores, ' I will unteach : whom ?
you : what ? those customs of yours.' Iter quod habebant, omnes celat, ‘ he
conceals : what ? the journey which he was undertaking : from whom ?
from all men.' But that the accusative of the thing is an accusative of
reference is shown by the consideration already mentioned ( 144), that
it remains in the accusative when the verb becomes passive, whereas the
accusative of the object becomes the subject of the passive verb ; thus we
may say, Scito, me non esse rogatum sententiam, ' know that I was not asked
"
(with reference to) my opinion.' Omnes belli artes edoctus, thoroughly
taught (with reference to) all the arts of war.' It is to be observed,
however, that in some phrases there seems to be an option as to which
of the accusatives is to be regarded as the case of reference ; the accusa-
tive denoting the thing must be retained when it is a pronoun or adjective
with a general signification, as multa, plura, &c.; as multa ostentis, multa
extis admonemur. But we say pecunia a me exigitur rather than exigor
pecuniam.
Obs. 2 A prepositional phrase is very often substituted for the accu-
sative of reference with the verbs now under consideration ; thus we may
have celare, consulere, dicere, interrogare, monere aliquem de aliqua re;
contendere, exigere, flagitare, petere, postulare, precari aliquid ab aliquo;
percontari, quaerere, scitari, sciscitari aliquid ex aliquo. With celo we
may have a dative of the person both when it is used in the active, as
Ut tegat hoc celetque viris (Ovid, Fast. IV. 149, where some read viros),
and also with the passive, as Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit (Corn. Nep.
Alcib. 5).

(b) An accusative of reference is used with all kinds of verbs ,

and with certain participles and adjectives, to denote the part
of the subject or object to which the predication has immediate
relation ; as
Omnia Mercurio similis, vocemque coloremque, ' like Mercury
in all respects, both in voice and complexion .'
So also we have fractus membra, ' broken down in reference
to his limbs, ' odoratus capillos , ' perfumed as to his hair,' aeger
pedes, ' infirm in his feet, ' &c.
Obs. This construction, which is sometimes called the accusativus
Graecus because it is a common Greek idiom, is chiefly confined to the
poets ; for the prose writers more usually employ the ablative, as aeger
pedibus, &c.; and even Virgil has in the same line micat auribus et
tremit artus, he quivers in his ears and trembles as to his limbs.' But
the best prose writers use the accusative in certain phrases ; as magnam
or maximam partem, ' in regard to a great or the greatest part ;' cetera,
(
reliqua, for the rest ;' id temporis, id aetatis, id genus, &c.

(c) In the poets the passive of verbs, signifying to put on

or take off something from the person, such as induor, exuor,
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 273

cingor, accingor, discingor, amicior, inducor, take an accusative of

reference to denote the thing put on or off; as

Protinus induitur faciem vultumque Dianae, ' she immediately

clothes herself with the face and looks of Diana.'

Obs. 1 We have a similar idiom in such phrases as moveri Cyclopa,

'to represent a Cyclops in dancing,' i. e. ' to move oneself with reference
to a Cyclops.'
Obs. 2 The passive participle is often used with the accusative ;
as Dido Sidoniam chlamydem circumdata, ' Dido clothed in a Sidonian
cloak ;' pueri laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto, ' boys having
their bags and tablet hanging from their left arm.'

(d) The accusative of reference may assume an interjectional

form , whether an interjection is used or not ; as
Proh deum fidem! ' O for (having regard to) the plighted faith of
the Gods !'
O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam ! ' O for the
deceitful hopes, and precarious fortune of men !"
Testes egregios ! ' O for such noble witnesses ! '

Obs. The accusative of time, space, measurement, &c. will be dis-

cussed separately.

§3. The Genitive.

147 A study of the Greek language enables us to see that

each of the cases had originally a simple meaning ; thus, the accu-
sative signified the end of motion or action ; the genitive or abla-
tive, which were identical, denoted the origin of motion ; and the
dative implied rest or presence. Consequently, the accusative would
be expressed in English by the preposition ' to ' or ' unto' in the sense
of ' towards,' or by the mere oblique case ; the genitive or ablative,
which are really the same case, by the prepositions ' of ' or ' from ; '
and the dative by ' at,' or by ' to,' in its limiting sense of ' for."
In the Latin language, idiomatic usage has introduced considerable
confusion in the genitive, ablative, and dative ; for while the geni-
tive and ablative have been divided into two distinct cases, with
significations more or less inconsistent, the dative has been sepa-
rated from all connexion with prepositions signifying locality or
rest, and these have been transferred to the ablative, which ought
to convey a strong expression of separation and movement . The
only words which preserve the original use of the cases are the
D. L. G. 18
274 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE.

proper names of places and the words which have been mentioned
above (128, VII. (b) ) , to which may be added the adjectives in com-
pounds like meridie, postrīdie, for medii die, posteri die. And
even here an alteration in the forms has led to a want of discri-
mination, and we find practical rules which assign differences of
construction to differences of declension. Under these circum-
stances we cannot treat the Latin genitive, dative, and ablative
with reference throughout to their primitive and proper meaning,
but must be content to enumerate the idiomatic usages to which
they are applicable.
The genitive in Latin , for which the most general rule is that
it may be used when ' of' is employed in English to signify par-
tition, possession , quantity, or relation , and when ' at ' or ' for '
means price or value stated indefinitely, may be considered in the
following arrangement of idiomatic constructions.

(A) Genitive of Possession.

148 (a) A genitive of possession stands after another noun,

and denotes to whom or what the object belongs, or from whom it
proceeds ; as
Honor est virtutis praemium, ' honour is the reward of virtue.'
"
Assidua eminentis fortunae comes est invidia, envy is the con-
stant companion of eminent fortune.'
Obs. 1 A genitive of possession is used after the quasi -prepositions
instar, causa, gratia, ergo, which must be regarded as substantives ; as
(
Plato est mihi instar omnium, Plato is in my judgment as good as
all the rest taken together.' Sophistae appellabantur, qui ostentationis
aut quaestus causa philosophabantur, ' those were called Sophists who
philosophized for the sake of ostentation or gain.'
Obs. 2 The possessive pronouns meus, tuus, suus, are generally
used instead of the genitive of possession of the corresponding per-
sonal pronouns ; thus we sayliber meus, the book belonging to me ;'
comitia tua, ' the election which concerns you ; ' and these pronouns
are used instead of the genitive with causa in the case just men-
tioned ; as tua causa hoc facio, I do this for your sake,' i. e. ' for the
sake of you.' In the same way we say Ciceronis opera factum est,
' it was done by the exertions of Cicero ;' or mea opera factum est, ' it
was done by my exertions ;' or with a genitive agreeing with the pre-
sumed genitive of the pronoun, mea unius opera factum est, ' it was
done by the exertions of me alone .'
Obs. 3 The possessive genitive may stand without its governing
noun if this precedes in a corresponding member of the sentence, espe-
cially if it is combined with another genitive, as flebat pater de filii
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 275

morte, de patris filius, the father wept for his son's death, the son for
his father's.' And here also the possessive pronoun is considered as
equivalent to the genitive ; thus, meo judicio stare malo, quam omnium
reliquorum, 'I would rather stand by my own judgment, than by that of
all other men.'

Obs. 4 The possessive genitive is expressed alone, when the govern-

ing noun may be taken for granted ; thus the word aedes, ' a temple, ' is
presumed in the genitive denoting a divinity, as ventum erat ad Vestae,
they came to Vesta's, ' scil. temple. So in some parts of England we
say, ' are you coming to mine ? ' i. e. ' to my house.' Occasionally we
have the same omission of the governing noun when it denotes a wife,
son, daughter, or dependent ; as Pisonis Verania, ' Piso's Verania,' i. e.
his wife ; Hasdrubal Gisgonis, ' Gisgo's Hasdrubal,' i. e. his son ; Flaccus
6
Claudii, Claudius' Flaccus, ' i. e. his slave or freedman.
Obs. 5 The possessive genitive may bear different meanings, to be
determined by the context, thus Ciceronis libri, ' the books of Cicero,'
may mean either what he possessed in his library, or what he published
as an author ; injuriae praetoris, ' the wrong doings of the prætor,' i. e.
what he did ; injuriae civium, ' the wrongs of the citizens,' i. e. what
they suffered.

(b) A genitive of possession may stand after sum, facio, or fio,

to denote the being, making, or becoming the property of some-
thing else ; as

Pecus est Meliboei, ' the flock belongs to Melibus.'

Omnia, quae mulieris sunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine, ' all things ,
which are the property of a woman, become the property of her hus-
band, under the name of dowry.'
Tyrus urbs mare vicinum suae ditionis fecit, ' the city Tyre
made the neighbouring sea belong to its dominion.'

(B) Genitive of Quality.

149 (a) The genitive of possession is often used specially to

denote what is suitable or proper, i.e. belonging in a moral sense,
and is then called ' the genitive of quality ; ' as

Est boni judicis ex parvis rebus conjecturam facere, ' it belongs

to a good judge (it is his property or characteristic) to form a con-
jecture from trivial circumstances .'
Negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum mulieres
accumberent, he said it was inconsistent with, did not belong to,
the custom of the Greeks, that women should take their places in a
party of men.'
18-2
276 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE .

Nihil est tam angusti animi tamque parvi, quam amare divitias,
' nothing belongs so much to a narrow and trivial mind as the love
of riches.'

Obs. 1 We may sometimes make this genitive dependent imme-

diately on such words as munus, officium, proprium, as sapientis est
proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere, it is the characteristic of
a wise man to do nothing that he can regret.' And we never say, mei
est, it is proper to me,' &c. , but meum est, tuum est, &c.

Obs. 2 In the case of adjectives of the third declension the genitive

of quality is used after the substantive verb, instead of the nominative
neuter ; thus we say, stultum est hoc facere, ' it is foolish (or the part of
a fool) to do this ;' but we say, insipientis est, impudentis est, not in-
sipiens est, impudens est.

(b) The quality of a particular person or thing is described by

a genitive either immediately following the main noun, or predi-
cated through the copulative verb ; but this genitive must always
be accompanied by an epithet ; thus,
Claudius erat somni brevissimi, 'Claudius was a man of very
little sleep, ' i.e. a man who slept very little.
Plurimarum palmarum vetus gladiator, ' an old gladiator, a man
of very many victories , ' i.e. who had obtained very many prizes.
Non multi cibi accipies hospitem , sed multi joci, ' you will receive
as your guest a man not of large appetite, but of many jokes.'
And this genitive may be placed on a parallel footing with a
primary predicate ; as
Natura humana imbecilla atque aevi brevis est, ' human nature
is feeble, and of a short existence.'

Obs. 1 For this use of the genitive of quality, it is not uncommon

to substitute the ablative, especially when we can express it by ' he had,
he possessed,' a certain quality ; thus, Cato singulari fuit prudentia et in-
dustria, 'Cato was a man of (he possessed) extraordinary prudence and
industry.' In some phrases we must use the ablative, because the geni-
tive would refer us to the other signification of this construction ; thus
we must say, esse bono animo, esse genere atque animo regio, ' to have
a good courage, ' ' to possess the rank and feelings of a prince ;' because
est boni animi means ' it belongs to, is the characteristic of a good
courage,' &c.; i. e. the former indicates the existing state, and the latter
the whole character.

Obs. 2 This genitive or ablative of quality is generally subjoined to an

appellative noun, as vir magni ingenii, a man of great ability,' and this
is our English idiom ; but the general noun is occasionally omitted, and
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 277

we have such phrases as T. Manlius, priscae ac nimis durae severitatis,

ita locutus fertur, ' Titus Manlius, (a man) of old-fashioned and exces-
sively harsh severity, is said to have spoken thus.'

Obs. 3 In speaking of qualities of the soul we may substitute est in

aliquo for the genitive or ablative of quality, as est in te summa sapientia,
for summa es sapientia.

(C) Genitive of the Object (1 ) with Substantives,

150 By a further application of the genitive of possession , it

denotes the object affected, rather than the thing as belonging to
the subject and proceeding from it ; and this use of the genitive,
which is very extensive, is found both with substantives or adjec-
tives and with verbs.
The nouns which are followed by the genitive of the object are
mostly those which denote an activity, especially an activity of the
mind ; thus we have

Insitus est nobis amor patriae, ' there is implanted in us a love

of our country,' i.e. of which our country is the object.
Jucunda est memoria praeteritorum malorum, ' the memory of
past misfortunes (i.e. of which they are the object) is pleasant. '
Iphicrates ipso adspectu cuivis injiciebat admirationem sui,
' Iphicrates, by his mere appearance, inspired every one with an
admiration of himself (i.e. of which he was the object) .'

Obs. 1 In translating this genitive into English we are often obliged

to use some other preposition than ' of ;' thus aditus laudis is ' the ap-
proach to honour ;' consolatio rerum adversarum is ' consolation in misfor-
tune ;' desiderium urbis, ' a longing for the city ; ' maeror funeris,
" sorrow on account of death ; ' remedium irae, ' a remedy against
anger.'

Obs. 2 In some cases the same expression may signify either the
possession or the object ; thus metus hostium, the fear of the enemy,'
may signify either the fear which the enemies feel,' which is the sub-
jective or possessive genitive ; or, 'the fear which the enemies cause,'
which is the objective genitive ; and the context alone can determine
which is intended.

Obs. 3 The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri after a substantive
do not admit of this ambiguity, but must denote either the genitive of
the object or the genitive of partition ; thus amor meus is my love,'
' that which I feel ;' but amor mei is the love of me,' i. e. ' of which I
am the object ;' pars mea is ' my part,' that which belongs to me,' but
pars mei is a part of me,' i. e. taken from me.' There are, however,
278 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE.

a few instances in which the possessives are used instead of the objective
genitive of the personal pronoun, as neque negligentia tua neque id
odio fecit tuo, ' he did it neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.'

Obs. 4 The possessive and objective genitive may occur together

with the same noun, as Crassi defensio Vatinii, Crassus' defence of
6
Vatinius,' i . e. the defence proceeding from Crassus, and of which Va-
tinius was the object. ' And here the distinction between the personal
pronoun and the possessive is immediately applicable ; as grata mihi
vehementer memoria nostri tua, ' your memory of me is extremely agree-
able. ' In some cases a genitive may depend on another genitive, as
"
causa intermissionis litterarum, the cause of the interruption of the
correspondence;' but in these cases we must guard against any ambi-
guity.

(D) Genitive of the Object (2) with Adjectives.

151 All relative adjectives, i. e . those which require a substan-

tive to define their meaning, are followed by a genitive of the
object. These are

(a) Adjectives denoting desire or fear, ignorance or knowledge ,

remembrance or forgetfulness ; thus,
Est natura hominum novitatis avida , ' the nature of man is
eagerly desirous of novelty.'
Memor esto brevis aevi, ' be mindful of a short life.'
Ignarus rerum omnium, ' ignorant of all things .'

(b) Verbal adjectives in -ax and participles ; but this con-

struction is more common in poetry than in prose ; thus we have

Tenax propositi vir, ' a man firm in his purpose.'

Amans reipublicae civis, a citizen attached to the common-
wealth.'
6
Patiens laboris atque frigoris, capable of enduring labour and
cold.'

(c) Adjectives which denote power over a thing, and partici-

pation in it, or the reverse ; thus,
Compos mentis, ' having the full control of his mind.'
Expers rationis, ' devoid of reason.'
Impotens irae, unable to keep down his anger.'
Particeps consiliorum, ' a share in his counsels .'

(d) Adjectives denoting plenty or deficiency in anything ;

especially plenus , inops, pauper, egenus, indigus, sterilis ; as
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 279

Italia plena est Graecarum artium, Italy is full of Greek

arts.'

(e) Adjectives denoting profusion or the contrary ; as

Prodigus aeris, ' lavish of money.'
Parcissimus somni, ' most sparing of sleep . '

Obs. 1 Some adjectives are so regularly used with the genitive of

the object, as to form a sort of compound ; thus we have juris (also
jure) consultus, for a man learned in the law;' so also juris prudens,
&c. The poets with reference to this have such phrases as insanientis
sapientiae consultus, rerum prudens, &c.

Obs. 2 Instead of the genitive we may have a prepositional phrase,

as prudens injure civili, rudis ad pedestre certamen.

Obs. 3 Adjectives of class (d), except those especially mentioned,

take the ablative as well as the genitive.

(E) Genitive of the Object (3) with Verbs.

152 (a) The genitive of the object is used generally with verbs
of remembering, reminding, and forgetting, as memini, admoneo,
reminiscor, recordor, and obliviscor ; but they sometimes take an
accusative, especially when they denote to have a thing in the
memory, to have knowledge of a thing, or the reverse, rather than
to call it to mind or think of it ; thus we find

Stultum est eorum meminisse, propter quae tui oblivisceris, ' it is

foolish to remember those things, on account of which you are
forgetful of yourself. '
But, Antipatrum tu probe meministi, ' you retain Antipater
in your recollection, you still remember him.'
Homines non modo res praeclarissimas obliviscuntur, sed etiam
nefarias suspicantur, ' men not only forget (are continually for-
getful of the most illustrious actions, but they even suspect
wickednesses . '
Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae,
' Catiline reminded one of his wants, another of his passions.'

Obs. 1 Recordor, ' I think of,' almost always governs the accusative ;
and we have also the ablative with de ; as de illis lacrimis recordor,
quas pro me saepe et multum profudistis, ' I think of those tears, which
you have often and abundantly shed for me.' Similarly we have de illo
ne meminisse quidem volo, ' I do not even wish to have a recollection
concerning him.' The poets use obliviscor with an accusative of the
280 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE.

person ; as quisquis es, amissos hinc jam obliviscere Graios, ' whoever
you are, from this time forth forget the Greeks whom you have lost.'

Obs. 2 Besides moneo, admoneo, commonefio, the impersonal phrase

venit mihi in mentem takes a genitive of the object ; as non minus
saepe Quintio venit in mentem potestatis, quam aequitatis tuae, ' Quin-
tius thinks as often of your justice, as of your power.' But the abla-
tive with de is often used after moneo, rogo, hortor, &c.; and we may
also have the accusative of an adjective or pronoun, as illud te moneo,
' I warn you in reference to that' (see above, 146, (b) ).

(b) The genitive of the object to denote the thing, as well

as an accusative to denote the person, is used with the impersonal
verbs pudet, piget, taedet, paenitet, miseret ; denoting shame,
weariness, pity, and sorrow ; thus,

Pudet me hujus facti, ' it shames me (I am ashamed) of this

action,' i . e. ' a shame of this action causes me shame.'
Me non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet, ‘ I am not
only weary of my folly, but even ashamed of it.'
Dum me civitatis morum piget taedetque, ' while I am vexed and
wearied with the principles of the commonwealth. '
Nostri nosmet paenitet, ' we are not satisfied with ourselves .'
Miseret me tui, ' I feel pity for you. '

Obs. 1 The personal verbs misereor and miseresco also take a geni-
tive of the object ; but miseror and commiseror are construed with the
accusative. Thus, Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere, ' those
who ought to pity me, do not cease from envying me.' Agesilaus tan-
tum abfuit ab insolentia gloriae, ut commiseratus sit fortunam Graeciae,
'Agesilaus was so far removed from the arrogance of fame, that he pitied
the fortune of Greece.'

Obs. 2 The verbs angor, excrucior, pendeo take the genitive animi
more frequently than the ablative animo ; e. g. video te animi angi, ' I
see that you are vexed in your mind.' We have also the singular ex-
pression rerum suarum satagere, ' to have enough of one's own affairs.'

(c) To this class belong the impersonal phrases rē -fert = rei

fert, ' it contributes to the interest,' and interest, ' it is concerned
about the business , ' where rei is understood in the sense, in which
the Latin verb is used as a substantive in English . With these
phrases we have either a G. of the person or persons interested ,
or the possessive pronouns mea, tuā, suā, nostrā, vestrā, agreeing
with the dative rei, expressed in re-fert and understood in interest,
and therefore put for meae, tuae, suae, nostrae, vestrae, just as post-
hac is written for posthaec. Thus we have, in the same sentence,
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE . 281

Caesar dicere solebat non tam suā quam rei-publicae interesse, ut

salvus esset, Cæsar used to say that it was not so much for his
interest as for that of the state, that he should be safe .'
Quid tua id refert ? ' what concern is that of yours ? ' i. e. ' what
does it make for your business or interest ?'

The degree of the interest implied in these phrases is sometimes

expressed by the adverbs magnopere, magis, maxime, minime, some-
times by the accusatives nihit, multum, plus, tantum, sometimes
by the genitives parvi, magni, tanti, quanti (below, 156) ; as
Plurimum refert compositionis quae quibus anteponas, ' it is of
very great importance for the right arrangement of words, which
you put first and which second.'
Illud mea magni interest, te ut videam, ' it is of vast importance
to me that I should see you.'

The thing wherein the interest consists, is expressed by the

accusative with the infinitive, by the subjunctive with ut (as in the
last example) or ne, by an indirect question, or by the mere
infinitive ; as

Vestra interest, commilitones, ne imperatorem pessimi faciant,

'it is for your interest, fellow-soldiers, that the worst of men
should not appoint the emperor.'
Theodori nihil interest, humine an sublime putrescat, ‘ it is
of no consequence to Theodorus, whether he moulders away on
the ground, or on high.'
Interest omnium recte facere, ' it is the interest of all to act
rightly.'
The thing which constitutes the interest, may also be ex-
pressed generally by a neuter pronoun, even the relative ; as
Tua quod nihil refert, percontari desinas, ' desist from inquir-
ing about that which does not concern you.'

The relation in which a thing is of importance is expressed

by the accusative with ad; as
Magni ad honorem nostrum refert, me quam primum ad urbem
venire, ' it is of great importance in reference to my honour that
I should come to the city as soon as possible.'

(d) Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take a

genitive of the object, as well as an accusative of the person ; as
282 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE.

Qui alterum incusat probri se ipsum intueatur oportet, ' he who

accuses another of wickedness ought to look at himself.'

Themistocles absens proditionis damnatus est, ' Themistocles was

condemned of treason in his absence.'

Miltiades, capitis absolutus, pecunia multatus est, ' Miltiades,

having been acquitted of the capital charge, was fined in a sum
of money .'

Obs. 1 This genitive is sometimes explained by a reference to the

ablative crimine, which may also be expressed ; as damnatus est crimine
repetundarum, ceteris criminibus absolutus, ' he was condemned on the
charge of extortion (lit. of money to be refunded), but acquitted on the
other counts in the indictment.' The ablative with de may stand instead
of the genitive of the specific charge, as accusabat amicum de ambitu,
' he accused his friend of bribery ;' and we may say indifferently damna-
tus repetundarum or de repetundis.

Obs . 2 The punishment is also expressed in the ablative or geni-

tive, as damnari decem millibus aeris, damnari octupli, damnare aliquem
capitis or capite.

Obs. 3 Verbs implying rather than expressing accusation, &c. are

construed sometimes with the genitive of the object, as interrogare ali-
quem ambitus ; judicatus pecuniae; nullius probri compertus ; tenetur
furti.

Obs. 4 The genitive of the object is sometimes used by the poets

instead of the ablative of separation after verbs of abstaining, as de-
sine mollium querelarum, desist from tender complaints ; ' abstineto
irarum, ' abstain from outbreaks of passion ;' tempus desistere pugnae,
' it is time to desist from the fight.' This is simply a Græcism.

(F) Genitive of Partition.

153 When a certain part of a given whole is to be taken, the

whole is expressed in the genitive. Accordingly, the genitive of
partition stands,

(1) after numerals, and especially ordinals ;

(2) after substantives, adjectives, and pronouns which denote

the part of a whole, as nemo, multi, pauci, quotusquisque, uter,
uterque, alteruter, alius, ullus, nullus, solus, quisquam;

(3) after superlatives, and generally after all nouns which

represent the part of a divided whole.
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 283

Thus we have

Tarquinius Superbus septimus atque ultimus regum Romanorum

fuit, Tarquin the tyrannical was the seventh and last of the
Roman kings.'
Elephanto nulla belluarum prudentior est, ' no one of beasts is
more sagacious than the elephant.'
Animalium alia rationis expertia sunt, alia ratione utentia,
' of animals some are devoid of reason, others enjoy reason,'
Graecorum oratorum praestantissimi sunt ii qui Athenis vix-
erunt, of Greek orators the most excellent are those, who lived at
Athens.'

Obs. 1 Instead of the genitive of partition we may have the abla-

tive with de, ex, or the accusative with inter, when a particular object
is to be selected from a number ; as Themistocles de servis suis quem
habuit fidelissimum ad Regem misit; acerrimus ex omnibus nostris sen-
sibus est sensus videndi; inter maxima vitia, nullum est frequentius
quam ingrati animi.
Obs. 2 The Latin idiom sometimes requires a genitive of partition,
when the English idiom does not admit it ; as nihil mali, where we say
'nothing wrong.' On the contrary, we use a genitive of partition where
the Latin idiom requires an apposition of the same case, as in the
phrases quot estis, ' how many of you are there ?' trecenti conjuravimus,
three hundred of us have conspired ;' perpauci supersumus, ' very few
of us survive ; quum tam pauci sitis, since there are so few of you.'
This is especially the case in such phrases as qui multi, qui pauci, qui
nulli; e.g. amici tui, quos multos habes, ' your friends, of whom you
have many ; similarly with demonstratives, as Caninius quaerit, num
feriae quaedam piscatorum essent, quod eos nullos videret, ' Caninius
asked, whether the fishermen were keeping a kind of holiday, that he 4
saw none of them.'

Obs. 3 A neuter adjective may be used in the genitive of partition

after aliquid, nihil, &c. if the adjective is of the second declension ; but
if it is of the third declension, where the neuter is not distinctly ex-
pressed in the genitive, it is made to agree with the partitive word ; thus
we have both aliquid bonum and aliquid boni, something good,' both
nihil novum and nihil novi, ' nothing new ;' but only aliquid triste, nihil
gravius, and the like. If, however, adjectives of both forms concur,
they may both stand in the genitive of partition ; as si quidquam in
vobis, non dico civilis, sed humani esset, if there were in you anything
at all not only of the citizen, but of the man.'

(G) Genitive of Quantity.

154 (a) The genitive of quantity may be regarded as an

application of the genitive of partition ; and it stands after words
 284 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE .

denoting a mass or a part, such as acervus, copia, grex, multitudo,

pars, pondus, vis ; thus we have
Acervus tritici, ' a heap of corn.'
Amphora vini, a jar of wine.'
Cohors militum mercenariorum, ' a battalion of mercenary sol-
diers.'
Copia omnium rerum, ' an abundance of all things.'
Magnum pondus argenti, a great weight of silver.'
Magna pars hominum, ' a great part of men.'

(b) The genitive of quantity stands after neuter adjectives

and pronouns used substantively to denote a certain number; as
Tantum cibi et potionis, ' so much of meat and drink .'
Plus aerumnae quam delectationis , 6 more of trouble than amuse-
ment.'
Quod operae curaeque in litteris ponis , ' the amount of labour
and care which you bestow upon literature .'

Obs. The genitive of partition in aliquid boni, nihil novi, &c. is

scarcely distinguishable from these genitives of quantity.

(c) The genitive of quantity is used after the adverbs sat,

satis, abunde, parum, partim, affatim ; as

Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, ' enough of eloquence, but

too little wisdom .'
Abunde potentiae gloriaeque, an ample amount of power and
glory.'

Obs. To this idiom belong the phrases quoad ejus fieri potest, ' to
such an amount of it as is possible ;' eo audaciae progressus est, ' he
advanced to such a pitch of boldness ;' eo miseriarum ventum est, ' we came
to such a pitch of distress. ' So also the genitive after adverbs of place
and time ; as ubi terrarum ? 6 where in the earth ?' nusquam gentium,
' nowhere in the world ;' minime gentium, ' in nowise ;' interea loci or
locorum, meanwhile,' &c.

(H) Genitive of Number.

155 Another application of the genitive of partition is used

with numbers to express size, duration, or age, and this is called the
genitive of number from the numerals in which it is specially ex-
 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE . 285

pressed ; it is either dependent directly on the main noun, or con-

nected with it through esse ; thus,

Caesar contra hostem pedum quindecim fossam fieri jubet, ' Cæsar
orders a ditch of fifteen feet (wide) to be made opposite to the
enemy."
Dies tempus est viginti quattuor horarum, ' a day is a period of
twenty-four hours.'
Xerxis classis fuit mille et ducentarum navium longarum, ' the
fleet of Xerxes consisted of 1200 ships of war.'
Hamilcar in Hispaniam secum ducit filium Hannibalem annorum
novorum, ' Hamilcar takes with him to Spain his son Hannibal (a
boy) of nine years .'

(I) Genitive of Price or Value.

156 With verbs of estimating, buying and selling, such as

aestimo, duco, facio, sto, consto, emo , vendo, veneo, we have a geni-
tive of price, to denote indefinite estimation , expressed by the
general words magni, pluris, plurimi, parvi, minoris, minimi, tanti,
tantidem, quanti, quantivis, quanticunque, with or without pretii; as

Magni ejus opera aestimata est in proelio, ' his services in the
battle were rated at a high value. '
Ille finis amicitiae est deterrimus, ut quanti -quisque se ipse faciat,
tanti fiat ab amicis, ' that end of friendship is worst, that every man
should be estimated by his friends at the value which he sets upon
himself.'
Vendo meum frumentum non pluris quam ceteri; fortasse etiam
minoris, quum major est copia, ' I sell my corn for no higher price
than the rest of the farmers, perhaps at even less, when there is
greater abundance.'

Obs. 1 The genitives multi and majoris are not used in this idiom,
but magni and pluris. In the colloquial style, the genitive of price
appears also in the words flocci, ' at a lock of wool ;' nauci, ' at a nut-
shell ;' pili, at a hair ;' teruncii, ' at three ounces ; ' assis, ' at an as.'

Obs. 2 The genitive of price is also found in the phrases aequi

bonique facere, boni consulere aliquid, to put up with something ;'
pensi aliquid habere, ' to take thought about something.'
Obs. 3 The phrase tanti est does not merely mean ' it is worth so
much, it is of such importance,' but also ' it is worth the trouble,' or
286 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE.

' the evil must be borne ;' as est mihi tanti hujus invidiae tempestatem
(
subire, dummodo a vobis belli periculum depellatur, I am ready to bear
the whole weight of this unpopularity, provided the danger of war may
be averted from you.'

Obs. 4 The ablatives magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo are

used instead of the genitive of price ; as quanti oryza empta est ? parvo,
' for, or at, how much was the rice bought ? for a small sum.' We also
say rem pro nihilo habere, ducere, putare.

(K) Genitive of Relation.

157 The genitive of relation, which is so common in Greek, is

used in Latin chiefly by the poets, and the later prose writers, like
Tacitus, who aimed at poetical diction ; thus we have
Vetus militiae, scientiae caerimoniarumque, regnandi, laborum,
' experienced in warfare, in religious knowledge and ceremonies , in
reigning, in labours .'

Modicus voluptatis, ' moderate in regard to his pleasure. '

Integer vitae, upright in regard to his life.'
Maturus aevi, of ripe age in regard to his life.'

Ambiguus futuri, ' doubtful with regard to the future.'

6
Lassus maris atque viae, weary with regard to voyages and
journeys.'

Obs. The ablative with de or in may be substituted for this geni-

tive.

§ 4. The Dative.

158 The dative in Latin may generally be used when we pre-

fix ' to' or ' for ' to a noun to imply limitation or destination. There
are two principal applications of this case ; it is either (A) the
dative of the person or thing interested or concerned, that is, of the
object to or for which the action takes place, and to which its effect
is limited ; or it is (B) the dative of the thing, which is the desti-
nation or purpose of the action . These two may be called the
proper uses of the dative, and may occur in the same sentence ; but
the dative is also used (C) improperly, or in a sense inconsistent
with its general application , to supply the place of some phrase
with a preposition .
 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 287

(A) Dative of Limitation.

159 (a) The dative of limitation is used with adjectives which

denote that which is advantageous or disadvantageous , agreeable or
disagreeable, suitable or unsuitable, known or unknown , friendly
or unfriendly, near or distant, with a necessary reference to some-
thing else ; thus,

Virtus fructuosa est aliis , ipsi laboriosa, ' virtue is profitable to

others, laborious to itself.'
Siculi Verri inimici infestique sunt, the Sicilians are ill-dis-
posed to Verres, and in open opposition to him.'
Dis carus ipsis, ' dear to the gods themselves.'
Nihil est naturae hominis accommodatius beneficentia et liberalitate,
' nothing is better suited to the nature of man than beneficence and
liberality.'
Mors est terribilis iis quorum cum vita omnia exstinguuntur,
' death is terrible to those, with whose life all things are extin-
guished.'

Obs. 1 With some of these adjectives a phrase with a preposition

is substituted for the dative to express a definite object ; thus aptus,
habilis, idoneus, paratus, commodus, promptus ad aliquam rem, is the
proper phrase to express an aptitude for a certain employment ; and
6
to express towards a person ' we say crudelis, durus, injuriosus, iniquus
in aliquem, or gratus, ingratus, pius, impius erga aliquem.

Obs. 2 With aequalis, affinis, communis, par, dispar, similis, dissi-

milis, superstes we may use the genitive as well as the dative ; with
similis (consimilis, adsimilis) and dissimilis we have more frequently the
genitive of the names of gods and men, as similis patris, though we
may have Deo similis ; we have always the genitive in such phrases as
similis mei, tui, &c.; and verisimile is more common than vero simile;
communis may take a genitive with another genitive of the object and
a prepositional phrase ; as hoc commune est potentiae cupidorum cum
otiosis, this is common to those desirous of power with the indolent. '

Obs. 3 Proprius has much more frequently a genitive than a

dative, which is never found with it in Cicero ; its opposite alienus has
not only the genitive and dative, but also the ablative with or without
ab; thus we may say alienum huic causae, alienum dignitatis, alienum
amicitia nostra, alienum ab hoc instituto.

Obs. 4 Some of the adjectives, referred to in the rule, are used as

6
substantives, e. g. we have amicus, a friend ;' aemulus, ‘ a rival ;' aequa-
lis, a contemporary ;' necessarius, propinquus, a relative ;' supplex,
' a suppliant;' vicinus, a neighbour ;' and these have of course a
 288 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE.

genitive of the object (above, 151). Accordingly, while we say amicus

veritatis, a friend of the truth,' we say amicus alicui, ' friendly to
some one ;' and while we say Curius, qui Ciceronis amicus est, Curius,
who is Cicero's friend,' we say Curius, qui Ciceroni amicissimus est,
'Curius, who is most friendly to Cicero.'
Obs. 5 Adverbs of this class, as convenienter, congruenter, constan-
ter, obsequenter, are construed with the dative ; as naturae convenienter
vivere, ' to live in a manner suited to nature.'

Obs. 6 The poets use the dative instead of atque in expressions of

identity; as invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti, ' he who saves an-
1 other against his will, does the same as the person who kills him.' This
seems to be a Greek idiom.

(b) A dative of limitation is used with predicative substantives

to denote to whom or what the predicate specially refers ; as

Ego huic causae patronus exstiti, ' I came forward as the patron
for this cause (i. e. on behalf of it, for its especial advantage) . '
Avaritia multis causa maximorum malorum fuit, ' avarice has
been to many the cause of the greatest evils (has caused them in
the case of many persons) .'

(c) A dative of limitation may be used with any verbs which

admit or imply the question, ' to or for what is the thing done?'
(This is called the dativus commodi or incommodi) ; as
Venus nupsit Vulcano, ' Venus put on the veil (i.e. became a
bride, was married ) for Vulcan.'
Non scholae discimus sed vitae, we do not learn for the school,
but for life.'
Liber is existimandus est, qui nulli turpitudini servit, ' he is to be
considered free, who is the slave of no baseness .'
Imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique, a store of money is
to every one a master or a slave .'
Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, propinquis,
amicis, maximeque reipublicae, ' we wish to be rich not for (the ad-
vantage of) ourselves alone, but for our children, our relatives, our
friends, and, most of all, for the state."

Obs. The datives mihi, nobis, tibi, vobis, are used with a sense of
special limitation to a particular person, to express the aspect under
which the act presents itself to his mind ; as quid mihi Celsus agit ?
' what do I find Celsus doing ? ' haec vobis illorum per biduum militia
6
fuit, this you see was their military service for two days.' Such a
dative is called Dativus Ethicus.
 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 289

(d) A dative of limitation is regularly and properly used after

verbs of giving or assigning (do, dedo, dico, addico, tribuo, com-
modo, &c.) to denote the recipient. The name of the case (dativus)
is derived from this usage, which however is only one form of the
dative of limitation ; thus,

Quid vis tibi dari in manum? ' what do you wish to be given to
you into your hand?'
Ubi te socordiae atque ignaviae dedideris, nequidquam deos im-
plores, when you have given up yourself to indolence and sloth,
you would in vain call upon the gods .'

(e) A dative of limitation is regularly used with the verb sum

to denote the recipient as possessor, so that est mihi is quite equi-
valent to habeo ; thus,

Dives est, cui tanta possessio est, ut nihil optet amplius, ' he is
rich to whom there is (who has) so large a possession, that he de-
sires nothing farther.'
Est mihi namque domi pater, est injusta noverca, ' I have in fact
a father at home, I have a severe step-mother.'

Obs. 1 In speaking of the properties of the soul, we do not say

"
est mihi, I have, but est in me, e. g. erat in Bruto - summa eloquentia,
not erat Bruto.

Obs. 2 In the expressions est mihi nomen, nomen mihi datur, indi-
tur, imponitur, the name is generally expressed in the dative, more
rarely in the genitive ; e. g. Scipio, cui Africano nomen ex virtute fuit.
Leges quibus duodecim tabulis nomen est. In campis, quibus nomen
Raudiis erat, decertavere. But, Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum
est. In foreign names, when it is of importance to give the right form,
the nominative is used.
(
Obs. 3 The phrase aliquid mihi volenti est, something is to me
wishing it,' 'I like something ' (Sall. Jug. 84 ; Liv. XXI. 50 ; Tacit. Ann.
1. 59 ; Hist. III. 43), is merely a Græcism (Greek Grammar, p. 495 (gg)).

(f) A dative of limitation is used after a number of verbs com-

pounded with prepositions (ad- , ante- , con- , in-, inter-, ob-, post-,
prae-, re-, sub-, super-) , if the verb has a secondary meaning in
which the primary force of the preposition is lost, so that ' to ' or
' for ' can be introduced into the English translation ; as,
Iniquissimam pacem justissimo bello antefero, ' I prefer the most
unjust peace to the most righteous war.'
Vix resisto dolori, ' I can scarcely offer resistance to my sorrow.'
D. L. G. 19
290 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE.

Omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum, sed etiam praefuit, ' he was
not only present at all the business, but was even its principal
manager ' (cf. est mihi = habeo) .
Subjiciunt se homines imperio alterius et potestati de causis plu-
ribus, men submit themselves to the commands and control of
another from various causes.'
Exercitum exercitibus , duces ducibus comparare, ' to compare
armies to armies , generals to generals. '

Obs. 1 Compounds of sum, as adesse, ' to stand by, assist,' deesse,

'to be wanting,' prodesse, ' to be profitable,' obesse, ' to be hurtful,' &c., are
among the regular applications of this rule.

Obs. 2 If the force of the preposition is clearly felt, it is sub-

joined with its case to the compound verb instead of the dative, as in
adhaeret navis ad scopulum; inhaeret sententia in animo ; severitas inest
in vultu; concurrere, congredi cum hoste ; or a different preposition is
introduced, as in obversari ante oculos, obrepere in mentem.
Obs. 3 In some cases it is optional whether we use the dative or
the prepositional phrase ; as in abdicare aliquid alicui or ab aliquo;
in others the prepositional construction is much the more common ; thus
we say more frequently, adhibere diligentiam ad aliquam rem, than alicui
rei; conjungere se cum aliquo, than alicui; conferre and comparare
aliquem cum aliquo, rather than alicui. And we say, communicare
aliquid cum aliquo, not alicui; in oratore inest omnis sententia, not
oratori; vide quid intersit inter hominem et belluam, not homini et
belluae. Similarly we say eripere alicui aliquid, ' to take away some-
thing from somebody,' but eripere aliquem ex miseriis, ' to snatch a per-
son from wretchedness ;' detrahere alicui pallium, ' to take away a man's
cloak,' but detrahere de laudibus alicujus, de senatu, de teste, ' to detract
from a man's praises, from the senate, from a witness, ' because in the
latter instances the force of the preposition is distinctly felt.

(g) A dative of limitation is used after many verbs, which

denote an action or affection of the mind limited to a particular
person or thing, though, in many cases, the corresponding English
verbs imply an accusative of the immediate object. Thus we have
the dative with verbs of speaking well or ill (benedico, maledico,
convitior, blandior), of threatening (minor, minitor) , forgiving
(ignosco) , being enraged (irascor, succenseo) , envying (invideo) ,
healing (medeor), sparing (parco) , hurting (noceo) , patronizing
(patrocinor), persuading (persuadeo), eagerly pursuing (studeo,
vaco), trusting and distrusting (fido, confido, credo, diffido) , indulg-
ing (indulgeo) , obeying (obsequor, obtempero, obedio, pareo) , &c.;
thus we have :
 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 291

Cui benedixit unquam bono? ' what good man did he ever speak
well of?'
Utrique mortem est minitatus, ' he threatened death to both.'
Inscitiae meae et stultitiae ignoscas, may you pardon my igno-
rance and folly.'
Irasci amicis non temere soleo , ' I am not wont to be angry with
my friends inconsiderately.'
Invident homines maxime paribus aut inferioribus, men envy
most frequently their equals or inferiors.'
Afflictae et perditae reipublicae medeor, ' I apply remedies to the
dejected and ruined state.'
Parcere subjectis et debellare superbos, ' to spare those who yield,
and to fight it out with the proud.'
Non licet sui commodi causa nocere alteri, ' it is not allowed
to do harm to another for the sake of one's own advantage.'
Videor prudentiae tuae diffidere, ' I seem to distrust your pru-
dence.'
Obsequor voluntati tuae, ' I comply with your wishes.'
Sero sentiunt frustra se aut pecuniae studuisse aut imperiis aut
gloriae, ' they perceive too late that they have vainly devoted them-
selves to money, or power, or glory.'

Obs. 1 Although we may say invidere bonis, invidere laudibus, it is

also good Latin to say invidere alicui aliquid or aliqua re. Persuadeo,
' I induce,' takes the dative of the person, and expresses the advice
which is successfully recommended by ut or ne with the subjunctive, or
by the accusative of an adjective or pronoun, or by the accusative with
the infinitive ; as Themistocles persuasit populo ut classis centum navium
aedificaretur. Hoc quum mihi non solum confirmasset sed etiam persua
sisset. Sic te tibi persuadere velim, mihi neminem esse cariorem te.
For ' I am persuaded, ' we must not say persuadeor or persuasus sum, but
hoc mihi persuadetur, or persuasum mihi est, or persuasissimum mihi est,
or mihi persuasum habeo (which occurs, however, only in Cæs. B. G.
III. 2) esse aliquid, de aliqua re. Suadeo, which signifies 'to advise, ' as
distinguished from persuadeo, which means ' to advise successfully ' (cf.
Cic. Phil. II. 11 : An C. Trebonio persuasi ? cui ne suadere quidem ausus
essem), is usually construed with a dative of the person, and an accu-
sative of the thing.

Obs. 2 We must carefully distinguish between vaco aliqua re, ‘ I

am without, am devoid of something,' and vaco alicui rei, ' I have
leisure to engage in something, I spend my time about it, I am earn-
estly occupied with it,' as in itinere huic uni vacabat, ' on the journey
he paid exclusive attention to this.'

19-2
292 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE.

(B) Dative of Destination.

160 A dative of the destination, object, or purpose , is used

with the verbs sum and fio signifying ' to prove, ' ' tend ,' or ' turn
out ;' with do, duco, tribuo, verto, signifying ' to esteem , or attribute ; '
with habeo, signifying ' to treat ; ' and with those which denote
giving, taking, coming or sending. And these verbs have fre-
quently a dative of limitation also ; thus,

Exitio est avidis mare nautis , ' the sea is for a destruction to
greedy sailors,' (i. e. is destined to destroy them, their destruction
is its destination) .
Ampla domus saepe fit domino dedecori, a large house often.
proves a disgrace to its owner, (is destined to disgrace him) .'
Ne sibi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria, ' not to impute it to
him as (for) a fault that he was absent from his country.'
Quando tu me bene merentem tibi habes despicatui, ' since you
treat me, who have been so kind to you, with contempt. '
Virtus sola nec dono datur neque accipitur, ' virtue alone is
neither given nor received as (for) a present.'
Pausanias venit Atticis auxilio, Pausanias came to the
Athenians as (for) an aid,' i. e. ' with the view of aiding them.'

Obs. 1 The dative of destination is generally expressed by certain

words which are specially used in this way ; thus we say haec res tibi erit
(fiet) decori, dedecori, detrimento, impedimento, laudi, lucro, odio, oneri,
pignori, praesidio, probro, quaestui, usui, and the like. Other phrases
to be noticed are such as est mihi cordi, ' I am anxious about it ;' erit
mihi curae, ' I will take care of it ;' cui bono fuerit, ' whose interest it
would serve' (to whom it would be for good) ; dono dari, muneri mittere,
pignori relinquere, dare crimini or vitio, ducere laudi, tribuere ignaviae,
vertere crimini or vitio; habere aliquem derisui, despicatui; habere aliquid
relligioni ; habere aliquid quaestui. Some of these are found in the
examples given above.
Obs. 2 The dative of destination is used regularly with the name
of certain functionaries to indicate the purpose of their office or em-
ployment, as decemviri legibus scribendis; triumvir aere (aeri) flando,
feriundo; triumvir reipublicae constituendae.

(C) Dative instead of a prepositional phrase.

161 The Latin dative is sometimes used improperly, that

is, in a sense inconsistent with its primary meaning and general
usage, and when we should expect a (ab) or cum with the ablative ,
or ad or in with the accusative . These exceptional usages, which
 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 293

are found generally in the poets, must have sprung from an

absolute or adverbial use of the case, like some similar applica-
tion of the Greek dative ( Greek Grammar, pp. 488, 492) .

(a) The dative is used after passive verbs to denote the agent,
instead of the ablative with a (ab) ; as
Carmina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus, ' poems which are
written by the drinkers of water.'
Barbarus hic ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli, ' I am a barbarian
here, for I am not understood by any one.'

When this idiom occurs in prose we can generally see traces

of the original force of the dative ; thus we must not explain haec
res mihi probatur by haec res a me probatur, because we can say
in the active probare alicui rem, ' to recommend or make good
a thing to somebody ; ' so, dissimillimis bestiis communiter cibus
quaeritur presumes not so much the agency as the interest of the
agent ; and res mihi tota provisa est means that the business is
regarded as completed to or for the agent. The dative of the
agent with gerunds and gerundives is simply a dative of limitation
depending on the substantive verb, and whether we say scriben-
dum est mihi or mihi Chremes exorandus est, we must render it
by, ' it-is-for-me to write ' (i . e. writing is for me) , and ‘ it-is-for-me
to entreat Chremes ' (i. e. the entreating of Chremes is for me).
(See below, 185.)

(b) The poets sometimes use the dative instead of the ablative
of separation ; as
Eripe te morae, ' tear yourself from delay,' i. e. when there
are inducements to tarry, as at Tusculum, lay them aside, tear
yourself from them.'
Similarly we may say distare, dissentire alicui, to be distant
or dissent from somebody,' for ab aliquo.

(c) The dative is used instead of the ablative with cum in

some few cases and by the poets ; for instance we have pugnare
alicui for·pugnare cum aliquo; as
Placitone etiam pugnabis amori ? ' will you even struggle with
the love of which you now approve ?'
Similarly misceo takes a dative instead of the ablative with
cum ; as
294 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE.

Vulnera supplevit lacrimis, fletumque cruori miscuit, ' she filled

up the wounds with tears and mixed weeping with the gore.'
The use of confero, contendo, comparo with the dative, though
explicable from the preposition in composition (above 159, (f) ) ,
approximates to this poetical idiom.

(d) The dative is used by the poets instead of the accusative

with ad or in to denote the direction of motion ; as
It clamor caelo, ' the shouting rises to the sky, ' i . e. ad caelum;
spolia conjiciunt igni, ' they throw the spoils on the fire ,' i. e. in
ignem.
So also when in with the accusative denotes the end ; as
Bello animos accendit agrestes, she inflamed to war the rustic
minds,' i. e. in bellum, as another poet says, in proelia mentes
accendis.

§5. The Ablative .

162 If we except the use of the ablative in predications of

space or time (below, 168), and its idiomatic use with certain
prepositions (below, 169) , we may divide the applications of this
case, as it appears in Latin (B) , into three main subdivisions ; it is

(A) The ablative of immediate determination , or the case

which determines the instrument, the cause, the manner, or con-
dition of an action ;

(B) The ablative of circumstance, or the case which defines the

contemporary or antecedent circumstances of an action ;

(C) The ablative of the object, or the case which expresses that
which the action requires for its completion. The Latin ablative
may therefore be rendered by the English prepositions ' by,' ' with,'
' in,' ' from,' ' at, ' in different applications, regulated by the verb on
which it depends.

(A) Ablative of Immediate Determination.

163 (a) The ablative determines the instrument or means with

or by which an act is effected ; as,
Hijaculis, illi certant defendere saxis, ' these endeavour to defend
themselves with darts, the others with stones .'
Medici graviores morbos asperis remediis curant, ' physicians cure
more urgent diseases with (by means of) severe remedies .'
 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 295

Obs. 1 If a man is represented as the instrument we cannot use the

ablative, but must employ the accusative with per; as bellum per lega-
tos gessit, ' he carried on the war by means of his lieutenants,' not
legatis.

Obs. 2 If an accompaniment rather than an instrument is implied we

must use cum with the ablative, as Cimonem semper pedisequi cum numis
secuti sunt, servants with money (i. e. carrying it) always followed
Cimon ;' magna cum cura atque diligentia scripsit, he wrote with (i. e.
calling in and employing) great care and diligence ;' for the instruments
and means were his pen and paper.

(b) The ablative determines the cause by or through which

an act is done ; as

Metu supplicii aut mortis multi vim tormentorum pertulerunt,

' many have endured the force of tortures through fear of punish-
ment or death.'
Servius Tullius regnare coepit non jussu, sed voluntate atque
concessu civium, ' Servius Tullius began to reign, not by (in con-
sequence of) the orders, but by the will and permission of the
citizens .'

Obs. 1 To this use belong the ablatives causa, gratia, ergo, quo con-
silio, qua mente, &c. A participle is often used with the ablative amore,
caritate, ira, libidine, odio, spe, studio, &c., denoting affections of the
mind, when the mere ablative is not sufficiently definite ; as ductus
amore, incensus ira, inflammatus odio, impulsus spe et cupiditate,
coactus metu, captus misericordia.

Obs. 2 We must here repeat the general rule that a (ab) must be
used with the ablative when we express not the cause but the agent
(128, vi. (d)) ; as Pompeius a Caesare victus est, ' Pompey was conquered
by Caesar.'

Obs. 3 The ablative of the cause appears as an ablative of origin

after the participles cretus, creatus, editus, genitus, natus, ortus, satus,
prosătus ; as P. Africanus fidem fecit non sanguine humano sed stirpe
divina satum se esse. But the prepositions a (ab) and de may stand
with these participles ; as satos Curetas ab imbri, or Ilia cum Lauso de
Numitore sati. To this class belong the expressions natus loco nobili,
ignobili, humili, obscuro, unless they represent the locative use of
the ablative.

(c) The ablative determines the manner in which an act is

done, and this is the regular construction of the substantives, which
in themselves denote the way or manner (as modo, more, ritu,
ratione, consuetudine) ; the accompanying circumstance is stated in
the genitive of possession, or by means of an adjective ; as
 296 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE .

Miltiades summa aequitate res Chersonesi constituit, Miltiades

settled the affairs of the Chersonesus with the greatest equity ' (i . e.
that was the way or manner of his administration) .
Apis more modoque carmina fingo, 'I mould my poems after the
manner and practice of a bee.'
More Carneadeo disputare, ' to dispute in the manner of Car-
neades.'
Fieri nullo modo (pacto) potest, it cannot be done in any
way. '

(d) The ablative determines the reference or relation under

which an action is considered ; as

Atticus usum pecuniae non magnitudine, sed ratione metiri

solitus est, Atticus was accustomed to estimate the use of money
not in reference to its amount, but in reference to its application.'
Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ego, ' you are his father by
(in regard to) nature, I with reference to my counsels.'
Contremisco tota mente et omnibus artubus, ' I tremble in (as to)
my whole mind and all my limbs.'

Obs. 1 It will be observed that this usage corresponds exactly to

one form of the accusative of reference (above, 146 (b), Obs.), which is
used by the poet ; and it has been mentioned that Virgil has both cases
in one line : micat auribus et tremit artus.
Obs. 2 The ablative of reference is found in the limiting phrases,
ea lege, ea conditione, tua pace dixerim, bona tua venia, meo jure,
optimo jure, mea quidem sententia, more majorum, omnium judicio ; also
in expressions like cognomine Barcas, natione Syrus, natu major, natu
minimus, &c.

(e) The ablative determines the comparison, in regard to

which a certain degree of a quality is predicated ; in other words ,
it is used after adjectives in . the comparative degree instead of the
subject connected with the comparative by the particle quam.
This usage is in fact only a special application of the ablative of
reference, which has just been mentioned ; for amoris simulatio est
pejor odio means, 6 the pretence of love is worse in reference or rela-
tive to hatred.' Thus we have

Nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius, ' nothing is more pleasant

than tranquil old age.'
Tullus Hostilius fuit Romulo ferocior, ' Tullus Hostilius was
more savage than Romulus.'
 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 297

Nullum officium referenda gratia magis est necessarium, ‘ no

duty is more necessary than that of returning a favour.'

Obs. 1 The explanation of the ablative of comparison as an abla-

tive of reference is best shown by its use in relative propositions ; e.g.
Hortensius quo nemo fuit doctior, ' Hortensius, in relation to (in com-
parison with) whom no one was more learned.' Attalus quo graviorem
inimicum non habui, Attalus, in relation to whom I never had a
bitterer enemy.' Avaritia qua nulla major pestis humano generi inferri
potuit, avarice, as compared with which no greater pest could have been
inflicted on the human race.'

Obs. 2 As the word, which stands in the ablative of comparison,

must be the subject, as distinguished from the predicate of a proposition,
this construction is admissible only in the following cases :
(a) The object compared may be in the nom., voc. , or accus. with the
infinitive, as O matre pulcra filia pulcrior, or nemo dubitabit solem
esse majorem luna, where we might have majorem quam lunam.
(B) The object compared may be an accusative with an adjective in
the comparative degree ; as nunquam ego vidi hominem Phormione cal-
lidiorem, because we could resolve this into qui fuerit callidior quam
Phormio. But when a gen. or dat. is used with such an adjective, the
construction with quam is more common ; as haec sunt verba Varronis,
quam fuit Claudius doctioris, rather than Varronis doctioris Claudio.
Horace, however, writes : Pane egeo, jam mellitis potiore placentis, 'I need
bread, now more desirable than honied cakes.'
(7) The ablative of comparison stands regularly after comparative
adverbs ; as opinione celerius, dicto citius, justo longius, plus aequo,
solito tardius; also in such phrases as nemo te melius intelligit.
(8) The ablative of comparison may follow plus, minus, amplius, but
generally the numerical expression is appended without quam; thus we
have Amplius sunt sex menses, ' they are more than six months.' Quid
si tandem amplius biennium est ? 'what if it is more than two years ?'
Plus quingentos colaphos infregit misero mihi, ' he inflicted more than
500 buffets on poor me !' Quis dubitat, exarsisse Romanos quum plus
ducentorum annorum morem solveremus ? who doubts that the Romans
were exasperated when we broke up a custom of more than 200 years ?'
Obs. 3 The ablative of comparison cannot be used when two predi-
cates are compared ; thus we must say pestis fuit minacior quam peri-
culosior, not minacior periculosiore ; nor can it be used in a comparison
of two subjects in the genitive or dative ; thus we may say, Miltiades
amicior fuit civium libertati quam suae dominationi, not sua domi-
natione.

(f) The ablative determines the quantity by which one thing

exceeds another ; as

Turres denis pedibus, quam muri, altiores sunt, the towers are
higher by ten feet each than the wall.'
298 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE.

Pompeius biennio quam Cicero major fuit, ' Pompey was older
than Cicero by two years.'

Obs. This ablative of quantity is found regularly in the adverbial

expressions, quo, ' the more,' eo, by that,' quanto, by how much,'
tanto, by so much,' multo, by much,' aliquanto, by something con-
siderable,' paullo, by a little,' nihilo, by nothing.' The last will only
express the ablative of quantity ; if we wish to express the cause we
must use the phrase nulla alia re or in nulla alia re.

(g) The ablative determines the price, when it is expressed

by a substantive, and in connexion either with verbs of buying,
selling, &c., or with adjectives like carus, vilis , venalis ; as

Viginti talentis unam orationem Isocrates vendidit, ' Isocrates

sold one speech for 20 talents. '
"
Multorum sanguine et vulneribus ea Poenis victoria stetit, that
victory cost the Carthaginians the blood and wounds of many
men.'

Quod non opus est asse carum est, ' that which you do not re-
quire is dear at a penny.'
Obs. 1 It is to be observed that this rule applies to the price as dis-
tinguished from the value, which is expressed in the genitive ; as
emere denario quod mille denarium est, ' to buy for a denarius that which
is worth 1000 denarii.'

Obs. 2 The general expression of the price is given in the adverbs

care, carius, carissime, vilissime, or by the ablatives magno, permagno,
plurimo, parvo, vili, nimio, minimo, dimidio ; but in some cases
have the genitive, as in quanti, tanti, pluris, minoris, tantidem (see
above, 156).

(h) The ablative, accompanied by an adjective, determines the

quality of a thing ; and is either connected immediately with the
subject which it describes , or predicated through the copulative
verb; thus we have,
Caesar traditur fuisse excelsa statura, calore candido, nigris
oculis, valetudine prospera, ' Cæsar is said to have been of lofty
stature, fair complexion, black eyes, and sound constitution.'

Obs. On the genitive of quality see above (149) . The ablative

is more common, because the genitive is sometimes ambiguous. In
adjectives of the third declension the ablative is, on this account, so
much more common than the genitive, that it even follows a genitive of
quality in the same sentence, when there is a change of declension ;
thus we have Thyus, homo maximi corporis terribiliquefacie.
 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 299

(B) Ablative of Circumstance.

164 The ablative of circumstance, or ablative absolute, as it

is commonly called, is a construction in which both subject and
predicate stand in the ablative case without any conjunction or
copula, and which defines a concomitant or antecedent circumstance
of time, cause, condition or assumption. In order to use this
ablative of circumstance the following rules must be observed :

(a) The predicate of the ablative sentence must be a substan-

tive, an adjective , or a participle ; in other words, if the subordi-
nate sentence represented includes the primary predicate in a
verb, it must be changed into the corresponding participle ; thus,
for quum puer essem, ' when I was a boy,' we may write me
puero, 'I being a boy.'
for quum caelum serenum est, ' when the sky is clear, ' we may
write caelo sereno, ' the sky being clear.'
for quum natura reluctatur, ' when nature resists, ' we may write
natura reluctante, ' nature resisting. '
for postquam Augustus mortuus est, ' after Augustus was dead ,'
we may write Augusto mortuo, ' Augustus being dead.'
for quum Caesar profecturus esset, ' when Cæsar was about to
start,' we may write Caesare profecturo, ' Cæsar being about to
start.'

(b) The subject of the ablative sentence must not appear in the
main sentence, either as subject, or in an oblique case. Thus we
may say,

Augustus natus est Cicerone et Antonio consulibus ; iisdem con-

sulibus Catilinae conjuratio erupit, ' Augustus was born, Cicero and
Antonius being consuls (in their consulship) ; the same men being
consuls (in the same consulship) the conspiracy of Catiline broke
out,'
because Augustus, the subject of the first sentence, and conju-
ratio, the subject of the second, are different respectively from
Cicero and Antonius , who are the subjects of the first absolute sen-
tence, and from iidem, which is the subject of the second absolute
sentence.

On the other hand we could not render the sentence, ' as Diony-
sius feared the rasor of his barber, he burnt off the hair with red-hot
300 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE.

coals,' by Dionysio cultros tonsorios metuente, candenti carbone sibi

adurebat capillum , because Dionysius is the subject of adurebat no
less than of metuo, implied in metuente. We must therefore express
the circumstance either by Dionysius , quod cultros tonsorios metuebat,
or Dionysius, cultros metuens tonsorios, candenti carbone sibi adure-
bat capillum.
Similarly, if the subject of the dependent sentence appears
before in an oblique case, we cannot use the ablative of circum-
"
stance ; thus, if we had to express in Latin , after Cæsar was dead
the greatest honours were paid to him , ' we could not render this by,
Caesare mortuo, summi ei honores habiti sunt, but must write,
Caesari mortuo summi honores habiti sunt.

If, however, the subordinate sentence, though it has the same

subject as the main verb, can be expressed passively, so that its
object becomes its subject, the subject will of course be different,
and the ablative of circumstance may be employed ; thus the sen-
tence, ' Xerxes , having carried on the war in Greece unprosperously,
began to be an object of contempt even to his own subjects, ' may
be rendered either by Xerxes , quum bellum in Graecia infeliciter
gessisset, or, bello in Graecia infeliciter gesto, etiam suis contemptui
esse coepit.

Obs. 1 The predicate of the ablative absolute is most frequently ex-

pressed by a participle ; but as the Latin language has no present parti-
ciple of the substantive verb, a noun representing the primary predicate
is often appended without any copula, as in Cicerone et Antonio consuli-
bus, te auctore, duce Cicerone, caelo sereno, aestu magno, summa homi-
num frequentia, &c.
Obs. 2 A negative may be attached to the predicate ; as me non
"
invito, when I was not unwilling.'

Obs. 3 The participles of impersonal verbs may be used in the

ablative of circumstance without any subject ; thus from auditum est,
cognitum est, we may have audito, ' it having been heard,' cognito, ' it
having been known' (see below, 182, (e), Obs. 1).

(C) Ablative of the Object.

165 (a) An ablative of the object is used with the adjec-

tives, dignus, ' worthy,' indignus, ' unworthy,' contentus , ' contented,'
6
fretus, relying,' praeditus, ' endued ; ' as
Dignus es odio, ' you are worthy of hatred.'
 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 301

Sorte tua contentus abi, ' depart contented with your lot.'
Haec scripsi ad te liberius, fretus conscientia officii mei, ' I have
written these things to you the more freely, relying on the con-
sciousness of my friendship . '
Homo parvis opibus et facultatibus praeditus, ' a man endued
with small means and resources .'

Obs. In the poets dignus and indignus are sometimes construed with
the genitive, as Descendam magnorum haud unquam indignus avorum,
' I shall come down never unworthy of great ancestors.' We may also
have an infinitive after dignus, as Lyricorum Horatius fere solus dignus
"
legi, Horace almost the only one of the lyric poets who is worth read-
ing;' but this is rare.

(b) An ablative of the object is used after adjectives denoting

plenty or want, burdening and disburdening, exemption, liberation,
aversion, separation , and the like ; such as abundans, differtus,
refertus, distentus , plenus, dives, locuples, fertilis , gravis , onustus,
inanis, nudus, orbus, vacuus, liber, immunis, purus , alienus, extorris ;
thus we have
Graeci homines non solum ingenio et doctrina sed etiam otio stu-
dioque abundantes, ' the Greeks, men abounding not only in genius
and learning, but also in leisure and devotion to this pursuit.'
Neque hoc di alienum ducunt majestate sua, ' nor do the gods
consider this at variance with their majesty.'
Extorrem patria et domo effecit ut ubivis tutius quam in meo regno
essem , he has brought it to pass that being banished from my
country and my home, I should be safer any where than in my own
kingdom .'

Obs. 1 Plenus, fertilis and dives are also used with the genitive ;
this is the common construction of plenus in the best writers ; and the
participles refertus and completus are used with the genitive when persons
are signified.

Obs. 2 Liber always has ab with the ablative when persons are
denoted, as locus liber ab arbitris ; otherwise generally the ablative
only.
Obs. 3 Alienus has ab with the ablative when it signifies ' averse,'
as alienus a litteris ; also when persons are denoted ; but it has the
dative in the sense ' inconvenient,' ' unfavourable ' (see above, 159,
Obs. 3).

Obs. 4 Inanis and immunis have also the genitive. This is rarely
the construction of alienus; but we have non alienus joci, alienus
pacis,
302 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE.

Obs. 5 The vocative macte (i.e. magis aucte), plur. macti, in the
phrase macte virtute este (below, 166 Obs. 2), belongs to this rule.

(c) An ablative of the object is used with verbs of the same

signification as the adjectives just mentioned , that is, with verbs of
abundance and want, of requiring and doing without, of burdening
and disburdening, of liberation and separation ; such as abundo,
redundo, fluo, affluo, diffluo, careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, supersedeo,
orbo, augeo, compleo, impleo, onero, gravo, afficio, levo , libero, arceo,
disto, prohibeo, &c.; thus we have
Amore abundas, Antipho, ' you are rich in love, Antipho.'
Miser est, qui in vitiosa et flagitiosa vita affluit voluptatibus, ‘ he
is wretched, who in a vicious and criminal life abounds in pleasures . '
Malo virum qui pecunia egeat, quam pecuniam quae viro, ' I would
rather have a man who should want money, than money that should
lack a man.'
Caesar proelio supersedere statuit, ' Cæsar resolved to abstain
from , decline, do without a battle.'
Sarmentis et virgultis fossas complent, they fill up the trenches
with twigs and brushwood.'
Consilio et auctoritate non modo non orbari sed etiam augeri
senectus solet, ' old age is accustomed not only not to be deprived
of wisdom and authority, but even to be strengthened by them.'
Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur superstitione, liberamur
mortis metu, when the nature of the universe has been learned, we
are relieved from superstition, and set free from the fear of death .'
Itinere exercitum prohibere conantur, ' they endeavour to hinder
the army from marching.'

Obs. 1 With egeo, and still more frequently with indigeo, we have
a genitive instead of the ablative, especially when we imply a require-
ment rather than a need ; as jam illa non tam artis indigent quam
laboris, now these things do not require skill so much as labour.'
Obs. 2 Impleor is sometimes used with the genitive ; as implentur
6
veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae, they are filled with old wine and fat
venison.'

Obs. 3 The verb afficio aliquem aliqua re is used in a number of

phrases where we employ the phrase to confer a benefit,' or ' inflict an
injury,' as afficere aliquem beneficio, gaudio, dolore, praemio, honore, in-
juria, poenis.
Obs. 4 With some of these verbs the ablative is as frequently used
with, as without, a preposition . With prohibeo and arceo we have
generally the ablative alone, as prohibere aliquem usu urbis, arcere ali-
 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 303

quem tecto; with verbs of liberating, &c. the ablative is more common,
except when a person is designated, as te ab eo vindico ac libero, ‘ Í
rescue and free you from him ;' with verbs of difference, alienation, and
distance, the preposition is generally used, as differre ab aliquo, distare
ab aliquo, alienare or abalienare aliquem ab aliqua re; with verbs of
shrinking or abstaining both constructions are common, as abhorrere or
abstinere aliqua re and ab aliqua. The poets sometimes use the dative
improperly after verbs of this class, as paullum sepultae distat inertiae
celata virtus, for a sepulta inertia; eripe te morae for a mora (see above,
161 (b)).

(d) An ablative of the object is used with the expression opus

6
est, there is need, ' which belongs really to the same class as the
verbs which have just been mentioned ; but opus is sometimes also
predicated directly of the thing required ; thus we may say

Auctoritate nobis opus est et consilio et gratia, ' we have need

(there is need to us) of authority, counsel, and popularity ; ' and
'
Dux mihi et auctor opus est, a leader and adviser is a necessity
to me.'

Obs. 1 As the word opus in the second construction is really a

primary predicate, we may say opus mihi est liber and libri mihi opus
sunt. The impersonal construction is required in such phrases as quid
6
opus est armis ? what need is there for arms ? ' nihil opus est simula-
6
tione, there is no need of false pretences. '

Obs. 2 When the object of opus est is expressed by a sentence, we

may have either the accusative with the infinitive, the subjunctive with
ut, the supine in -tu, or a perfect passive participle ; as Haec fieri et oportet
et opus est, ' it is both proper and necessary that these things should be
done. ' Nunc tibi opus est, aegram ut te assimules, now it is necessary
that you should pretend to be sick.' Ita dictu opus est, ' it is necessary
that it should be so spoken.' Priusquam incipias consulto, et ubi consu-
lueris mature facto opus est, before you begin there is a need for delibe-
ration ; and when you have deliberated speedy execution is required.'

(e) An ablative of the object is used idiomatically after the

following deponent verbs :
(a) Potior, ' I am master of, ' ' I possess,' takes the ablative of
abundance ; as
Egressi optatá potiuntur Troes arenâ, ' the Trojans having landed
possess the wished-for shore."

(B) Fungor, (defungor, perfungor,) which includes the root of

fug-io, ' I flee,' as jungo involves the root of jug-um , signifies ' I
make myself quit of, go through, get rid of, discharge, or perform,'
and thus governs the ablative of liberation ; as
304 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE.

Justitiae fungatur officiis, ' let him discharge [himself from] the
duties of justice .'
Hannibal multis variisque perfunctus laboribus anno acquievit
septuagesimo, Hannibal, having gone through many and various
labours, rested in his 70th year.'

(7) Utor, I use (abutor) ,' and fruor, ' I enjoy, ' are correlative
terms, (as appears from the compound usufructus) , and take the ab-
lative of abundance, like potior ; as
Hannibal, quum victoria posset uti, frui maluit, ' Hannibal ,
though he was in a situation to get profit from his victory, pre-
ferred to enjoy it.'

(8) Vescor and pascor, ' I take food for myself, ' are followed by
an abl. of the materials ; as
Di nec escis nec potionibus vescuntur, ' the gods do not live on
meat or drink .'
Frondibus et victu pascuntur simplicis herbae, they feed on
boughs and a diet of plain grass.'

(e) Dignor, I think worthy,' takes an ablative on the same

principle as the adjective dignus ; as
Haud equidem tali me dignor honore, ' I do not think myself
worthy of (do not estimate myself at) such an honour.'

(5) Nitor, when it signifies ' I am supported by,' takes the abl.
of the instrument (163 (a)) ; as
Nititur hastâ, ‘ he is supported by a spear.'

(n) Glorior, ' I boast of, pride myself in, ' takes an ablative of
the cause (163 (b)) ; as
Nominibus veterum gloriantur, ' they boast of the names of the
ancients.'

Obs. 1 Potior takes the genitive as well as the ablative, as Romani

signorum et armorum potiti sunt, ' the Romans became masters of the
standards and arms.' This is the only construction allowable in the
phrase rerum potiri, ' to become master of the state.'

Obs. 2 Fungor, fruor, potior, utor (abutor), vescor, are sometimes

construed with the accusative, but chiefly in older Latin.
Obs. 3 Nitor takes the ablative with in when it signifies ' I lean
or depend on ;' as in vita Pompeii nitebatur salus civitatis, ' the safety
of the state depended on Pompey.'
 SYNTAX OF THE VOCATIVE. 305

Obs. 4 Glorior often takes the ablative with de or in ; as Quis de

misera vita potest gloriari ? who can take pride in a miserable life ? '
In virtute recte gloriamur, ' we rightly take pride in virtue.'
Obs. 5 Ven-eo for venum-eo, ' I go for sale, ' i. e. ' I am sold,' and
vapulo, ' I howl or cry out (oiμww ) for pain,' i. e. ' I am beaten,' are
considered as passive verbs, and take the ablative of the agent with ab
(128, vII. (d)) ; as Respondit se malle a cive spoliari quam ab hoste venire,
' he replied that he would rather be robbed by a fellow-citizen than be
sold by an enemy ;' Testis rogatus est, an ab reo fustibus vapulâsset,
' the witness was asked whether he had been beaten with clubs by the
defendant.'

§ 6. The Vocative and its Substitutes.

166 (1) The vocative is the case of allocution, exhortation, or

exclamation. In the poets it is frequently used with the inter-
jection 0 ; in prose this interjection is not prefixed in merely ad-
dressing a person, but is reserved for exclamations of joy, anger or
surprise. In prose the vocative does not stand first in the sentence,
except in solemn addresses, and in expressions of strong emotion ;
thus we have

Recte te, Cyre, beatum ferunt, quoniam virtuti tuae fortuna con-
juncta est, ' they rightly call you happy, O Cyrus, because good
fortune was combined with your virtue.'

Obs. 1 If an adjective or participle is added to the vocative it is

properly in the same case, as
Maecenas, atavis edite, regibus.
There are rare instances to the contrary, as
Succinctus patria quondam, Crispine, papyro.

Obs. 2 By a very singular usage, the vocative of the adjective is

made to agree with the nominative tu, as
Stemmate quod Tusco ramum millesime ducis,
Censorem fatuum vel quod trabeate salutas ?
(PERS. III. 27, 28).
-
This is regularly the case in the idiomatic use of macte magis aucte;
thus we have macte virtute esto, ' increase in virtue ' (Hor. I. Serm. ii.
31) ; macte nová virtute puer, ' go on and prosper in your young valour'
(Virg. En. Ix. 641 ). And even in an oblique sentence, as juberem [te]
macte virtute esse (Liv. 11. 12).

(2) (a) In addresses the most common substitute for the voca-
tive is the nominative ; as, audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. 1. 24) .
But in exclamations the vocative and accusative are used indiffer-
ently after O, heu, and proh ; as .
D. L. G. 20
306 VERBS WITH DIFFERENT CASES.

O formose puer, nimium ne crede colori, ' O beautiful boy, trust

not too much to your complexion ; ' but,
Ofortunatos nimium agricolas, ' O too fortunate husbandmen .'
Heu pietas, heu prisca fides, ' Ah ! piety, ah ! old-fashioned
faith ; ' but, heu stirpem invisam, ' ah ! hated race. '
Proh Deûm atque hominum fidem, ' alas for our reliance on gods
and men!' but, proh sancte Jupiter, ' Oh ! hallowed Jupiter !'

(b) Hei and vae are followed by the dative of limitation ;

6
as, hei mihi ! ah ! woe's me ; ' vae misero mihi, alas ! for me
wretched.'

(c) En (ecce), which calls attention to an object, takes the

nominative as a sort of exclamation, but the accusative as an object
to be looked at ; thus,

Ecce tibi Italiae tellus, ' here is the land of Italy for you.' En
quattuor aras, ' see these four altars.'

§ 7. Differences of Case with the same Verb.

167 Among the difficulties created by the syntax of govern-

ment in Latin, one of the most frequent arises from the effect pro-
duced on the case of the dependent noun by modifications in the
meaning or application of the governing verb. This point will
therefore require a separate examination .

(a) Verbs compounded with ad, in, ob and sub, which retain in
the composite form a reference to the position or motion indicated
by the prefix, are sometimes construed with an accusative or dative,
but more frequently there is an additional preposition connected with
the dependent noun (see above, 159 , ( f ) ) . Thus we have both acce-
dere muris and muros, ' to approach the walls ; ' both adjacere mari
and mare, ' to lie near the sea ; ' both adnare navibus and naves, ' to
swim to the ships ; ' both illabi animis and illabi animos, ' to glide
into, descend upon, inspire the minds of men ;' both incessit me
"
and incessit mihi cura, an anxious thought came upon me ; ' both
timor invadit mihi and me, ' fear attacked me ; ' subire muro, ' to
go under the wall,' and subit mentem, ' it comes into my mind.'
Generally, however, the use of the accusative belongs rather to
poetical diction, and the prose-writers repeat the preposition or a
similar one before the noun, as accedere ad urbem or in urbem ;
adstare ad tumulum, invadere in aliquem, in fortunas alicujus.
 VERBS WITH DIFFERENT CASES . 307

(b) Verbs compounded with ante and prae, especially antecedo,

antesto, and praesto, which signify superiority or pre-eminence, are
construed with the accusative as well as with the dative ; as

Difficile est, quum praestare ceteris concupieris, servare aequita-

lem, ' it is difficult, when you have felt a longing to excel all others,
to preserve equity.'
Praestate virtute peditem, ut honore atque ordine praestatis,
' excel the foot-soldiers in valour, as you excel them in honour and
civic rank.'
Natura hominis pecudibus ceterisque bestiis antecedit, ' the nature
of man is superior to cattle and other beasts.'
Populus Romanus cunctas nationes fortitudine antecedit, ' the
Roman people is superior to all nations put together in fortitude. '
Obs. To this class we may add several compounds of cello, espe-
cially excello, but the usual construction is excellere praeter ceteros or
inter ceteros.

(c) Several verbs, which denote behaviour towards another

person, are construed sometimes with the dative and sometimes with
the accusative ; such verbs are, adulor, aemulor, allatro, attendo,
ausculto, blandior, despero, illudo, insulto, medicor, obtrecto, prae-
stolor ; as
6
Mihi ausculta: vide ne tibi desis, listen to me : see that you
are not wanting to yourself.'
"
Nisi me auscultas, atque hoc, ut dico, facis, unless you mind
me, and do this as I tell you.'
Obs. 1 We have sometimes other constructions with these verbs.
Thus we may say not only desperare suis fortunis or desperare pacem,
but desperare de fide alicujus; and not only obtrectare laudibus, or,
more rarely, laudes alicujus, but Themistocles et Aristides obtrectarunt
inter se.

Obs. 2 We do not find audire alicui in good writers, but dicto audi-
entem esse alicui is a good phrase.

(d) Certain verbs which signify giving or imparting are some-

times construed with the dative of the person and the accusative
of the thing, sometimes with the accusative of the person and the
ablative of the thing ; such are adspergo, circumdo, circumfundo,
dono, exuo, impertio, induo, inspergo, intercludo ; thus,
Non pauca suis adjutoribus large effuseque donabat, ' he gave
liberally and lavishly not a few gifts to those who helped him.'
20-2
308 VERBS WITH DIFFERENT CASES.

Tarentini hunc civitate ceterisque praemiis donarunt, the

Tarentines presented this man with the franchise and the other
privileges.'
Similarly we may say, adspergere labeculam alicui and adsper-
gere vitae splendorem maculis ; circumdare sibi cancellos, and cir-
cumdare oppidum vallo et fossa ; impertire alicui salutem plurimam,
and impertire aliquem salute ; induere sibi torquem, and indutum
esse duabus personis ; intercludere multitudini fugam and interclu-
dere aliquem commeatu.

Obs. 1 In Cicero we do not find exuere alicui aliquid, but exuere

aliquem armis, bonis omnibus, castris ; exuere omnem humanitatem, mores,
personam.
Obs. 2 We find interdicere alicui aliquid ; and not aliquem aliqua re,
but alicui aliqua re. The phrase interdicitur mihi aqua et igni is good,
but the student should avoid interdicor aqua et igni.

(e) Either the dative or the ablative may be used with the
verbs acquiesco, confido, insisto, insuesco, supersedeo. Thus we may
have acquiescere rei, but Cicero has acquiescere re, and more fre-
quently acquiescere in aliqua re; we may have confidere virtuti
and confidere corporis firmitate ; insistere via, and, in Cicero, insis-
tere vestigiis alicujus or in vestigiis ; insuescere re and rei ; occum-
bere morti and morte, also mortem ; supersedere itineri; but in
Cicero more usually with the ablative ; as supersedere labore, ' to
sit on the other side and away from it, to do without it ' (see above,
165 (c) ).

(f) The following verbs have a different construction accord-

ing to their different significations :
Animadvertere aliquid, ' to remark something ; ' animadvertere
in aliquem, ' to punish somebody.'
Cavere alicui (sibi) , ' to provide for the security of somebody or
oneself;' cavere alicui aliquid, ' to give security to some one ;'
cavere aliquem and ab aliquo, ' to be on one's guard against some
one ;' cavere aliqua re or de aliqua re, ' to get security by pledge
about something.'
Constare sibi or secum, ' to be consistent with oneself ; ' constat
inter omnes , ' it is universally admitted ;' constat magno ' it costs a
good deal.'
Consulere alicui, ' to give advice to some one ;' consulere rei,
'to provide for something ; ' consulere aliquem, ' to ask the opinion
 VERBS WITH DIFFERENT CASES. 309

or advice of some one ; ' consulere boni, to take in good part ;'
consulere graviter in aliquem, ' to sake severe measures against
somebody ;' consulere in medium, in commune, ' to provide for the
common good.'
Convenire alicui rei, ' to suit something ; ' cum aliqua re, ' to agree
with something ;' convenire aliquem, ' to have an interview with
somebody ;' convenimus or convenit mihi tecum, ' we are agreed ;'
convenit inter omnes, ' all agree.'
Cupere aliquid, ' to desire something ; ' cupere alicui or cupere
causa alicujus, ' to wish well to somebody.'
Dare alicui litteras, ' to give a letter to somebody ;' dare litteras
ad aliquem, ' to despatch a letter to somebody. '
Facere ad aliquid, ' to contribute to a thing, to avail or profit
it ;' facere alicui, ' to suit or be becoming to something ;' facere
magni, ' to esteem highly ;' facere aliquid aliquo or alicui, ' to do
something with a person or thing' (as quid fecistis scipione, ' what
have you done with the stick ?') ; facere cum aliquo or ab aliquo, ' to
favour somebody ;' facere contra , adversus aliquem, ' to be opposed
to somebody.'.
Feneror or fenero tibi, ' I lend money to you ;' feneror a te,
'I borrow money from you.'
Horrere aliquid, ' to be afraid of something ; ' horrere alicui,
' to be afraid for somebody .'
Imponere alicui aliquid, ' to put something on somebody,' (e. g.
clitellos bovi) ; imponere aliquid in cervicibus alicujus, ' to lay
something on somebody's shoulders ; ' imponere alicui, ' to trick,
deceive, impose upon somebody.'
Incumbere rei, ' to lean upon a thing, as a support ; ' incumbere
in aliquam rem, ' to apply oneself diligently to some pursuit ; ' but
the dative alone is also used in this sense.

Interesse rei or in aliqua re, to be present at a certain transac

tion ; hoc interest inter hominem et belluam, ' this is the difference
between a man and a beast ;' mea interest, omnium interest, it is
for my interest, for the interest of all.'

Manere apud aliquem, to remain with some one; ' manet mihi,
' it remains for me ; ' manet me, ' it awaits me (I may expect its
coming).'
Merere aliquid, ' to earn something ' (quid mereas, ut Epicureus
esse desinas? ' what would you take to leave off being an Epicurean
310 VERBS WITH DIFFERENT CASES .

philosopher? ') ; merere stipendia, ' to serve as a soldier ; ' mereri de

aliquo, ' to deserve well of somebody.'
Metuere aliquem , ' to fear somebody ; ' metuere aliquid ab aliquo,
' to fear something from somebody ; ' metuere alicui, to fear for
somebody, on somebody's account.'
Moderari alicui rei, ' to bridle something, control it,' e. g. irae,
animo ; moderari aliquid, ' to guide something,' e. g. rempublicam,
navem .
Petere aliquem lapide, &c. ' to aim at somebody with a stone,
&c. ; ' petere aliquid ab aliquo, to ask something from somebody.'
Praestare alicui et aliquem, ' to excel somebody; ' praestare rem
(e. g. culpam, damnum) , ' to make good, be answerable for some-
thing; ' praestare aliquem tutum ab aliqua re, ' to make a person
safe from something; ' praestare se virum, ' to show oneself a man.'
Prospicere aliquid, ' to foresee something ; ' prospicere alicui,
' to provide or take care for somebody.'
Quaerere aliquem or aliquid, ' to seek some person or thing,'
' go in search of, look for ; ' quaerere ex aliquo, ' to put a question
to some one,' ' to ask,' ' to inquire. '
Recipere aliquem , ' to take back some one ; ' recipere se aliquo,
'to betake oneself somewhither ; ' recipere se, absolutely, ' to recover
spirit or courage, to be emboldened ; ' recipere alicui, ' to pledge
oneself, to give a solemn promise to some one ' (the full phrase
being recipio ad me or in me) .
Renuntiare alicui rem, ' to announce a circumstance to some
one ; ' renuntiare rei, ' to renounce a thing, to give it up ; ' renun-
tiare aliquem consulem, ' formally to declare some one consul. '
Respondere alicui, ' to give an answer to some one ; ' respondere
rei (e.g. votis , exspectationi) , ' to answer, or correspond to some-
thing; ' respondere alicui or ad aliquid (e.g. ad crimina, criminibus) ,
' to make answer to, refute something ; ' respondere de jure, ‘ to give
a legal opinion.'
Solvere alicui aliquid, ' to pay something to somebody ; ' solvere
aliquem aliqua re, ' to set a person free from something ; ' solvere
aliquid (fidem, vota, &c.) , ' to make good or perform something.'
Temperare sibi or rei alicui, to restrain oneself or something'
(e. g. irae, linguae) ; temperare rempublicam institutis et legibus, ‘ to
regulate the state by institutions and laws ; ' temperare alicui or
ab aliqua re, ' to spare, forbear, refrain from something ' (e. g. lacri-
mis or a lacrimis).
 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME. 311

Timere alicui, ' to fear, be anxious for some one ; ' timere aliquem
and ab aliquo, ' to fear some one ; ' timere de aliqua re, to be fear-
ful about something.'
Vacare alicui rei, ' to give up one's time to something ; ' vacare
aliqua re or ab aliqua re, ' to be free from something,' e. g. vacare
culpa; vacat or vacat mihi, ' I have time.'
Valere, ' to be worth, ' with the accusative or ablative, as valere
denos sestertios or denis sestertiis ; valere apud aliquem, ' to have
weight or influence with some one ; ' valere ab aliqua re, ' to be
strong, on the side of (above 109, (a) ) something,' e. g. ab oculis,
a pecunia.

§ 8. The Cases in definitions of Space and Time.

(A) Definitions of Space.

168 It has been already mentioned that the original force of
the cases, as indicating motion to or from and rest at a place, is
preserved only in the proper names of places, and in a limited num-
ber of words ( 128, vII. (b) , 147) . And even here , as has been men-
tioned, there is such a confusion in the forms of the cases that a
difference of declension and number is supposed to require a dif-
ferent rule of construction , the genitive acting as locative in the
singular number of the first and second declensions, and the abla-
tive both as the locative and as the case of removal in the third
declension, and in the plural number of all declensions. The ety-
mological or philological fact is simply this : that the locative or
case of rest ended in -i, and corresponded , more or less exactly, to
the dative in all declensions ; but the loss of the genitive -s in the
first declension led to the confusion of the genitive and dative , and
therefore Romae = Romai was the only possible form for the case
signifying at Rome ; ' the loss of the genitive -8, and of the cha-
racteristic -o in the second declension led to the confusion of the
genitive and locative, and Corinthi = Corintho-is, ' of Corinth ,' be-
came confused with Corinthi = Corintho-i, at Corinth, ' the usual
dative Corintho = Corintho-i being confused with the ablative Co-
rintho = Corintho-d ; and in the third declension the dative in -i,
which is generally distinguished from the ablative in -ě, was not
only confused with it in some regular uses of the dative, as in
triumvir aere flando for aeri flando, postquam est morte datus for
morti datus, si suffuderit ore ruborem for ori, but also in some uses
312 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME.

of the dative as a locative in common words, as linguis micat ore

trisulcis (see Varronianus, pp. 335, 336) . That this was the case
in the names of towns also is clear from the fact that we have Kar-
thagini, ' at Carthage, ' in good MSS. of Livy. In the plural the
dative is universally identified with the ablative , and the locative is
of course swept away in the confusion . It will be remembered also
that the prepositions of rest are always construed with the ablative.
The following rules, then, for the syntax of the cases in definitions
of place, must be regarded as referring to the usual forms of the
Latin language, and not to the original case-endings or their proper
signification.

(1) (a) In answer to the question ' where ? at what place? ' the
names of cities stand in the genitive, if the words belong to the
first or second declension and are in the singular number, but in
the ablative if they belong to the third declension, or are in the
plural number ; as
Ut Romae consules, sic Carthagine quotannis bini reges creaban-
tur, ' as at Rome two consuls, so at Carthage two kings were every
year created.'
Artemisia Mausoli, Cariae regis, uxor, nobile illud Halicarnassi
fecit sepulcrum, ' Artemisia, the wife of Mausolus, king of Caria,
made that famous sepulchre at Halicarnassus.'
Cur Delphis oracula jam non eduntur ? why are oracles no
longer delivered at Delphi ? '

Obs. If the word urbs is placed in apposition with the name of the
city thus used in the genitive (locative) the explanatory word will stand
in the ablative ; as, Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa, ' at
Antioch, formerly a populous and opulent city ; ' Corinthi, Achaiae urbe,
' at Corinth, a city of Achaia.'

(b) In answer to the question whither ? to what place ? ' all

names of cities stand in the accusative ; in answer to the question
' whence ? from what place ? ' all names of cities stand in the ab-
lative ; as

Quum Athena's, tanquam mercaturam bonarum artium profectus

sis, turpe est inanem redire, ' seeing that you have set out for
Athens, as it were the mart of all accomplishments, it is disgraceful
that you should return empty.'
Timoleon arcessivit colonos Corintho, Timoleon sent for hus-
bandmen (colonists) from Corinth . '
 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME. 313

(c) While the names of cities are thus used without prepo-
sitions, the names of islands may be construed either with prepo-
sitions or without, and the preposition generally accompanies the
names of countries, mountains , and estates ; as
Lacedaemonii Pausaniam cum classe Cyprum atque Hellespon-
tum miserunt, ' the Lacedemonians sent Pausanias with a fleet to
Cyprus and the Hellespont.'
Pompeius magnam ex Cycladibus insulis et Corcyra classem coe-
gerat, ' Pompey had collected a great fleet from the Cyclades and
Corcyra.'
Pueri in Formiano videntur hiematuri, ' the boys seem likely to
pass the winter on my Formian estate.'
Ad Amanum iter feci, ' I marched to mount Amanus.'
Obs. 1 The lesser islands are generally construed without a preposi-
tion, and the greater islands, which constituted provinces, as Sardinia,
Sicilia, Britannia, generally require a preposition in the cases men-
tioned. The preposition is occasionally omitted with the names Cherso-
nesus and Hellespontus, often with Egyptus, and sometimes with
Macedonia.

Obs. 2 The prepositions ad, ab, ex, and in are sometimes used with
the names of cities, but then ad signifies ' in the neighbourhood of,' or ' as
far as ;' ab and ex mean ' from the distance of, ' or serve to define a noun ;
and in generally stands by the names of those towns which are really
the names of the inhabitants ; thus we have bellum ad Mutinam gerebatur,
' the war was going on in the neighbourhood of Mutina ;' Caesar in
Galliam contendit, et ad Genevam pervenit, ' Cæsar set out for Gaul
and got as far as Geneva ;' non tibi a Corintho nec a Tarquiniis bellum
moliri necesse est, ' it is not necessary for you to enter on a war from the
·
distance of Corinth or Tarquinii ; legati ab Ardea, Ardean ambassa-
dors ;' in Philippis,' ' at Philippi,' i. e. ' among the Philippians.'

(d) The words domus, rus, bellum, militia, humus are in cer-
tain connexions construed like the names of cities ; thus we may
say,
Domum Pompeii venit, he came to the house of Pompey.'
Caesaris virtus domi fuit militiaeque cognita, ' Cæsar's excel-
lence was known both at home and abroad.'
Cibaria domo attulit, he brought provisions from home.'
Similarly we say domi meae, tuae, suae, ' in my, your, his
house; ' domum redire, ' to return home ; ' domo proficisci, ' to leave
home ; ' ruri vivere, ' to live in the country; ' rus proficisci, ' to go
into the country; ' rure redire, ' to return from the country ; ' humi
314 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME.

jacere, ' to lie on the ground ; ' humo oculis attollere, ' to raise one's
eyes from the ground .' With regard to domus, however, while
domi means ' at home, ' in domo means ' in the house, ' as in domo
furtum factum est ab eo qui domi fuit, ' a theft was committed in
the house by one who was at home there.' And we have generally
in domo instead of domi, when the word is accompanied by an
adjective or the name of the owner, as in domo regali, ' in a royal
house;' in domo Caesaris, ' in the house of Cæsar.'

(e) General designations of place are regularly expressed by

means of the prepositions in, ad, ex, per, and others .

Obs. 1 Some general designations of place, answering to the ques-

tion 'where ?' are expressed in the ablative without a preposition, as
mari, terra, loco ; and this is the regular construction of those which have
the adjective totus prefixed ; thus we have terra marique, by land and
sea; ' hoc loco, ' in this place ; ' eodem loco, ' in the same place ; ' meliore
loco, ' in a better place ; ' tota urbe, ' in the whole city ; ' toto orbe terra-
rum, ' in the whole world ;' tota Asia, all through Asia ; ' tota Sicilia,
' all over Sicily; ' tota Perside, throughout Persis.'
Obs. 2 The poets sometimes construe the names of countries in the
same way as the names of cities ; e. g. Italiam fato profugus Lavinaque
venit littora.

(2) (a) In answer to the question ' how long ? ' ' how high ?'
'how broad ?' ' how thick ? ' the measure is generally given in
the accusative ; as

Babylon sexaginta millia passuum complexa est, muris ducenos

pedes altis, quinquagenos latis, ' Babylon comprised sixty miles,
with walls two hundred feet high and fifty feet in breadth .'
Ab hac regula mihi non licet transversum, ut aiunt, digitum
6
discedere, from this rule it is not permitted me to diverge a
finger-breadth .'
Hercyniae silvae longitudo novem dierum iter expedito patet,
'the length of the Hercynian forest extends to a journey of nine
days for a lightly equipped traveller .'

Obs. 1 After a substantive the extent may be described by a geni-

tive of number (above, 155) ; as in palatio Neronis colossus centum
viginti pedum stabat.

Obs. 2 Although the accusative is much more common with adjec-

tives of extension, we occasionally find a genitive or ablative ; asfossam
viginti pedum latam duxit ; fossam sex cubitis altam, duodecim latam
duxit Antiochus.
 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME. 315

(b) In answer to the question ' how far off ? ' we have either the
accusative of extension (a) or the ablative of quantity (above, 163 ,
(f)); as
Tertio post die Romani amnem transgressi sunt, et duo millia
6
ferme et quingentos passus ab hoste posuerunt castra, on the third
day after the Romans crossed the river, and placed their camp
about two miles and five hundred paces from the enemy.'
Caesar ab exploratoribus certior factus est Ariovisti copias a
nostris millibus passuum viginti quattuor abesse, ' Cæsar was
informed by the scouts that the forces of Ariovistus were distant
twenty-four miles from our army.'
Obs. 1 The distance is often expressed by the genitives bidui, tridui,
quatridui, with which we may understand itinere, e. g. bidui, sc. itinere,
at the distance of two days' journey.'
Obs. 2 If the distance is given with reference to the mile-stones,
it is usual to mention the number with ad, e. g. ad quartum a Cremona
lapidem, at the fourth mile-stone from Cremona.'

(B) Definitions of Time.

(a) In answer to the question ' when ?' ' at what time ?' the
noun expressing the time is regularly put in the ablative without
a preposition ; as
Hora sexta Caesar profectus est, ' Cæsar set out at the third
hour.'
Qua nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dianae Ephesiae templum
deflagravit, ' the temple of the Ephesian Diana was burnt down on
the same night on which Alexander was born.'
Arabes campos et montes hieme et aestate peragrant, ' the Arabs
traverse plains and mountains in the winter and summer.'

Obs. 1 In the same way we may say prima aetate, ' in my earliest age ;'
meo consulatu, in my consulship ;' anno proximo, ' next year ;' nocte supe-
riore, ' last night ;' tertia vigilia, in the third watch ; nostra memoria,
in our memory ;' die festo, ' on a holiday ;' ludis Juventatis, ' at the games
of Juventas ;' solis occasu, ' at sun-rise ;' bello Punico, in the Cartha-
ginian war ;' also bello, in war-time ;' tumultu, at a time of tumult'
(Cic. Phil. VIII. 1 ), though in these instances the preposition in is com-
monly used. On the contrary we always use the prepositions circa,
prope, in, per, de, cum, sub when the time when must be more nearly
defined, as de tertia vigilia, ' from the third watch going onwards ;'
per hoc tempus, ' through this period ;' sub noctem, just before night ;"
prope, circa, lucem, ' near day-break ; ' cum prima luce, at the first
dawn ;' in tempore, ' at the right time ;' in tali tempore, ' under such
316 CASES OF SPACE AND TIME.

circumstances ; bis in hora, twice in the hour,' for the preposition

must be used when the question is ' how often in a given time ?'
Obs. 2 That the ablative in these usages, as in the adverbial
phrases mane, noctu, hodie, pridie, postridie, perendie, &c. is a corrupted
form of the locative is clear not only from the case of the adjective in-
volved in meridie (medii die), quotidie, &c. , but also from the expressions
die septimi, die noni, die proximi, die crastini, which actually occur
(Varron. p. 327).
Obs. 3 In counting the date from the foundation of Rome we either
say anno ab urbe condita, or anno post urbem conditam, or anno urbis,
or anno (e. g. trecentesimo altero) quam condita Roma erat.

(b) In answer to the question how long ? ' the noun ex-
pressing the time is used in the accusative ; thus,

Augustus non amplius, quum plurimum, quam septem horas dor-

miebat, Augustus did not sleep more, when he slept most, than for
seven hours.'
Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis, ' Pericles ruled at
Athens (through, during) forty years.'
Improborum animi sollicitudinibus noctes atque dies exceduntur,
' the minds of the wicked are eaten up with anxieties by night and
day ' (i. e. all through the night and day) .

Obs. 1 The use of the ablative to express duration of time is rare

in the best authors, though it is occasionally found, as tota aestate Nilus
Egyptum obrutam oppletamque tenet (Cic. N. D. 11. 52) ; pugnatum est
continenter horis quinque (Cæs. B. C. i. 46) ; nocte pluit tota, redeunt
spectacula mane (in a line attributed to Virgil). But this is not un-
common in the later writers, as octoginta annis vixit (Seneca, Ep. 93) ;
Caligula vixit annis undetriginta, imperavit triennio et decem mensibus,
diebusque octo (Sueton. Calig. 59).
Obs. 2 The preposition per is often used to express duration of
time ; per annos quattuor et viginti primo Punico bello classibus certatum
est cum Poenis.

Obs. 3 In answer to the question ' since when ? ' we may have either
the accusative alone, or the accusative with intra, as Lacedaemonii sep-
tingentos jam annos amplius nunquam mutatis moribus vivunt; invicti
Germani qui intra annos quattuordecim tectum non subierint.
Obs. 4 In answer to the question within how long a period of
future time?' we have either the ablative alone or intra, with the accusa-
tive ; as Clodius respondit, triduo Milonem, ad summum quadriduo peri-
turum; intra vicesimum diem dictatura se abdicavit.

Obs. 5 In answer to the question, ' how long a time previously ?'
we have ante with the accusative ; abhinc with the accusative or abla-
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 317

tive ; or the ablative with hic or ille ; as ante annum et quattuor menses ;
Demosthenes qui abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit ; comitia jam abhinc
triginta diebus erant habita ; his annis quadringentis Romae rex fuit ;
ante hos annos quadringentos regnabat; respondit, se paucis illis diebus
argentum misisse Lilybaeum.

Obs. 6 In answer to the question ' how long?' either before or since,
we have the ablative with ante or post used adverbially ; as paucis ante
diebus, multis annis post or post annis.
Obs. 7 In answer to the question, ' for how long a time ?' we have
the accusative with in ; as Sardianis Tiberius, quantum aerario aut
fisco pendebant, in quinquennium remisit.

(c) In answer to the question ' how old ? ' the noun expressing
the age is used in the accusative with the participle natus, or in the
ablative or genitive with the comparatives major, minor ; as
Decessit Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus,
' Alexander died, aged thirty-three years and one month.'
Julius Caesar sanxit, ne quis civis major annis viginti, minorve
quadraginta, plus triennio continuo Italia abesset, ' Julius Cæsar
decreed that no citizen older than twenty or younger than forty
years should be absent from Italy for two years together.'
Cautum est Pompeia lege ne quis capiat magistratum minor
triginta annorum, ' it was laid down in the Pompeian law that
no one should hold an office who was younger than thirty years.'

Obs. The age of a man may be expressed by the genitive alone, as

Cato primum stipendium meruit annorum decem septemque, Cato served
his first campaign when seventeen years old.' We may also use the
ordinal in such phrases as annum aetatis agebat vicesimum, ' he was in
the twentieth year of his age.'

§ 9. The Cases when construed with Prepositions.

169 The general meanings and distinctions of the prepositions

have been already stated (above 109) , and the general rules for the
cases which they govern have been given in memorial lines (above
127) . It remains, however, that their usage as supplements to the
cases should be properly classified and illustrated by examples.
It will be observed that, though several of the prepositions denote
rest in a place, the dative or locative, as the proper case of rest,
is never used with a preposition in classical Latin, but this usage
has been usurped by the ablative, which, as we have seen, appears
as a corruption of the locative . There are traces in some inscrip-
tions of the use of cum with a form quem or quen, which seems
318 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

to be a locative analogous to palam, partim, saltim and the like

(cf. quon-dam = quo-dam tempore, olim, &c.) , and coram = co-ore
may be another example of the same usage ; but in ordinary
Latin the regular prepositions are used only with the accusative, the
ablative, or both of these cases ; and the few other particles, which
seem to serve as prepositions and govern the genitive or ablative,
must be regarded as words which have not quite lost their original
value as nouns , and which take the genitive of possession (above
148, Obs. 1 ) , or the ablative of reference ( 162, (d) ) . These quasi-
prepositions are the following :

(a) Palam openly before, in the presence of,' takes the

ablative ; as

Centurio rem creditori palam populo solvit, ' the centurion paid
the debt to his creditor openly before the people.'

(B) Clam, without the knowledge of,' generally takes the

ablative ; as

Clam uxore mea et filia, ' without the knowledge of my wife and
daughter.'
In the comedians clam takes also the genitive, dative, and
accusative, and the accusative is construed with the synonym
clanculum.

(y) Procul, ' far from, ' takes the ablative ; as fusis Tuscis, haud
procul Ticino flumine, ' the Tuscans having been routed not far
from the river Ticinus.'

(8) Simul, together with,' takes the ablative ; as pontifices

et augures septemviris simul et sodalibus Augustalibus, ' the ponti-
fices and augurs together with the seven commissioners and the
board of Augustales .'

(e) Coram, ' in the presence of,' takes the ablative ; as can-
tabit vacuus coram latrone viator, ' the traveller, if he has no money
in his pocket, will sing in the presence of the robber.'

(5) Tenus, as far as, up or down to,' takes the ablative

singular, but the genitive, or more rarely the ablative, plural,
and always follows its case ; as capulo tenus, ' up to the hilt,'
crurum tenus, ' down to the legs .'
(n) Instar, ' after the likeness of,' ergo, ' on account of,' gratia,
'for the sake of, ' are followed by the genitive like the Greek Sixnv,
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 319

eveka, and xápiv, to which they correspond ; as instar montis equus,

' a horse like a mountain,' (opous Sixηv) ; donatur virtutis ergo, ' he
is rewarded on account of his virtue,' (åperîs éveka) ; majorum
dolorum effugiendorum gratia, ' for the sake of avoiding greater
evils ,” (ἀποφυγῆς χάριν) .
The regular prepositions will be most conveniently discussed
in alphabetical order, and in three classes according as they are
construed (A) with the accusative only ; (B) with the ablative
only; (C) with the accusative and ablative.

(A) Prepositions construed with the Accusative only.

AD signifies ( 1) ' to ' of motion or destination ; as Antonius

legiones quattuor ad urbem (to the city) adducere cogitabat. Cic.
ad div. XII. 23.

Litteras dare ad aliquem, (to be taken to him ; as Fortasse dis-

cedens ad te aliquid dabo. Cic. Att. x. 8 fin.) . Eamus ad me, ' let
us go to me, ' i. e. to my house. Ter. Eun. III . 5. 64.

(2) ' to ' or ' towards ' of direction ; as Pars Galliae vergit
ad Septentriones (towards the north) . Cæsar, B. G. 1. 1.
(3) towards ' of time ; as Quum magnam partem noctis
vigilassem, ad lucem (towards morning) arcte et graviter dormire
coepi. Cic. ad div. 1. 28. Nos hic te ad mensem Januarium (towards
January, by or about that time) exspectamus. Cic. Att. 1. 3.

(4) ' at ' or ' near ;' as Fatum fuit exercitum populi Romani ad
lacum Trasimenum (at or near the lake) interire. Cic. ad div. 11. 8.

(5) ' with ' (in the house of) , or ' before ' (in the presence of) ,
in much the same sense as apud; as Curio fuit ad me (with me)
sane diu. Cic. Att. x. 10. Patrum superbiam ad plebem (before
the people) criminatus maxime in consulare imperium invehebatur.
Liv. III. 9.

(6) ' at,' in the sense of habitual employment ; as Servos

ad remum (slaves employed at the oar) cum stipendio nostro daba-
mus. Liv. xxxiv. 6.

(7) ' at,' of an occurrence or its announcement ; as Feminam

ferunt ad primum conspectum redeuntis filii (at the first sight of
her returning son, i. e. when she saw him) gaudio nimio exa-
nimatam. Liv. XXII . 7. Ad famam obsidionis (at the news of the
320 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

blockade, when it was announced) delectus haberi coeptus est. Liv.

IX. 7.

(8) ' to the number or amount of,' in an estimate ; as Manlius

protulit spolia hostium caesorum ad triginta (to the number of
thirty), dona imperatorum ad quadraginta (to the number of forty) .
Liv. VI. 20.

(9) in strict accordance with, ' in giving a standard of mea-

surement ; as Ad perpendiculum (by the plummet, in strict ac-
cordance with the vertical line) columnas exigere. Cic. Verr. I. 51 .
Obsides ad numerum (in strict accordance with the prescribed num-
ber) frumentaque miserunt. Cæs. B. G. v. 20. Britannis utuntur
taleis ferreis ad certum pondus (in accordance with a certain
weight) examinatis . Cæs. B. G. v. 12. To this use belongs the
phrase ad fistulam saltare, ' to dance to (in strict accordance with)
the notes of the flute ; ' ad amussim, ' in strict measurement ; ' also
ad verbum, ' word for word , ' ' word measured against word ' —in
accordance with the standard of verbal accuracy ; as Est ad ver-
bum ediscendus (to be learned word for word) libellus. Cic. Acad.
IV. 44. Fabellas Latinas ad verbum (word for word) de Graecis
expressas non inviti legunt. Cic. Fin. 1. 2.

(10) ' in comparison with ;' as Laelium Decimum cognovimus

virum bonum et non illitteratum, sed nihil ad Persium (nothing in
comparison with Persius) . Cic. de Orat. II . 6.

(11) with reference to, ' ' as to, ' ' in point of: Faciam id
quod est ad severitatem (in point of) lenius, ad communem utilitatem
(with reference to) utilius. Cic. Cat. I. 5.

(12) ' in addition to,' ' besides :' Ad reliquos labores (in addi-
tion to my other labours) etiam hanc molestiam assumo. Cic. Planc. I.
So also ad id quod ; ad hoc, &c .

(13) 'for,' ' on account of, ' with a view to ; ' as Argentum da-
bitus ei ad nuptias (for, with a view to the marriage) . Ter. Heaut.
IV. 5 , 29. This is particularly common with gerunds and gerun-
dives (below, 186, 190) .
6
(14) for the purpose of meeting or averting,' ' against ; ' as
Mirari licet, quae sint animadversa a medicis herbarum genera ad
morsus bestiarum (as a remedy against) , ad oculorum morbos, ad
vulnera.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS . 321

"
ADVERSUS or ADVERSUM signifies ( 1) opposite to , ' ' in pre-
sence of;' ' facing,' ' face to face ; ' as Ara Aio Loquenti adversus eum
locum (opposite to that place) consecrata est. Cic. Div. 1. 45.
Neque adversus (in front) neque ab tergo aut lateribus tutus est,
Sallust. Orat. I. Sed nunc peropust aut hunc cum ipsa aut de
illa me adversum hunc (face to face with him) loqui. Ter. Andr.
I. 5. 28.
(2) ' against ,' ' contrary to ;' as Hostis legitimus adversus quem
(against whom) jus feciale est.
(3) towards,' ' in regard to ;' as Pietas est justitia adversum
deos (towards, in regard to the gods) .
ANTE signifies ' before, ' either in space or time ; as Quod est
ante pedes (before his feet) nemo spectat, Cic. Div. II . 13. Democritus
causam explicat cur ante lucem (before daylight) galli canant. Cic.
Div. II. 26. If it follows an ablative ante is an adverb ; as multis
"
diebus ante, or multis ante diebus , ' many days before.'
APUD signifies (1) ' in the house of;' as Neoptolemus apud
Lycomedem (in the house of Lycomedes) erat educatus. Cic. Lael. 2.
Hence, vix sum apud me (in my senses) . Ter. Andr. v. 4. 34.
(2) in the presence of, ' e. g. before judges ; as Curio causam
contra me apud centumviros (before the centumviri , not coram cen-
tumviris) pro fratribus Cossis dixit. Cic . de Orat. II . 23 .
(3) 6 among ;' as Legationis jus apud omnes gentes (among all
nations) sanctum esse consuevit. Corn. Nep. 16, 5.
(4) ' in ' an author ; as Videtisne ut apud Homerum (in Homer,
i. e. in his poems) saepissime Nestor de virtutibus suis praedicet.
Cic. Cat. 10.
CIRCA, ' about,' (1 ) of space ; as Collatiam , et quidquid circa
Collatiam (in the neighbourhood of Collatia) agri erat, Sabinis
ademptum. Liv. I. 38.
(2) ' of time ;' as Postero die circa eandem horam (about,
nearly at, the same hour) in eundem locum rex copias admovit.

Liv. XXXI. 9.
CIRCITER, ' about ' (1 ) of space ; as Loca haec circiter (in
the neighbourhood of these places ) . Plaut. Cistellaria , IV. 2 , 7.
(2) ? of time ;' as Nos circiter Kalendas (about the first of the
month) aut in Formiano erimus aut in Pompeiano . Cic. Att. II. 4.
21
D. L. G.
322 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

(3) ' of numbers ;' as Milites dies circiter quindecim (in about
fifteen days) iter fecerunt. Cæs. B. G. 1. 15.
CIRCUM, ' around,' of space only ; as Terra circum axem
(around its axis) se summa celeritate convertit. Cic. Acad. II. 39.
Exercitus in foro et in omnibus templis quae circum forum (round
the forum) sunt, collocatus est. Cic. Opt. gen. or. IV. Naevius pueros
circum amicos (round to the houses of his friends) misit. Cic.
Quint. 6.
CIS, CITRA, ' on this side,' ' short of ; ' as Clusini audiebant,
saepe a Gallis cis Padum ultraque (on this, i. e. the southern
and the other side of the Po) legiones Etruscorum fusas. Liv. v.
35. Decretum est ut Antonius exercitum citra flumen Rubiconem
(on this side of the Rubicon) educeret. Cic. Phil. vi . 3. Natura
posuit acutam vocem a postrema syllaba non citra tertiam (not
within three syllables from the end, not nearer to the end than the
antepenultima) . Cic. Or. 18. Notum est Atticos citra morem (con-
trary to the custom) gentium Graeciae ceterarum dixisse. Aul. Gell.
II. 4. Capparis in desertis agris citra rustici operam (without the
labour of the agriculturist) convalescit. Colum. XI . 3, 35. The last
two usages are confined to the later writers.

CONTRA, ' opposite to, ' ' against, ' (1 ) in a merely local sense ; as
Libo insulam, quae contra Brundusinum portum (opposite to , over
against) est, occupavit. Cæs. B. C. III . 23.
(2) in a moral sense ; as Hoc non pro me sed contra me
(against me, in opposition to me) est. Cic. de Orat. III. 20. Con-
tra omnium opinionem (contrary to the opinion of all ) . Cæs. B. G.
VI. 30. Communis utilitatis derelictio contra naturam (contrary to
nature) est. Cic. de Off. III. 6.
ERGA signifies (1 ) ' over against ' in a merely local sense ; as
Tonstricem Suram novisti, nostras quae modo erga aedes habet
(lives over against our house) . Plaut. Truc. II . 4, 52. This sense
is rare.
(2) ' towards ,' ' in relation to, ' of feelings whether friendly
or the reverse ; as Praecipiunt ut eodem modo erga amicum (towards
a friend) affecti simus, quo erga nosmetipsos . Cic. Lael. 16. Hamil-
caris perpetuum odium erga Romanos (against the Romans) maxime
concitasse videtur secundum bellum Poenicum. Corn. Nep. XXII. 4.
EXTRA, ' outside of,' ' beyond , ' sometimes ' except,' ' without ; '
as ApudGermanos nullam habent infamiam quae extra fines (beyond .
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 323

the borders) cujusque civitatis fiunt. Cæs. B. G. VI . 23. Manlius

adversus edictum patris extra ordinem (out of his proper rank) in
hostem pugnavit. Liv. VII. 7. Extra ducem (except the leader)
paucosque praeterea reliqui in ipso bello erant rapaces. Cic. ad div.
VII. 3. Mehercule extra jocum ( without a joke) homo bellus est.
Cic. ad div. VIII. 16.

INFRA signifies ' below, ' ' beneath, ' (1 ) in space ; as Infra
Saturnum (below, i. e. nearer to the earth than, the planet Saturn)
Jovis stella fertur. Cic. N. D. 11. 20 .
(2) ' less than,' of magnitude ; as Uri sunt magnitudine paulo
infra elephantos (below, less than elephants) . Cæs. B. G. vi. 28.
(3) ' within , ' ' less than, ' of time ; as Ova incubari infra
decem dies (in less than ten days after they are laid) edita utilissi-
тит. Plin. N. H. x. 54 ; also nearer to our time than ;' as
Homerus multis annis fuit ante Romulum, si quidem non ante supe-
riorem Lycurgum (not nearer to our time than Lycurgus, who came
above, i . e. before Romulus) fuit. Cic. Brut. 10.
(4) of a lower place at table ; as Accubueram hora nona apud
Volumnium, et quidem supra me Atticus, infra (below me, in the next
place at table) Verrius, familiares tui. Cic. ad div. IX. 26.
(5) ' inferior to ; ' as Tace tu, quem ego esse infra infimos
omnes puto homines (below, inferior to, more despicable than all the
lowest of men). Ter. Eun. III . 2 , 26. Sapientia et animi magni-
tudinem complectitur, et ut omnia, quae homini accedant, infra se
(below itself in worth) posita judicet. Cic. Fin. 111. 7.
INTER signifies ' between, ' ' among, ' ' in the midst of, ' (1 ) of
space ; as Ager Tarquiniorum, qui inter urbem ac Tiberim fuit
(which lay between the city and the Tiber) , consecratus Marti,
Martius deinde campus fuit. Liv. II. 5.
(2) of time, during,' ' at, ' ' in the course of ; ' as Inter
coenam (at, in the course of supper) . Cic. Phil. 11. 25 ; ad Q. Fr.
III. 1 , 6. Inter tot annos (in the course of so many years) . Cic.
P. Quint. 14.
(3) in the company of many others ; as Furere apud sanos et
quasi inter sobrios (in the midst of sober persons) bacchari vino-
lentus videtur. Cic. Orat. 28.

(4) of reciprocity or mutual action ; as Neque solum colent

inter se (one another) et diligent, sed etiam verebuntur. Cic. Lael.
21-2
324 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

22. Vis ergo inter nos (between ourselves, one with the other) quid
possit uterque vicissim experiamur ? Virg. Ecl. 111. 28.

INTRA, ' within, ' (1 ) of space ; as Antiochum Romani intra

montem Taurum (in the regions bounded by mount Taurus) reg-
nare jusserunt. Cic. Sext. 27 ; cf. Aul. Gell. N. A. XII . 13.
(2) of time : Dimidiam partem nationum subegit solus intra
viginti dies (within twenty days, in a less period of time). Plaut.
Curcul. III. 1. 77.
(3) of mutual action, like inter; as Picae meditantes intra se
(among themselves, with one another) . Plin. N. H. x. 42.

JUXTA (in old Latin juxtim) signifies (1) ' near ; ' as Atticus
sepultus est juxta viam Appiam (near the Appian road) . Corn.
Nep. Att. ad fin. Juxtim Numicium flumen (near the river Numi-
cius) obtruncatus. Sisenna, ap. Non. 11. 451 .

(2) ' next to,' ' next after ; ' as Juxta divinas relligiones (next
to the obligations of religion) fides humana colitur. Liv. IX. 9.
(3) ' closely following,' ' in accordance with ' (secundum) ; as
Iones juxta praeceptum Themistoclis (in accordance with , conform-
ably to , the injunction of Themistocles) pugnae se paulatim subtra-
here coeperunt. Justin . II . 12 , fin.
(4) along with,' ' combined with ; ' as Periculosiores sunt
inimicitiae juxta libertatem (alongside of liberty, when combined
with liberty, i. e. among free men, in a free state). Tacit. Germ.
21 .

OB signifies (1) ' to, ' ' in the direction of; ' as ob Romam (to-
wards Rome) noctu legiones ducere coepit. Ennius ap. Fest. p. 178.
Hicine est ille Telamon ... cujus ob os (to or towards whose face)
Graii ora obvertebant sua . Ennius ap. Cic. Tusc. III. 18. This
usage is obsolete.
(2) ' before,' ' in front of,' with a notion of backwards and
forwards ; only with oculos ; as Nunc demum experior prius ob
oculos mihi (before my eyes) caliginem obstitisse. Plaut. Mil. 11.
5. 51 .

(3) on account of,' ' for the sake of; ' as qui ob aliquod emo-
lumentum suum (on account of some advantage of their own) cupi-
dius aliquid dicere videntur, iis credi non convenit. Cic. Font. 8.
Hence ob rem, ' for the sake of something real,' as opposed to
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 325

frustra ; thus, Id frustra an ob rem (to the purpose) faciam, in

vestra manu situm. Sall. Jug. 31.

PENES signifies ' in the power' or ' possession of; ' as Servi cen-
tum dies penes accusatorem (in the power of, under the control of,
the accuser) fuere. Cic. Mil. 22, fin. Fides ejus rei penes auctores
erit (shall rest with the writers, i. e. I refer you to them for it) .
Sall. Jug. 17 ; Sen. Qu. N. Iv. 3 ; Plin. N. H. XVII. 12.

PER signifies (1) ' through ' either of space or time ; as Mihi
quidem videtur Brutus noster jam vel coronam auream per forum
(through the forum) ferre posse. Cic. Att. XIV. 16. Post impe-
tratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti annos (through a
period of twenty years) erudiendis juvenibus impenderam . Quintil.
I. O. prooem.
(2) through,' ' by means of,' ' with, ' of the instrument ; as Plura
sunt detrimenta publicis rebus, quam adjumenta per homines eloquen-
tissimos (by means of the most eloquent men) importata. Cic. de
Orat. I. 9.

(3) in the way of,' so that the whole phrase is equivalent to

an adverb, or represented by an ablative of the manner ; as Versus
saepe in oratione per imprudentiam (unawares ) dicimus. Cic. Orat.
56. Similarly, we have per negligentiam, per jocum, per iram, per
vim, per contumeliam, and in the poets even with a neuter adjective,
as per subitum, ' suddenly,' per tacitum, ' silently.' Cf. the Greek
phrases dià Táxovs, ' swiftly, ' dià réλovs, ' completely,' &c. ( Greek
Grammar, p. 511 ) .
(4) ' on account of, ' ' owing to ; ' Neque per aetatem (owing to
his age) etiam potis erat. Ter. Eun. 1. 2 , 32.
(5) as far as depends on,' in permissive phrases ; as Per me
(as far as I am concerned) vel stertas licet, inquit Carneades. Cic.
Acad. IV. 29. Eum nihil delectabat, quod aut per naturam (as far
as nature was concerned) fas esset aut per leges (so far as depended
on the laws) liceret. Cic. Mil. 16.

(6) without depending on anything else , ' with the pronouns

se, te ; as Nihil audacter ipsos per se (of themselves, by themselves
alone, without help or assistance) sine P. Sulla facere potuisse.
Cic. Sull. 24. Satis per te (of yourself alone) tibi consulis. Hor.
1 Epist. XVII. 1. That per se does not mean ' on its own account '
is clear from Cic. Lael. 21 , where we have both per se and propter se.
326 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS .

(7) ' by,' ' for the sake of,' ' in the name of,' in adjurations ,
sometimes with a word interposed between the preposition and its
case ; as Per ego te deos (by the gods, in the name of the gods) oro.
Ter. Andr. v. 1 , 15.

PONE, ' behind,' only of space ; as Ti. Sempronius aedes P. Afri-

cani pone Veteres (sc. tabernas, behind, at the back of, the old
shops) ad Vortumni signum emit. Liv. XLIV. 16. Pone nos recede
(retire behind us) . Plaut. Poen. IV. 2, 34.

POST signifies (1 ) ' after, ' ' since, ' of time ; Sexennio post Veios
captos (six years after the taking of Veii) . Cic. Div. 1. 44. Maxima
post hominum memoriam classis ( ' the greatest fleet since the world
began, i. e. in the memory of man') . Also as an adverb in such
phrases as multis annis post, many years after, ' &c.
"
(2) behind, ' of space, which is more rare than the temporal
use of the word ; as Vercassivellaunus post montem (behind the
mountain) se occultavit. Cæs. B. G. VII. 83. Quum ab Ægina
Megaram versus navigarem post me (behind me) erat Ægina, ante
Megara.

PRÆTER signifies (1 ) ' by the side of; ' as Aretho, navigabilis

amnis, praeter ipsa Ambraciae moenia (close to the walls of Am-
bracia) fluebat. Liv. XXXVIII. 3.
(2) ' besides,' ' except ; ' as Britanniam non temere praeter
mercatores (except merchants) adit quisquam, neque iis ipsis praeter
oram maritimam (except the sea-coast) notum est. Cæs. B. G.
IV. 20.
(3) ' beyond,' ' more than ; ' as Gustatus dulcitudine praeter
ceteros sensus (beyond the other senses) movetur. Cic. de Orat.
III. 25.
(4) contrary to ; ' as Lentulus praeter consuetudinem (contrary
to his custom) proxima nocte vigilarat. Cic. Cat. III. 3.
(5) ' immediately before ' with oculos and ora (like ob) or pedes ;
as Servi praeter oculos Lolliï (before the eyes of Lollius) haec omnia
ferebant. Cic. Verr. 111. 25, § 62. Praeter suorum ora (before the
faces of their own friends). Tac. Hist. IV. 30. Mustela murem
mihi abstulit praeter pedes (before my feet) . Plaut. Stich. III . 2 , 7 .
PROPE ' signifies,' ( 1 ) ' near ' of place ; as Quum plebs prope
ripam Anienis (near the bank of the Anio) ad tertium milliarium
consedisset, M. Valerius dicendo sedavit discordiam. Cic. Brut. 14.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS . 327

Sometimes with a and the ablative ; as, Prope a meis aedibus (near
my house) . Cic. Pis. 11 .
(2) ' about' of time ; as Prope Kalendas Sextiles (about the
first day of August) puto me Laodiceae futurum. Cic. ad div. III. 5.
(3) ' near ' of a circumstance or event ; as, Prope secessionem
plebis (near a secession of the commons, i. e. it nearly happened) res
venit. Liv. VI. 42.

PROPTER signifies ( 1 ) ' near' of place ; as Vir clarissimus , qui

propter te (by your side) sedet. Cic. Pis. 3. Vulcanus tenuit insulas
propter Siciliam (close by Sicily) . Cic. Nat. Deor. III. 22. Flu-
vius Eurotas propter Lacedaemonem (close to Lacedæmon) fluit.
Cic. Invent. II. 31. Cf. praeter (1) .

(2) ' on account of, ' ' by reason of; ' as Verre praetore homines
nocentissimi propter pecuniam (on account of money, i. e. for bribes)
judicio sunt liberati. Cic. Verr. A. 1. 5. Ex castris in oppidum
propter timorem (for fear, on account of fear) sese recipiunt. Cæs.
B. C. 35. Where it will be remarked that propter timorem merely
gives the reason why they so acted ; but prae timore would imply
that under the influence of fear they could do nothing else, so that
the fear in the one case is represented as a cause, in the other as an
obstacle.

SECUNDUM, properly ' following,' signifies ( 1) ' immediately after

or behind,' ' next to ; ' as Proxime et secundum deos (next to the
gods) homines hominibus maxime utiles esse possunt. Cic. de Of
11. 3. Marcellus pugione vulnus accepit in capite secundum aurem
(immediately behind the ear). Cic. ad div. IV. 12.
(2) ' along, by the side of; ' as Secundum flumen (along the
river) paucae equitum stationes videbantur. Cæs. B. G. II. 18.
(3) ' during' of time ; as Secundum quietem (during his sleep)
visus Alexandro dicitur draco is , quem mater Olympias alebat. Cic.
Div. II. 66.
(4) according to ; ' as Finis bonorum est secundum naturam
(according to, in accordance with nature) vivere. Cic. Fin. v. 9.

(5) ' in favour of; ' as Nec cogat ante horam decimam de absente
secundum praesentem (in favour of the party who was present) judi-
care. Cic. Verr. II . 17. Some writers use secus with the accusative
as the opposite of secundum ; for instance, we have Chamaeleuce nas-
citur sécusfluvios (away from rivers) . Plin. N. H. XXIV. 15. Secus
328 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

viam stare (to stand away from the road) . Cat. R. R. xxI. 2, and
the like.

SUPRA signifies (1) ' above ' of place or situation ; as Si essent

qui sub terra semper habitavissent, neque exissent unquam supra
terram (above the surface of the earth) . Cic. N. D. II. 37. Exer-
citus qui supra Suessulam (above Suessula) Nolae praesideret. Liv.
XXIII. 32.
✓
(2) farther back,' ' before ' of time ; as Paulo supra hanc me-
moriam (a little before the present age) servi et clientes una (cum
dominis) cremabantur. Cæs. B. G. vi . 19.
(3) ' superior to,' of that which is more ancient or better or
more powerful ; as Supra septingentesimum annum (more than 700
years back). Liv. Praef. Ratio recta supra hominem (more than
human) putanda est deoque tribuenda. Cic. N. D. II. 13.
(4) ' more than ; ' as Karthaginiensium sociorumque caesa eo
die supra millia viginti (more than 20,000) . Liv. xxx. 35.
(5) ' overhanging, ' of that which is imminent, threatening, and
troublesome , with caput ; as Quum hostes supra caput sint (when
the enemy are overhanging our heads, are in a threatening attitude)
discedi ab armis, leges ferri placet. Liv. III. 17. Clamor supra
caput hostilis (the threatening clamour of the enemy) captam urbem
ostendit. Liv. IV. 22. Dux hostium cum exercitu supra caput est
(is over our heads, i. e. is threatening us) . Sall. Cat. 56. Ecce
supra caput (here we have over our heads) homo levis ac sordidus.
Cic. ad Quint. Fr. 1. 3.

TRANS signifies ' on the other side of, across,' especially of

rivers, seas, and mountains ; as Cogito aliquando trans Tiberim (on
the other side of the Tiber) hortos aliquos parare. Cic. Att. XII .
19. Caelum non animum mutant qui trans mare (across the sea)
currunt. Hor. 1 Epist. XI. 780. Tusci prius cis Apenninum ad in-
ferum mare, postea trans Apenninum (beyond the Apennines) colo-
nias miserunt. Liv. v. 33.

VERSUS signifies ' towards,' ' in the direction of, ' and always
follows its case ; as Quum Brundisium versus (in the direction of
Brundisium) ires ad Caesarem. Cic. ad. div. XI. 27. It is often
used with other prepositions, as ad or in ; thus Ad Oceanum versus
(towards the Ocean) . Cæs. B. G. VI. 32. In Italiam versus (in
the direction of Italy) . Cic. ad div. IV. 12. See Adversus.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 329

ULTRA signifies ' beyond ' (1) of place ; as Antiochus prope extra
orbem terrae ultra juga Tauri (beyond the ridges of Taurus) exactus
est. Liv. xxxvIII. 8..

(2) of time ; as Ultra promissum tempus (beyond, longer than,

the promised time) abesse queror. Ovid. Her. 11. 2.
(3) of degree ; as Julius Caesar laboris ultra fidem (beyond all
belief) patiens erat. Sueton. Caes. 57.
It is regularly opposed to citra: Sunt certi denique fines quos
ultra citraque (beyond or short of which) nequit consistere rectum.
Hor. 1 Serm. I. 107.

(B) Prepositions construed with the Ablative only.

A, AB, ABS are merely different forms of the same preposition ,

employed according to certain prescriptions, more or less depending
on the sound; thus, a stands generally before consonants, and ab
before vowels and h ; but in keeping their accounts the Romans
said, e. g. ab Longo pecuniam accepi not a Longo (see Velius Lon-
gus, p. 2224. ) In the text of Cicero, Orat. 47 , we find : una praepo-
sitio est ABS eaque nunc tantum in accepti tabulis manet, et ne iis
quidem omnium: in reliquo sermone mutata est, where we ought to
prefer the older reading ab ; and in Horace , 2 Serm. III . 69, we
have scribe decem a Nerio, where we ought perhaps to read AB
Nerio. So also we have Conditiones pacis Romae AB senatu et A
populo peti debere. Cæs. B. C. III. 10. Puer AB janua prospiciens,
Corn. Nep. XXIII. 12. Abs is used before q and t, as abs quivis
(Ter. Adelph. II. 3, 1 ) , abs te (Ter. Phorm. IV. 3, 12) . This pre-
position, however written , denotes , as we have seen above (109 (a) ) ,
separation or removal from the side or surface of an object ; and,
according to the following applications, it signifies :
(1) 'from, ' of the starting point in space or time ; as Animad-
versum est longius a vallo (from the rampart) esse aciem Pompeii
progressam. Cæs . B. C. III . 85. A prima aetate (from my earliest
age) me et omnis ars et maxime philosophia delectavit. Cic. ad div.
IV. 4. So also a teneris, a puero, a pueris, ab adolescentia, ab in-
eunte aetate. Verti igitur me a Minturnis (from Minturnæ) Arpi-
num versus. Cic . Att. XVI. 10. Nec velim, quasi decurso spatio, ad
carceres a calce (from the winning-post back again to the starting-
post) revocari. Cic. Senect. 23. Atticus Juniam familiam a stirpe
330 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

(from its first beginning) ad hanc aetatem ordine enumeravit. Corn.

Nep. xxv. 18. Camillum secundum a Romulo (after Romulus) con-
ditorem urbis Romanae ferebant. Liv. VII. 1. Charmadas repetebat
rhetoras usque a Corace (as far back as Corax) . Cic. de Orat. I. 20.
Ab hora tertia bibebatur (they commenced drinking at the third
hour) . Cic. Phil. II. 41. Quartus a victoria (from the time of the
victory) mensis. Tac. Hist. II. 95. Haec a principio (from the be-
ginning) tibi praecipiens. Cic. ad Qu . F. 11. 3.
(2) ' from ,' of the order or arrangement ; as Dactylus, si est
proximus a postremo (next to the last) , parum volubiliter venit ad
postremum. Cic. Orat. 64. Sacerdos ejus deae majestate imperio et
potentia secundus a rege (second counting from, next to the king)
consensu gentis illius habetur. Hirtius B. A. 66.

(3) from,' of the origin from which any thing proceeds ; as

Caesar reperiebat plerosque Belgas esse ortos ab Germanis (sprung
from the Germans) . Cæs. B. G. II . 4. Levior est plaga ab amico
(when it comes from a friend) quam a debitore (when it comes from
a debtor). Cic. ad div. IX. 16. Pharos est turris, quae nomen ab
insula (from the island as the origin of the name) accepit. Cæs.
B. C. III. 112. Annulos Graece a digitis (from, after the finger,
by the name dakтúλos, derived from dáктvλos) appellavere. Plin.
N. H. xxxiii . 1. But de and ex are sometimes used in giving the
derivatives of a name ; see, e. g. Ovid. Met. 1. 447. Cæs. B. G.
VII. 73. Hence in keeping their accounts the Romans said scribere
ab aliquo, solvere ab aliquo, to denote the person from whom the
money was derived ; thus, Non modo non recusare, sed etiam hoc
dicere, se ab me (with money derived from me, with my money)
quodammodo dare. Cic. Att. v. 21 , § 11.
(4) 'by,' of the agent considered as the origin of the action,
generally (like the Greek vπó, with the genitive) with passive and
neuter verbs ; as Eratosthenes a Serapione et ab Hipparcho repre-
henditur (Eratosthenes is censured by Serapion and Hipparchus) .
Cic. Att. 11. 6. Immunitates ab Antonio civitatibus, sacerdotia,
regna, venierunt (immunities, priesthoods, kingdoms were sold to
the states by Antony) . Cic. Phil. XII . 5. See above, 165 (e) , Obs. 5.
(5) ' from, ' ' of,' ' through,' ' out of, ' as the cause of the action ;
as Illud certe scio me ab singulari amore ac benevolentia (from, out
of, the most complete affection and kindness) quaecunque scribo tibi
scribere. Cic. Att. IX. 6.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 331

(6) ' from ,' ' against,' ' away from, ' ' out of the power of,' with
an idea of removal or separation ; as Tu, Juppiter, hunc a tuis aris,
a tectis urbis, a moenibus, a vita fortunisque civium arcebis (thou, O
Jupiter, wilt keep off this man from thy altars, from the houses and
walls of the city, from the lives and fortunes of the citizens ) . Cic.
Cat. 1. ad fin. Tarentini pugnabant ut, recuperata urbe ab Romanis
(out of the power of the Romans) , arcem etiam liberarent. Liv.
XXVI. 39. Teneras defendo a frigore (against the cold) myrtos.
Virgil, Ecl. VII. 6.
(7) ' away from, ' 'unconnected with, ' ' foreign to ; ' as Non ab re
fuerit (it would not be foreign to the subject) subtexere quae evene-
rint. Sueton. August. 94.
(8) 'from or on the side of,' ' in respect to,' ' in point of; ' as An-
tonius ab equitatu (in point of cavalry) primus esse dicebatur. Cic.
ad div. x. 15. Imparati sumus quum a militibus (in respect to sol-
diers) tum a pecunia (in point of money) . Cic. Att. VII . 15. Est
nonnulla in Catone et Lysia similitudo ; sed ille Graecus ab omni
laude (in regard to every excellence) felicior. Cic. Brut. 16.
M. Crassus fuit mediocriter a doctrina (in point of learning) in-
structus, angustius etiam a natura (in regard to natural abilities) .
Ibid. 66. Isthmus duo maria ab occasu et ortu solis (on the side of
• the west and the east) finitima faucibus dirimit. Liv. XLV. 28.
Gallia attingit ab Sequanis et Helvetiis (from the side of the Se-
quani and Helvetii) flumen Rhenum. Cæs. B. G. 1. 1. Panaetius
requirit Juppiterne cornicem a laeva (on the left) , corvum a dextra
(on the right) canere jussisset. Cic. Div. 1. 7. Horatius Cocles a
tergo (behind him, in his rear) pontem interscindijussit. Cic. Leges ,
II. 4. Principes utrinque pugnam ciebant, ab Sabinis (on the side of
the Sabines) Curtius, ab Romanis (on the side of the Romans) Hos-
tilius. Liv. I. 12.Perfugae coacti sunt cum eis pugnare, ad quos
transierant, ab hisque stare (to stand on the side of those) quos reli-
querant. Corn. Nep. xiv. 6. Hence we have the ablative with ab
in designations of employments, with a suppressed puer, servus, li-
bertus, minister, procurator, or the like ; as Sextius Paccius Sex.
Pompeii a potione (sc. puer, ' his cup-bearer ') ; Eumolpus Caesaris a
supellectile (Cæsar's master of the wardrobe) ; Antiochus Ti. Claudi
Caesaris a bibliotheca (his librarian).

ABSQUE signifies ' without, ' but only in the older writers and
in the phrase absque eo esset, when we denote the conditional absence
332 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

of something ; as Absque te esset (without you, but for you) , hodie

nunquam ad solem occasum viverem. Plaut. Men. v. 7. 25. In the
only passage quoted as an authority for absque = sine (namely, Cic.
Att. I. 19) , the common preposition is substituted by Oudendorp
(ad 1. de Invent. 36) , Orelli (ad loc.) , and Hand ( Tursell. 1. p. 68).
CUM signifies (1 ) ' with,' of society or mutual agency ; as Sex
menses cum Antiocho philosopho fui (I spent six months in his
company). Cic. Brut. 91. Omnia secum (along with himself, in
his company or train) armentarius Afer agit. Virgil, Georg. III.
343. Nihil est turpius quam cum eo (with him, of mutual agency)
bellum gerere, quicum (with whom, in whose society) familiariter
vixeris. Cic. Lael. 21. Mihi nihil erat cum Cornificio (I had
nothing to do with Cornificius, we had no mutual transactions).
Cic. Att. XII . 17. Quid mihi cum ista summa sanctimonia? ( what
have I to do with that wonderful conscientiousness ?). Cic. Quint. 17.
(2) ' at,' ' with, ' of coincidence in time ; as Pariter cum vita
(at the same time with our life) sensus amittitur. Cic. Tusc. I. 11 .
Cum prima luce (at the first dawn) Pomponii domum venisse dicitur.
Cic. de Off. 111. 32.
(3) ' with,' of an accompaniment of any kind ; as In cella con-
cordiae cum gladiis (armed with swords, with swords by their sides)
homines collocati stant. Cic. Phil. II. 8. Ut veniret Lampsacum
cum magna calamitate et prope pernicie civitatis (with , i. e. bringing
with him, great calamity and almost the ruin of the state) . Cic.
Verr. III. 24. Fictas fabulas, e quibus utilitas nulla elici potest,
cum voluptate (with pleasure, i. e. not without pleasure , with that
concomitant of our reading) legimus. Cic. Fin. v. 19. Quum Iso-
crates videret oratores cum severitate (with critical severity) audiri,
poetas autem cum voluptate (with pleasure). Cic. Orat. 52. Semper
equidem magno cum metu (under the influence of great apprehension)
incipio dicere. Cic. Cluent. 18.

Obs. The difference between this usage and the mere ablative of im-
mediate determination (above, 163) is easily seen from such a passage as
the following : Si et ferro interfectus ille, et tu inimicus ejus cum gladio
cruento comprehensus es (Cic. de Orat. 11. 10, § 170) . For ferro is clearly
the ablative of the instrument with which the man was slain ; but cum
gladio merely indicates the accompaniment the fact that the man was
found with a sword, that he had a sword about him. Similarly, in the
passages from Cicero quoted above in which we have cum voluptate, cum
metu, it is clear that the acts described are represented as accompanied
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 333

by the emotions of pleasure or fear, not as caused by them or in any way

qualified by them, as if we had metu exanimari, territare, trepidare or
the like. So also when Pliny says of the centurion Vinnius Valens that
he was accustomed vehicula cum culeis onusta donec exinanirentur sus-
tinere (N. H. VII. 20 § 82), he does not mean ' carts loaded with sacks,'
but ' loaded carts together with sacks ; ' intimating an addition to the
weight, and not merely that with which the carts were loaded ; and
when Plautus writes (Men. v. 4. 14) magna cum cura illum curari volo,
he implies not ' I wish him to be cared for with great care,' but ' I wish
him to be cared for, and, in addition, I wish great care to be used.'

DE denotes separation or removal from the surface of an object

in a downward direction, and it has the following special signi-
fications :

(1) ' from ,' down from ; as De digito annulum detraho (I take
the ring from- down to the point of and away from- my finger) .
Ter. Heaut. IV. 1 , 37. Praetor de sella (down from his chair,
which was placed on a tribunal) surrexit atque abiit. Itaque cum
de foro (away from the forum, because we should speak of going
up to the market-place) discessimus. But immediately before we
have cives Romani a me nusquam discedere (the citizens nowhere
left my side) . Cic. Verr. IV. 65. Manum de tabula (take the hand
away from the picture, i. e. down from it, because it is lifted while
painting) . Cic. ad div. VII. 25.
(2) from,' ' out of, ' especially with reference to taking a part
from its whole, or the contents from that which contains ; as Rex
Ariobarzanes a me (from me) equitatum, cohortesque de meo exercitu
(out of my army) postulabat. Cic. ad div. XV. 2. Catilinae ferrum
de manibus (out of his hands) extorsimus. Cic. Cat. II . 1. Some
MSS. have e manibus, which would signify the completed result,
as de manibus denotes the act itself. Non soleo duo parietes de
eadem fidelia (out of the same paint-pot) dealbare. Cic. ad div.
VII. 29. Ita est perscriptum senatus-consultum ut a me (by me as
the agent) de scripto (from the document,-of the contents) dicta
sententia est. Cic. ad div. x. 13. Assentior Crasso, ne de C. Laelii
aut arte aut gloria detraham (that I may not take anything from
the skill or renown of Laelius) . Cic. de Orat. I. 9. Dictator C.
Marcius Rutilus primus de plebe (from the number of the plebeians)
dictus est. Liv. VII . 17. Licinius nescio qui de Circo Maximo
(from the Circus Maximus, i. e. from the number of those who lived
there) . Cic. Mil. 24. Scripseras velle te bene evenire quod de Crasso
(from Crassus, i . e. from out of his possessions) domum emissem.
334 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

Cic. ad div. v. 6. Ut decerneret Senatus, ut stipendium miles de

publico (from out of the public treasury) acciperet, quum ante id
tempus de suo (from, out of his own resources) quisque functus eo
munere esset. Liv. Iv. 59. Clodius proscripsit se per omnes dies
comitiales de caelo servaturum (that he would take observations
from, i. e. of the signs exhibited by, and coming down from the
sky). Cic. Att. IV. 3. Hence : De caelo tactae quercus (oaks
touched from the sky, i. e. struck or blasted by lightning descend-
ing from the sky) . Virg. Ecl. 1. 17. P. Messalla consul de Pompeio
quaesivit (inquired of Pompey, got or sought the answer out of
him) . Cic. Att. I. 14.
(3) in the midst of, ' ' while it is or was still such a period, '
in speaking of time ; as Surgunt de nocte latrones (get up while
it is still night) . Hor. 1 Epist. II. 32. Coeperunt epulari de die
(they began to banquet in the middle of the day) . Liv. XXIII. 8.
(4) ' about,' ' concerning, ' of a subject or cause of action
which might be selected from many others ; as Regulus nuper
librum de vita filii (about the life of his son) recitavit. Credas non
de puero scriptum sed a puero (you would believe that the boy
was not the subject but the author of it) . Plin. Epist. IV . 7. Cum
duobus ducibus de imperio (about, for the empire) in Italia decer-
tatum, Pyrrho et Hannibale . Cic. Lael. 8. De benevolentia (in re-
gard to benevolence) , quam quisque habeat erga nos, illud est in
officio, ut ei plurimum tribuamus a quo plurimum diligimur. Cic.
de Off. 1. 15. Helvetii omnium rerum inopia adducti , legatos de
deditione (on the subject of, with a view to) ad eum miserunt.
Cæsar, B. G. 1. 27. There are many idiomatic phrases with this
"
preposition ; as De improviso, of a sudden .' Cic. Rosc. Am. 53.
"
De integro, afresh . ' Cic. Att. XIII . 51. De industria, on pur-
pose . ' Cic. de Off. 1.7. De meo consilio, ' by my advice.' Cic. Att.
3. De publico consilio, by the public authority.' Cic. Inv. 1. 1 , 3 .
De Jovis sententia , ' by the counsel of Jupiter .' Cic. Tusc. II. 14.
E and EX are different forms of the same preposition , the latter,
which is the full form, being used before both vowels and conso-
nants, and the former being employed before consonants only. The
primary meaning of ex is separation or motion from the interior
of an object. It therefore signifies :
(1) Out of,' of place ; as Ex tortuosis locis et inclusis (from
within flexuous and confined places) referuntur ampliores soni.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 335

Cic. N. D. II . 57. Ampius conatus est tollere pecunias Epheso ex

fano Dianae (from Ephesus out of the temple of Diana) . Cæs.
B. C. III. 105. Pulsis e foro bonis omnibus (all the good having
been driven out of the forum) . Cic. Pis. 13. And so metaphori-
cally ; as Ex vita discedo tanquam ex hospitio, non tanquam ex
domo. Cic. Sen. 23.

(2) ' out of,' from among a number ; as Ex Massiliensium

classe (from among the fleet) quinque naves sunt depressae , ex reli-
quis (out of the remainder ) una praemissa Massiliam . Cæs. B. C.
II . 7. M. Calidius non fuit orator unus e multis (one out of
many, an ordinary example of oratory) ; potius inter multos prope
singularis fuit. Cic. Brut. 79.
(3) ' from or out of,' with reference to the origin , the mate-
rials, or the cause ; as Circe erat e Perseide (from, of her mother) .
Oceani filia, nata. Cic. N. D. III. 19. Ennius in sepulcro Scipio-
num putatur constitutus e marmore (of marble, as the material) .
Cic. Arch. 9. Majores ex minima tenuissimaque republica (out of-
with nothing to start from but-a very small and feeble common-
wealth) maximam et florentissimam nobis reliquerunt. Cic. Sext.
Rosc. 18. Ex ea re (out of that thing, as the cause), quid fiat
vide. Ter. Andr. II. 3. 11. Demetrius, vir et ex republica (by, in
consequence of his administration) Athenis et ex doctrina (by reason
of his learning) nobilis et clarus, Phalereus vocitatus est. Cic. Rabir.
Post. 9. Dionysius Stoicus, quum ex renibus (from the kidneys, as
the source of the pain, i . e. by reason of that part of his body)
laboraret, clamitabat falsa esse omnia quae antea de dolore ipse
sensisset. Cic. Tusc. 11. 25.

(4) ' immediately after,' or ' upon, ' of time ; as Ex Kalendis

Januariis (ever since the first of January) ad hanc horam invigi-
lavi reipublicae. Cic. Phil. XIV. 7. Germani statim e somno (im-
mediately after sleep, i . e. as soon as they get up) lavantur. Tac.
Germ. 22. Cotta ex consulatu (immediately after his consulship)
estprofectus in Galliam. Cic. Brut . 92. Oppidum Remorum ex itinere
(immediately after their march) Belgae oppugnare coeperunt. Cæs.
B. G. II. 6.

(5) in accordance with,' from, as from a mould or model ;

thus : Facis ex tua dignitate et e republica (you act in accordance
with your dignity and the interests of the state) . Cic. ad Brut. 2 .
Vulgus ex veritate (in accordance with the truth) pauca, ex opinione
336 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

(by the standard of common opinion) multa aestimat. Cic. Sext.

Rosc. 10. Ridicule etiam illud P. Nasica censori Porcio Catoni,
quum ille, เ Ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes ?' 'Non
"
hercle,' inquit, ex mei animi sententia.' Cic. de Orat. II . 64,
§ 260. In this last passage the joke consists in the two idiomatic
applications of ex animi sententia, according to the intention of
my mind.' The censor asked Nasica : ' tell me on your solemn
declaration '-dic vere et fide—' whether you are married or not ?'
(cf. de Off. III. 29 : quod ex animi tui sententia juraris) . The answer
6
means : My wife is not according to the wish of my heart.' The
preposition ex is used in a number of adverbial phrases ; as ex
adverso , ' opposite, ' e regione, ' over against, ' ex animo, ' sincerely, '
ex improviso, ' suddenly, ' ex tempore, ' on the spur of the moment,'
ex usu, ' profitably,' e re mea, ' for my interest,' ex toto, ' entirely,'
e vestigio, on the spot,' e re nata ( also pro re nata) , ' according to
the circumstances, ' ex parte, in part, ' heres ex asse, ' heir to the
whole property,' ex occulto, ' secretly,' ex insidiis, ' by stratagem,'
ex insperato, ' unexpectedly,' ex integro, ' afresh,' ex aequo, on an
equal footing,' ex contrario, ' on the contrary,' ex equo, ' on horse-
back,' &c.

PRE signifies (1) ' before ' of place or position ; as Villa a tergo
potius quam prae se flumen habeat (let the villa have a river rather
behind than in front of it) . Columella, I. 5, 4. Hercules prae se
armentum agens (driving the herd before him) nando trajecit. Liv.
I. 7. Hence the phrase prae se ferre or gerere, ' to carry before
oneself,' i. e. to display, or exhibit ; ' as Fiduciam orator prae se
ferat (let the orator display confidence) . Quint. I. O. v. 13, § 51 .
Prae se quandam gerit utilitatem (displays, has the appearance of,
a sort of usefulness) . Cic. Invent. II. 52.
(2) ' for,' ' on account of,' with reference to some obstacle which
stands in the way ; as Solem prae jaculorum multitudine (owing to
the number of missiles ) non videbitis. Cic. Tusc. 1. 42. Sed finis
sit; neque enim prae lacrimis (for tears-owing to my tears) jam
loqui possum. Cic. Mil. 38. Similarly : Prae moerore. Cic. Planc.
41 , 99. Prae fletu et dolore. Cic. Att. XI. 7. Prae gaudio. Ter.
Heaut. II. 3. 67. Prae amore. Ter. Eun. I. 2. 18. Prae tremore.
Plaut. Rud. II. 6. 41.

(3) in comparison with, ' of an object held forth by way of

contrast ; as Gallis prae magnitudine corporum suorum (in compa-
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 337

rison with the size of their bodies) brevitas nostra contemptui est.
Cæs. B. G. 11. 30. Romam prae sua Capua (in comparison with
their own Capua) irridebunt atque contemnent. Cic. Agrar. 11. 35.

PRO signifies ( 1) ' before,' of place ; as Pro muro (before the

wall) dies noctesque agitare. Sallust, Jug. 94. Caesar legiones pro
castris (before the camp) constituit. Cæs. B. G. VII . 70. Augustus
bifariam laudatus est, pro aede divi Juliï (in front of the temple of
the deified Julius) a Tiberio, et pro veteribus rostris (in front of
the old tribunal) a Druso, Tiberii filio . Suet. Aug. 100. Dictator
miris pro concione (before the assembly, i . e. in a public speech)
Manlii Torquati pugnam laudibus tulit. Liv. VII. 10.

(2) ' for,' ' on behalf of, in favour or defence of; ' as Convenit
dimicare pro legibus, pro libertate, pro patria (to fight for the
laws, for liberty, for our country) . Cic. Tusc. IV. 19.

(3) ' instead of,' as a return or equivalent for ; as Italico

bello Sicilia Romanis non pro penaria cella, sed pro aerario fuit.
(not in the place of a granary, but a treasury) . Cic. Verr. II. 2.
Tu ausus es pro nihilo prae tua praeda (in the light of nothing as
compared with your plunder) tot res sanctissimas ducere ? Cic.
Verr. II. 16. Minas pro ambobus (in exchange for, as the price of
both) viginti dedi. Ter. Eun. 1. 2. 85. Ego te pro istis dictis et
factis ulciscar (I will requite you for those words and deeds) . Ibid.
v. 4. 19.
6
(4) ' in proportion to, ' according to ;' as Permissum uti pro
tempore atque periculo (in proportion to the exigency and danger)
exercitum compararent. Sall. Cat. 29. Haec pro tuo ingenio (as far
as your abilities allow) considera. Cic. ad div. XVI. 1 . Hence
pro re nata (according to circumstances) . Cic. Att. VII. 8.

SINE signifies without,' as the opposite of cum ; as Homo sine

re, sine fide, sine spe, sine sede, sine fortunis ( without money,
credit, hope, a fixed abode, or property) . Cic. Cael. 32. Nulla dies
sine linea (' no day without a stroke of the brush,' a proverb from
the industry of Apelles ) . Plin. N. H. xxxv. 10. 84. Sine periculo
(without incurring a risk). Ter. Heaut. II . 3. 73. Sine fraude
(without hurt or harm) . Liv. 1. 24. Horat. 2 Carm . XIX. 20. Sine
dolo malo (without any evil design) . Liv. XXXVIII . 11.

D. L. G. 22
338 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS .

(C) Prepositions construed with the Accusative and Ablative.

IN corresponds in usage to the Greek prepositions eis and ev.

When construed with the accusative it answers to eis governing the
same case ; when construed with the ablative it answers to ev
governing the dative. It also performs some of the functions of
ává, which is identical in origin with the other two .
(a) With the accusative, in signifies ( 1) ' into, ' ' unto, ' ' up to,'
of motion or direction ; as Proba vita via est in caelum et in coetum
eorum, qui jam vixerunt (the road to heaven and to the company of
those who have already lived in the same way) . Cic. Somn. Scip. 3.
(2) into the middle of something; ' as Codrus se in medios im-
misit hostes (into the midst of the enemy) . Cic. Tusc. 1. 48. Homo
optatum negotium sibi in sinum delatum esse dicebat (he said it had
come into his bosom, under his complete control) . Cic . Verr. 1. 50.
Hence of a close fight : Pugna jam in manus (to a close grapple),
jam ad gladios venerat. Liv. II . 46.
(3) ' to,' ' till,' or ' unto, ' of time ; as Studebat in coenae tempus
(he studied till supper-time). Plin. Epist. III. 5.
(4) ' by,' of distributive time ; as In dies (by days, i. e. every
day) . Cic. Phil. 1. 2. In horas (Horat. 2 Serm. VII. 10) , or in sin-
gulas horas (every hour) . Liv. II. 12.
(5) 'for,' of future time ; as Ad coenam hominem in hortos
invitavit in posterum diem (he invited the man to his country-house
to dinner for the following day). Cic. de Off. III. 14.
(6) 'to, ' of extent or magnitude ; as Lautumiae Syracusanae
sunt opus ingens, totum ex saxo in mirandam altitudinem (to a won-
derful depth) presso. Cic. Verr. v. 27. In dimidiam partem (to
the extent of one half) decoquenda. Colum. XII . 24. Nec puer
Iliaca quisquam de gente Latinos in tantum (to such an extent)
tollet avos. Virg. Æn. VI . 875.
(7) ' into,' of division ; as Stoici diviserunt naturam hominis in
animum et corpus (into soul and body) . Cic. Fin. Iv. 7.
(8) ' towards,' of a local aspect ; as In meridiem spectet (let it
look to the south) . Cato, R. R. 1. 1 . More commonly ad me-
ridiem, ad septemtriones. Cic. N. D. 11. 19.
(9) ' towards ' or ' against,' of feelings, relations, or actions ;
as T. Manlius fuit perindulgens in patrem (towards his father) , idem
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS . 339

acerbe severus in filium (against his son) . Cic. de Off. III . 31. In
consules designatos (against the consuls elect) legem senatus decrevit.
Cic. Cluent. 49. Majores nostri de servis in dominos (against their
masters) quaeri noluerunt. Cic. Part. 34.
(10) 'for,' of the object or motive ; as Deletam urbem cernimus
eorum quorum in gratiam (for whose gratification) Saguntum dele-
verat Hannibal. Liv. XXVIII . 39. Puerum conspexi olera et pisci-
culos ferre in coenam seni (for the old man's supper) . Ter. Andr.
II. 2 , 31 .
(11 ) ' after, ' ' according to ; ' as Cur paucis centurionibus in mo-
dum servorum (after the manner of slaves) obedirent. Tac. Ann.
I. 17.

(12) ' over ; ' as In filium (over my son) quam habebam potesta-
tem, ea usus sum. Cic. Invent. II. 17 .

(b) With the ablative, In signifies (1 ) ' in, ' ' within ; ' as Deus
intelligentiam in animo (in the soul) , animum conclusit in corpore.
Cic. Univ. 3.
(2) ' in the midst of, ' ' among ; ' as In Persis (among the Per-
sians) augurantur et divinant Magi. Cic. Div. 1. 41. Dolor in
maximis malis ducitur (is reckoned among the greatest evils) . Cic.
Leg. 1. 11 .
(3) ' upon; ' as Verres coronam habebat unam in capite (on his
head), alteram in collo (on his neck) . Cic. Verr. v. 11.
(4) ' at,' ' upon, ' of a time or occasion ; as Q. Mucii janua in
ejus infirmissima valetudine (at the time of his most infirm health)
maxima quotidie frequentiâ civium celebratur. Cic. de Orat. 1. 45.
Plerumque in summo periculo (in a case of great danger) timor mi-
sericordiam non recipit. Cæs. B. G. VII. 26.
(5) ' in, ' ' during,' of time ; as In hoc spatio (during this time)
et in iis post aedilitatem annis (in those years after my ædileship)
et praetor primus et incredibili voluntate sum factus. Cic. Brut. 93.

(6) ' in ,' ' within , ' of a period ; as Credo potis esse te Massici
montis uberrumos quattuor fructus ebibere in una hora (within the
space of one hour). Plaut. Pseud. v. 2. 10. Crassum semel ait in

vita (in the course of his life) risisse Lucilius. Cic. Fin. v. 30.
(7) on account of,' as the present cause of something ; as In
quo oratore (on account of what orator) homines exhorrescunt? quem
22-2
340 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

stupefacti dicentem intuentur? in quo exclamant? (who causes them

to cry out ?) Cic. de Orat. III. 14.
We have a number of adverbial phrases with in and the abla-
tive ; as in praesentia, ' at present, ' in tempore, ' at the right time,'
in loco, ' in the proper place, ' in confesso est, ' it is admitted ,' in dif-
ficili est, ' it is difficult, ' in aere alieno est, he is in debt,' in libris
est, ' he is at his books, ' in culpa est, he is in fault, ' in more est,
' it is customary, ' in periculo, in ambiguo, in incerto est, ‘ it is ha-
zardous, doubtful, uncertain ,' and the like.
SUB denotes ' motion under ' with the accusative, and ' rest
under' with the ablative.

(a) With the accusative sub signifies (1) ' motion under,' in
space ; as Milites Caesaris sub montem succedunt (go under the
mountain). Cæsar, B. C. 1. 45. So also of objects which fall
under the senses ; as Res quaedam ita sunt parvae, ut sub sensum
cadere non possint (that they cannot be brought within the reach
of the senses). Cic. Acad. 1. 8. Similarly of that which is brought
under any one's control : Miltiades insulas quae Cyclades nominan-
tur sub Atheniensium redegit potestatem (reduced under the power of
the Athenians). Corn. Nep. 1. 2.
(2) ' about,' of time ; as Pompeius sub noctem (about nightfall)
naves solvit. Cæs. B. C. 1. 28.
(3) ' immediately after, ' of time ; as Redditae sunt litterae tuae
Cornuto, quum is recitasset litteras Lepidi. Sub eas (immediately
after them) statim recitatae sunt tuae. Cic. ad div. x. 16.
(b) With the ablative sub signifies ( 1 ) ' under,' of rest under
an object in space ; as Caesar hostem sub muro (under the wall) sis-
tere cogit. Cæs. B. C. 1. 45. So of objects which are under the
senses ; as Jam luciscebat omniaque sub oculis (visible to the eyes)
erant. Liv. IV. 28. Similarly of that which is under one's control ;
as Antigenis sub imperio (under his command) erat phalanx Mace-
donum. Corn. Nep. XVIII . 7. Compare with these the three pas-
sages under (a).
(2) ' at,' of time ; as Sub exitu anni (at the end of the year)
comitia habita sunt. Liv. vI. 18.

SUBTER is used only in reference to space, and signifies

(a) With the accusative, ' beneath, ' with a sense of motion ; as
Cupiditatem subter praecordia locavit (he placed passionate desire
under the diaphragm) . Cic. Tusc. I. 10.
 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 341

(b) With the ablative, ' beneath,' with an implication of rest ;

as Virtus omnia, quae cadere in hominem possunt, subter se (beneath
itself) habet. Cic. Tusc. v. 1.

SUPER denotes motion above ' with the accusative, and ' rest
above ' with the ablative.

(a) With the accusative super signifies ( 1 ) ' motion above,' of

place ; as Demetrius super terrae tumulum (on the top of the mound
of earth) noluit quid statui, nisi columellam, tribus cubitis ne altiorem.
Cic. Leg. II. 26.
(2) ' over,' in the sense of during ; as Vespasianus super coe-
nam (over his supper, during that meal) multa joco transigebat.
Sueton . Vesp. 22.
(3) ' beyond,' ' besides,' ' in addition ; ' as In Bruttiis Punicum
exercitum super morbum (in addition to the pestilence) etiam fames
adfecit. Liv. XXVIII. 46.

(b) With the ablative super signifies (1 ) ' rest above,' of place ;
as Destrictus ensis cui super impia cervice pendet (hangs above his
impious neck). Horace, 3 Carm. I. 17.

(2) ' about,' ' concerning; ' as Hac super re (about this matter)
scribam ad te Rhegii. Cic. Att. XVI . 6.
 CHAPTER III.

TENSES AND MOODS OF VERBS.

§ 1. Construction of the Tenses in the Finite Moods.

170 A COMPLETE system of tenses includes three pairs of

verb-forms. For a predication of tense must refer either to the
time of speaking, which does not need definition , or to some other
point of time, which has to be defined. In the former case, the
tense is called definite or determinate; in the latter, indefinite or
indeterminate. Now, besides this, every predication of tense must
express either simultaneity, i. e. at the same time, or at the present ;
posteriority, i. e. afterwards, or in the future ; or anteriority, i. e.
before, or in the past.According to this view of the matter, which
is fully established by the Greek language (see Complete Greek
Grammar, articles 422 and following) , the Latin system of tenses
is defective. For the perfect has to serve both as the definite
tense of anteriority, and as the indefinite tense of posteriority.
Thus we have :
Definite Tenses .
Simultaneity : scribo, ' I am writing '-at the present time.
Posteriority scribam, ' I shall write '-after the present time.
Anteriority : scripsi, ' I have written ' -before the present time.
Indefinite Tenses.
Simultaneity : scribebam, ' I was writing ' -at a given time.
Posteriority : scripsi, ' I wrote ' —after a given time.
Anteriority : scripseram, ' I had written ' —before a given time.

Moreover, as we have seen, in all cases where there is no

future in -bo, the tense used for the expression of definite posterior-
ity is really the present subjunctive, and denotes , as will be shown
directly, rather probability than futurity.
 TENSES. 343

Obs. Although the reduplicated form corresponds to the true pre-

terite in Greek, which is also involved in the compound preterite with
fui appended, whereas the perfect in -si answers to the Greek aorist in
-oa, there is practically no difference in the syntactical usage of these
forms, and their absolute identity is farther developed in the sameness
of their person-endings, which is probably a subsequent accommodation.
Nor is there any difference in use between the two forms of the future.

(A) Indicative and Imperative.

171 (a) As the imperative differs from the present indicative

only in a weakening or extension of the person-endings, we may
consider the two moods together as far as their tenses are con-
cerned. The following examples will show the usage of the tenses
in the indicative mood.
I. Present : Deus mundum conservat, ' God preserves (i. e. iş
still continuing to preserve) the world.'
Jamdudum ausculto, ' I am all this while continuing to listen,'
i. e. I have long been doing so.
Zeno aliter judicat, ' Zeno determines otherwise, ' i. e. in an ex-
tant record of his sentiments, or in a passage now before us.

II. Imperfect : Socrates dicebat (or dicere solebat) omnes in

eo quod scirent satis esse eloquentes, Socrates was saying or
used to say (at a specified time, namely, while he lived and
spoke) that all men were sufficiently eloquent in that wherein
they had knowledge.'
Romae quotannis bini consules creabantur, ' every year two
consuls at a time used to be created at Rome, ' i. e. it was a con-
tinued custom .
Proelio se expediebant, they were preparing themselves for the
battle, ' i. e. they began to do so at the specified time.

III. Perfect (a) as aorist, or historical perfect : Vixit inaequa-

lis clavum ut mutaret in horas, ' he lived so inconsistently (a mere
statement of a past occurrence) that he changed the fashion of his
robe every hour. '
With an imperfect following : Quo tempore Philippus Grae-
ciam evertit, etiam tum Athenae gloriâ litterarum et artium florebant,
' at the time when Philip overthrew Greece (a mere statement
of a past occurrence, happening at a specified time, and subse-
quent to prior events expressed or presumed), even then (at the
time) Athens was flourishing in the renown of literature and art.'
344 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

(b) As a true perfect, expressing the continuance of an action

up to the present time, and its completion now : Ille potens sui
"
laetusque degit, cui licet in diem dixisse- Vixi, he lives mas-
ter of himself and happy, who can say, at the end of every
day I have lived , ' i . e . I have completed a period of living ;
compare this with the first example of the aorist perfect, and with
the converse saying of the Emperor Titus : diem perdidi, 'I
have lost a day.' So also : fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium et ingens
gloria Dardanidum, we have been ' - but are no more. Some-
times this usage is fully explained by the context ; as is mos
usque ad hoc tempus permansit, that custom has continued up to
this day .'

Obs. The present may sometimes be used instead of the imperfect

or historical perfect, and even in the same sentence with the other
tense ; as Eo postquam Cæsar pervenit, obsides, arma, servos qui ad eos
perfugissent poposcit : dum ea conquiruntur et conferuntur, nocte inter-
missa circiter hominum millia IV. ex castris Helvetiorum egressi ad
Rhenum finesque Germanorum contenderunt, where conquiruntur and
conferuntur are used instead of the imperfect by the side of the histo-
rical perfect. Exspectabant omnes, quo tandem Verres progressurus esset,
quum repente proripi hominem ac deligari jubet, where jubet is used
instead of the historical perfect by the side of the imperfect.

IV. Pluperfect : Quum esset Demosthenes, multi oratores mag-

ni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant, nec postea defecerunt, they
were at the time when Demosthenes flourished, they had been
before, and were not wanting afterwards,' (where the expression
of anteriority stands between historical statements of fact) .
Quum ego illum vidi, jam consilium mutaverat, when I saw
him he had already changed his mind' (the change was anterior to
my seeing him) .
Irruerant Danai et tectum omne tenebant, the Greeks had
rushed in (previously) and were occupying (at the time) • all the
building.'
Daphnis sub ilice consederat, compulerantque greges Corydon et
Thyrsis in unum ; huc mihi caper deerraverat; atque ego Daphnin
adspicio, Daphnis had already taken his seat under the oak ;
Corydon and Thyrsis had already driven their flocks together ; my
he-goat had wandered to this spot ; and as a consequence of this
previous state of things , I see ' (i . e. I saw, according to the last
observation) ' Daphnis.'
 TENSES. 345

V. Future : Tu bibes Caecubam uvam, ' you shall drink the

Cæcuban wine ' (which conveys a permission or a promise) .
Quando veritas ullum inveniet parem ? ' when will Truth find
any one equal to him ?' (where the whole of future time is ex-
cluded from the range of choice).
Illo tempore Respublica florebit, at that time the Common-
wealth will flourish ' (where a subsequent event is predicted) .

Obs. Students will observe that the Latin language can carry the
future indicative through all the members of a period, whereas in
English the sign of the future is expressed only in the leading sentence.
Thus we say: profecto beati erimus, quum corporibus relictis cupiditatum
<
erimus expertes, truly we shall be happy, when having left our bodies
we are, i. e. shall be, free from passionate desire ; ' naturam si sequemur
ducem, nunquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature as our guide, we
shall never go wrong ; ' ut voles me esse, ita ero, ' I will be, as you wish.'
The general meaning of the different moods has been already given
(Part I. 70 (b)), and the above instances will sufficiently illustrate the
use of the indicative.

(B) The imperative mood of the second person is either a

direct command or an intreaty, and in some verbs, which are
limited to this mood, it has become a mere interjection ( 104, h) .
Fac and cura are often used periphrastically with ut. The third
person of the imperative is generally employed in laws, in imita-
tions of the legal style, and in prohibitions with ne. The follow-
ing are examples :
Patres conscripti, subvenite misero mihi, ite obviam injuriae,
' O Senators, patrician and elected, assist unhappy me, go forth to
meet wrong-doing.'
Fac venias or ut venias, 'make a point of coming.'
Cura, ut valeas, ' take care of your health .'
Regio imperio duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, ' let there
be two with kingly authority, and let them be called consuls. '
Servus meus Sticho liber esto, let my slave Sticho be free ' (in
a will) .
Ter uncti transnanto Tiberim somno quibus est opus alto, 'let
those who need sound sleep anoint themselves and swim thrice
across the Tiber ' (in an imitation of the style of laws and medical
prescriptions).
6 Hear ye ,
Et ille, Audite vero, audite,' inquit, and he says, "
hear ye " (in a ludicrous imitation of scholastic pomposity. Cic.
de Orat. II. 7, 28) .
346 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

Nocturna sacrificia ne sunto, ' let there be no sacrifices by

night.'
(B) Subjunctive.
172 The tenses of the subjunctive are used as follows :

I. The present is a kind of future, for it denotes the probable

occurrence of something after the time of speaking. Hence,
while it is so nearly identical with the form which in most verbs
is used for the future, the subjunctive has no simple future in the
active, and no future at all in the passive voice. The learner
must particularly observe that the possibility, expressed by the
subjunctive in Latin, is always hypothetical, and that the direct
statement of permission or power must always be made by licet
or possum with the infinitive mood (see 177 (e), Obs. 2) . Thus
described the present subjunctive is (a) optative, (b) deliberative,
(c) hortative, (d) potential, (e) conditional or (f) dependent, in each
case with a presumption of possibility, as the following examples
will show.

(a) Optative ; with or without utinam, and in negative wishes

with ne ; as salvus sis , or utinam salvus sis, ' may you be well ’ —
which is not only desired but possible ; ne sis patruus mihi, ' I wish
you would not act as an uncle to me '-abstain from the harshness
which you may avoid. (Optative without av in Greek.)

(b) Deliberative ; as eloquar an sileam ? ' shall I speak out or

hold my tongue?' (Conjunctive in Greek.)
.
(c) Hortative ; as imitemur majores nostros, ' let us imitate
our ancestors.' (Conjunctive in Greek.)

(d) Potential ; either in the apodosis or second clause of a con-

ditional sentence ( 128, XVI. 3) ; as ego, si Scipionis desiderio me
moveri negem, mentiar, ' if I deny (i. e. shall deny) that I am
affected by a longing for Scipio , I shall speak falsely,' where there
is a mere assumption ; similarly, tu si hic sis, aliter sentias, if you
were,-which you are not but might be-in my situation, you
would think otherwise : ' or by itself without an expressed condi-
tion ; as dicat aliquis, ' some one may here say.' Also in interro-
gatives ; as quis dubitet? ' who would doubt ?' (Greek Optative
with av.)

(e) Conditional; either in the protasis or first clause of the

conditional sentence ; as in the examples just given : or followed
 TENSES . 347

by a future indicative ; as si quid habeat, dabit ( 128, xvI. 2 ) ; or by

itself, as containing a supposition ; thus , vendat aedes vir bonus
6
propter aliqua vitia, suppose a good man sells a house on account
of some fault,' and so on through the passage (Cic. de Officiis, III .
13) ; (Greek optative with ei and without av) . The conditional
may amount to an optative ; as O mihi praeteritos referat si Jupiter
annos, ' O if Jupiter would only give me back the years that are
gone ! ' (Virg. Æn. VIII . 560) . So also in Greek : Gr. Gr. Art.
516 b.)
(f) Dependent ; with ut or ne or some relative word after the
present, the true perfect, and future of the main clause ; as scribo,
scripsi, scribam, ut discas, ' I am writing, I have written, I shall
write, to the end that you may learn ; ' danda opera est, ut ea res
"
ne obsit reipublicae, care must be taken, to the end that the busi-
ness in question may do no harm to the state. ' (Greek conjunctive
after ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς, and sometimes the future indicative with ὅπως.)

II. The imperfect indicates that the probable occurrence is

past and must be foregone ; it is :

(a) Optative, to imply that the wish cannot now be realized ;

as utinam salvus esses, ' I wish you were (what you are not) in
good health ; ' illud utinam ne vere scriberem, ' I wish I was not
writing that sentiment with truth. ' If non is used for ne it must
be closely connected with the predicative word. (Greek indicative
with ei, ei yáp, elle : Gr. Gr. Art. 517.)

(b) Hortative, chiefly in oratione obliquâ ; as imitarentur

majores suos, 'let them , he said, imitate their ancestors.'

(c) Potential; either in the apodosis ( 128 , xvi. 4, (a) ) ; as si

scirem, dicerem, ' if I knew (which is not the case) , I would speak : '
or by itself; as nollem factum, ' I would not like it done. ' (Greek
imperfect indicative with av.)
(d) Conditional, in the protasis of the last case, and sometimes
followed by the imperfect indicative ; as si non alium longe jactaret
odorem, laurus erat, if it did not emit a widely different smell, it
were a laurel.' (Greek imperfect indicative with e , and without
åv.) O si, with the imperfect subjunctive , might express an
impossible wish .

(e) Dependent, with ut or ne, or some relative word, after the

imperfect, aorist perfect, and pluperfect of the main clause ; as
348 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

scribebam, scripsi, scripseram, ut disceres, ' I was writing, I wrote,

I had written to the end that you might learn.' (Greek optative
after ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς . )

III.
The perfect subjunc is someti c t f
tive mes alled he uturum
exactu , and referre to the indicat ; but all its functio a a
m d ive ns re s
a tense of the subjun mood . As the subjun itself is a
ctive ctive
kind of future , it is quite natural that the perfect subjunc s
tive hould
be a sort of future perfect , and in fact it does corres , in the
pond
protasi , to the Greek aorist conjunc ; as si quid feceris = èáv Tɩ
s tive
π ,
Tοoι
iήnσn
ῃsς ' if you shall have done anything .' It is :
(a) Potential, either as the apodosis of a simple future, present,
or perfect, or perfect subjunctive ; or by itself ; thus we have in an
apodosis, quum tu haec leges, ego fortasse eum convenero, ' when
you read these words , I shall perhaps have had a meeting with
him ; ' si pergis, abiero, if you go on, I shall depart at once ; '
si plane occidimus, ego omnibus meis exitio fuero, ' if we have alto-
gether fallen, I shall have been (i. e. I shall prove in the result)
a destruction to all my friends ; ' qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum
confecerit, he who shall have overthrown Antony , will, by that
very act, have put an end to the war. ' By itself, ego de me videro, ‘ I
shall be found to have looked after myself; ' tu invita mulieres ; ego
accivero pueros, ' do you invite the ladies ; I will, before that, send
for the boys, ' i . e. ' I shall have done it, ere you have finished your
part of the business ; ' hoc sine ullâ dubitatione confirmaverim, ' I
shall have said this without the least hesitation, ' in reference to
a statement which he is actually about to make. Also in interro-
gations ; as quis tulerit Gracchos de seditione querentes ? ' who will ,
for a moment, tolerate the Gracchi complaining of sedition ?'

(b) Conditional, either as the protasis , in the case just men-

tioned, and with a perfect or simple future in the apodosis, or by
itself; thus we have, si quis bona carmina condiderit, si quis oppro-
briis dignum latraverit, solventur risu tabulae, tu missus abibis, ' if
any one shall made good verses, if any one shall have inveighed
against a man worthy of reproach, laughter will do away with the
severity of the sentence, and you will get off with impunity ; '
dixerit Epicurus, ' suppose Epicurus shall have said. '

(c) Dependent, after past and future tenses ; as Hortensius arde-

bat dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium
 TENSES. 349

viderim, 'Hortensius was inflamed with a desire for oratorical

distinction to such an extent, that I have never seen greater eager-
ness in any one ; ' Epaminondas paupertatem adeo facile perpessus
est, ut de republicâ nihil praeter gloriam ceperit, ' Epaminondas
bore poverty so easily, that he took nothing from the state except
glory ;' adnitar, ne frustra vos hanc spem de me conceperitis, ' I
will do my best, to the end that you may not have conceived this
hope about me in vain.'
(d) Prohibitive, when a single act is forbidden , just as the
aorist of the conjunctive is used in Greek ; ne dixeris, ' do not say
at all; ' tu ne quaesieris, ' have done with inquiring¹.'

IV. The pluperfect subjunctive is :

(a) Optative, to imply that the wish could not have been
realized ; as utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem incidisset,
'I wish it had never come into Phormio's head (as it did) , to re-
commend that course ; ' hoc utinam tibi a principio placuisset, ' I
wish you had liked this from the first.'

(b) Potential, in the apodosis to another pluperfect (128, xvI.

4, (b) ) ; as si voluissem plura, non negasses , ' if I had wished for more
(which I did not) , you would not have refused ; ' but the protasis is
sometimes not expressed ; as summôsses omnes, ' you would have
put aside all competitors ' —if you had had my assistance.
(c) Conditional, in the protasis to the former case, and some-
times with the perfect or pluperfect of the indicative in the apodo-
șis ; as Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic omnia dixisset, ‘ he
had it in his power to despise (as an historical fact) the swords of
Antony, if he had (which he had not) spoken every thing in this
strain ; ' me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi Faunus ictum
dextrâ levâsset, ‘ if Faunus had not parried the blow with his right
hand, the trunk of a tree, having fallen on my head, had slain me
on the spot. ' We have even the imperfect indicative in the apo-
dosis to the pluperfect subjunctive, as in Tac. Ann. XII . 39 : nec ideo
fugam sistebat, ni legiones proelium excepissent, nor did this stop
the flight, had not the legions taken up the battle. ' In most in-
stances, however, this construction must be regarded as indirect,
1 See Gr. Gr. art. 427, (a,). Bishop Andrewes on Matt. iii. 7, 8 : the word is not
bring forth at this time, now ; then it should be woteîre, in the present ; but it is...
Tonjate, in the aorist...It signifies rather have done bringing forth, than bring forth
presently,' (Vol. I. p. 430).
350 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

and the true apodosis has to be supplied from the terms of the
main clause (below, 203, (B) ) .
(d) Dependent, after an historical perfect ; as Sol Phaethonti
dixit se facturum esse, quicquid optasset, ' the Sun said to Phaethon
that he would perform whatever wish he had conceived.'

V. The future subjunctive, which occurs only in the active ,

is found in dependent sentences after the present and perfect indi-
cative or subjunctive, and the imperative ; as quotusquisque tam
patiens est, ut velit discere quod in usu non sit habiturus, ' how few
there are so patient as to be willing to learn what they are not
likely to want ; ' defectiones solis praedictae sunt quae, quantae,
quando futurae sint, it has been predicted of what kind, to what
extent, and when there will be eclipses of the sun ; ' quid sitfuturum
cras, fuge quaerere, ' avoid asking what is likely to take place to-
morrow .'

§ 2. Distinctive uses of the Indicative and Subjunctive.

173 The great difficulty in Latin composition is the correct

employment of the indicative and subjunctive moods, especially
after relatives and relative particles. The simplest way of dealing
with the subject is to consider as separate questions : (I) When
must we use the indicative ? (II) When must we use the subjunc-
tive ? (III) When may we use either mood, and with what differ-
ence of signification ?

174 I. (a) We must use the indicative in all direct state-

ments ; as silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena, ' you are prac-
tising woodland music on a slender reed .'

(b) We must use the indicative in all relative sentences, when-

ever the antecedent is definite, so that the clause describes or serves
as an epithet ; as de iis autem, quos ipsi vidimus, neminem fere
praetermittimus eorum, quos aliquando dicentes vidimus , ' of those,
however , whom we have seen ourselves , we pass over scarcely any
one of them, whom we have at some time or other seen speaking.'

Obs. 1 It is to be observed that the antecedent may be definite,

and the relative sentence descriptive, although all the particulars in
the description may not be fixed ; thus : quidquid id est, timeo Danaos
et dona ferentes, 'whatever that particular, definite thing-the wooden
horse-may be, I fear the Greeks even when they offer us gifts.'
 INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 351

Obs. 2 A definite antecedent is presumed, and therefore the in-

dicative is used, in such idiomatic phrases as quae tua est virtus, ' such
is your virtue ; ' quod scribis, ' as to what you write.'

(c) We must use the indicative after ut in all mere comparisons ;

as ut orator de iis rebus..., ut heri Crassus dicebat, optime potest
dicere, ' as an orator, as Crassus was saying yesterday, can speak
best' (Cic. de Orat. II. 9, 37) .

175 II. (a) We must use the subjunctive in all expressions

of supposition or possibility, as opposed to statements of fact ; con-
sequently, in all the optative , potential, and prohibitory clauses,
which have been given under the separate tenses.
(b) We must use the subjunctive after relatives and relative
particles, whenever the antecedent is vague or indefinite, so that
the clause does not define or describe, but is dependent for its
meaning on something in the main sentence. Thus the subjunctive
appears :

(1 ) In all dependent questions after relatives, interrogatives,

and the particles enumerated above, where other examples are
"
given (108, (c) ) ; as quis haec fecit? who did these things? ' but,
nescio, quis haec fecerit, ' I know not who has done these things ; '
saepe ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, ' it is often not even
profitable to know what is about to be. '

Obs. Nescio quis is often used either as a parenthesis or as a peri-

phrasis for the nominative, and is therefore followed by the indicative
mood; as nescio quid majus nascitur Iliade, ' some poem (I know not
exactly what) is coming forth, which will surpass the Iliad ;' nescio quis
teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos, ' some evil eye (I know not whose) is
bewitching the lambs to my sorrow ' (see 174, Obs. 1 ). That nescio
quis was regarded as equivalent even rhythmically to a single word is
shown by its position in such lines as
Summa leves hinc nescio qua dulcedine lætæ.
(Virg. Georg. IV. 55)—
for Virgil carefully abstains from making the third foot consist in a
single word. In Virgil, Ecl. III. 106, some MSS. and editions read :
Dic, quibus in terris inscripti nomina regum
Nascuntur flores.
which, if it stands, must be a direct question ; ' tell me-in what lands
do such flowers grow? ' but the true reading is nascantur, as we have in
the preceding line : dic, quibus in terris pateat ; and the question in each
case is indirect.
 352 SYNTAX OF VERBS.

(2) In all sentences connected by ne or ut with verbs of fear-

ing ; as
Metuo ne dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, I fear, lest,
while I am wishing to lessen my trouble, I shall increase it.'
Adulatores, si quem laudant, vereri se dicunt, ut illius facta
verbis consequi possint, ' flatterers, if they praise any one, say they
fear that they will not be able to express his actions in their
words.'

(3) In all final sentences, i. e. those which express an end ,

purpose or result, after the conjunctions mentioned above (112 (G) ) ,
and the relative pronoun used as a substitute for them ; as
Edimus ut vivamus ; non vivimus ut edamus, ' we eat to the end
that we may live, we do not live in order that we may eat.'
Legem brevem esse oportet, quo facilius ab imperitis teneatur, ‘ a
law ought to be short in order that it may the more easily be re-
membered by the unlearned.'
Nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, ' nothing
is so difficult, that it cannot be discovered by inquiry.'
Parmenio regem deterrere voluit quominus medicamentum biberet,
' Parmenio wished to deter the king, to the end that he should not
drink the medicine.'
Clusini legatos Romam, qui auxilium a senatu peterent, misere,
'the people of Clusium sent ambassadors to Rome, to the end, or
with the view, that they should ask assistance from the senate.'
(4) In all illative or intensive sentences, after ut or qui,
whether the antecedent precedes or not, provided only that we can
render qui by ' such or such a kind that ; ' as
Epaminondas fuit disertus (or tam disertus) , ut nemo ei par esset,
' Epaminondas was so eloquent, that no one was a match for him. '
Nunc dicis aliquid quod ad rem pertineat, now you are saying
something of such a kind that (tale ut) it pertains to the subject. '

Obs. To this rule belong all such phrases as quis sum cujus aures
laedi nefas sit ? = num talis sum ut, &c.; major sum quam cui possit
fortuna nocere = major quam talis ut mihi, &c.; nemo est qui nesciat =
nemo est talis ut nesciat; non est quod invideas = non est tale ut invideas ;
non quo haberem quod scriberem, sed, &c. = non ita ut haberem, &c.; in-
venti sunt multi, qui parati essent = tales ut parati essent ; quis est qui
non oderit? = talis ut non oderit; o fortunate adolescens, qui inveneris = o
talifortuna, ut inveneris ; and after dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, unus,
solus, the relative presumes a construction in which talis ut might occur ;
 INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE . 353

as indignus eras qui faceres injuriam = non conveniebat dignitati tuae

ut faceres, non talis eras ut faceres. With regard to such phrases as est
qui, sunt qui, it is to be remarked that if the phrase est qui or sunt qui
is to be taken as one word equivalent to ' some one,' ' some person,' it
will be followed by the indicative like nescio quis (above, 175, (b),
(1) Obs.) ; but if it means, ' there is a person or there are persons so
constituted or qualified as to do such and such things,' it must be fol-
lowed by the subjunctive ; thus we have sunt quos curriculo pulverem
Olympicum collegisse juvat, some persons delight in the chariot-races at
Olympia ; but, sunt qui censeant una animum et corpus occidere, ' there
are some persons so constituted that (tales ut) they think that the soul
and body perish together' (see below, 205, (B), (cc) ).

(5) In oblique narration, when the dependent sentence contains

the words or reasons of others : as
Socrates accusatus est, quod corrumperet juventutem ( Quint. IV.
4, § 5) , ' Socrates was accused of corrupting the young men,' (i. e.
the accuser said so) .
Aristides ob eam causam expulsus est patriâ, quod praeter modum
justus esset (Cic. Tusc. v. 36 , § 105) , ' Aristides was expelled from
his country simply because, as they said, he was too just.'

And especially in relative and other subordinate sentences de-

pendent on an accusative with an infinitive, although , in the direct
narration, the verbs in these clauses would stand in the indicative
(128, XI.; below, 205, (8) ) ; compare the direct and oblique ex-
pression of the same sentiments in Cicero and Quintilian :
Ars earum rerum est, quæ Artem earum rerum esse quae
sciuntur ; oratoris omnis actio sciantur ; oratoris omnem actio-
opinionibus non scientiâ contine- nem opinione non scientià conti-
tur; nam et apud eos dicimus neri; quia et apud eos dicat qui
qui nesciunt, et ea dicimus quæ nesciant , et ipse dicat aliquando
nescimus ipsi. (De Oratore, II . quod nesciat. (Inst. Orat. II.
7.) 17, 37.)
(6) In narratives, when the cause of a repeated action rather
than a merely contemporaneous circumstance, is signified by the
relative sentence ; as

Ut quisque maxime laboraret locus, aut ipse occurrebat aut ali-

quos mittebat (Cæs. B. G. vII. 17 , § 4) , ' as each post was most in
peril (so often) he either came up himself, or sent others .'
Quemcunque lictor jussu consulis prehendisset, tribunus mitti ju-
bebat (Liv. III. 11 ) , ' as often as the lictor had seized a man, so
often the tribune ordered him to be let go .'
In both of these cases , the actions are represented as standing
D. L. G. 23
354 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

in intimate and necessary connexion with one another. Most fre-

quently, however, the relative sentence, which accompanies the
predication of a repeated action, is regarded as definitive by the
best writers. Accordingly we have generally the indicative with
quoties, ut quisque, &c. (below, 206, (B) ) .

(7) In hypothetical comparisons, after quasi, tanquam, ac si,

ceu, velut, signifying ' just as if, ' and in limitations of condition
after dummodo, dum, modo, signifying ' provided only , ' when pos-
sibility, as distinguished from reality, is supposed or assumed ; as
Tanquam Asia sit clausa, sic nihil perfertur ad nos, ' just as if
Asia were closed, no news reaches us.'
Dummodo ne quid imminuat ejus gloriae, quam consecuti sumus,
'provided only that it detracts nothing from that renown, which
we have obtained.'

176 III. We may use either the indicative or the subjunctive

in the following cases, but with the distinctions of meaning which
will be indicated.

(1 ) In conditional sentences, after si, nisi, &c., the indicative

implies that there is no uncertainty ; but the subjunctive , which,
without the conditional particle, expresses a mere supposition or
possibility as opposed to a statement of fact (above, 175 , (a) ) ,
presents the hypothesis as a merely supposable case, when the
present tense is used, and assumes its impossibility, when the tense
.
is imperfect or pluperfect (above , p . 246) .
Obs. When mere possibility is expressed by the adverbs or adverbial
phrases, forte, fortasse (or more rarely fortassis), forsit, forsan, forsitan,
fortasse an (above, p. 175), we use the indicative or subjunctive according
to the degree of probability which is implied. Practically, as has been
shown, fortasse is generally found with the indicative, and forsan,
forsitan, according to the form of the phrase, must be followed by a
subjunctive dependent on an, except in a few cases, when the adverbial
phrase may be regarded as virtually parenthetical.
(2) In temporal sentences, (a) quum or ubi or ut, ' when,' post-
quam, ' after, ' and simulac, ' as soon as,' are always followed by the
indicative, when a particular or definite time is denoted ; as
Qui non propulsat injuriam a suis, quum potest, injuste facit,
' he acts unjustly who does not repel injury from his friends, when
(i. e. on those definite occasions when) he has the power.'
Ut sumus in Ponto ter frigore constitit Ister, ' since we have been
in Pontus the Danube has stood frozen three times .'
Ubi is finem fecit, ' when he made an end.'
 INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 355

But the imperfect or pluperfect of the subjunctive is always

used after quum or ubi, ' when, ' if we wish to indicate not only the
time, but a necessarily antecedent circumstance. In this case we
may often render the phrase by the English participle ; as quum
videret, ' seeing ' or ' upon seeing ; ' quum vidisset, ' having seen ' or
in consequence of his having seen. ' Thus,
In Cumano quum essem, venit ad me Hortensius, ' during my
stay in his neighbourhood, as a sort of consequence of my being
there, Hortensius came to see me.'
Alexander, quum interemisset Clitum, vix manus a se abstinuit,
'Alexander, having killed Clitus, as a result or consequence, was
all but laying violent hands on himself.'
Id ubi dixisset, hastam emittebat, ' having first said this ' or ' as
soon as ever he had said this, he proceeded to throw his spear.'
See below, 206, (y) .
(b) Antequam and priusquam are used with the indicative
when there is merely a mark of tense and no hypothetical con-
nexion, but we have the subjunctive when the preceding event
is supposed to be in some sort the cause of the subsequent ; thus,
Tempestas minatur antequam surgat, ' a tempest threatens be-
fore it rises ' (but if there is to be a tempest at all, it must rise) .
Medico priusquam conetur aegro adhibere medicinam, natura cor-
poris cognoscenda est, ' the physician must learn the nature of the
body before he attempts to give medicine to the sick ' (where a con-
dition is involved) .
But, Omnia experiri certum est priusquam pereo, ' I am resolved
to try every thing before I am ruined ' (a consummation which I
hope to avoid).
Neque prius fugere destiterunt, quam ad Rhenum pervenerunt,
' they did not leave off running away, until they got to the Rhine '
(a mere mark of time).
And we may say either antequam dicam or antequam dicere in-
stituo after a future (cf. Cic. Philipp. 1. 1 , with pro Murena, I. 1 ) ,
because the latter is a periphrasis of the subjunctive present.
See below, 206, (8) .
(c) Donec, quoad, ' until, ' ' as long as, ' and dum, ' until ,'
' while, ' ' as long as,' take the indicative when they merely indicate
continuance in time ; but if they imply a cause or condition, and so
approximate to the other meaning of dum, they are followed by the
subjunctive ; as
23-2
356 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

Priami dum regna manebant, while, as long as, during the

time that, the kingdom of Priam lasted.'
Milo in senatu fuit illo die, quoad senatus dimissus est, Milo
was in the senate on that day until the senate was adjourned. '
Donec rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit, ' the silence lasted until
Marcellus returned.'
But, Haud desinam donec perfecero, ' I will not leave off until
I shall have accomplished it ' ( I will do so only on that proviso) .
Tertia dum regnantem viderit aetas, " until the third age shall
have seen him reigning.'
Exspectas fortasse dum haec dicat, ' you are waiting perhaps
until he says this ' (it is the condition or cause of your patience) .

(3) In causal sentences, (a) quum, ' since, ' ' because , ' is followed
by a subjunctive when the circumstances are intimately connected ,
so that the sentence may be rendered by our participle (as above ,
176 , (2 ) ) ; but it takes the indicative when the cause is introduced
as an independent fact ; thus ,
Quum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa
monet amicitias comparare, since life without friends is (or life
being ' ) full of treachery and fear, reason itself warns us to form
friendships.'
But, Gratulor tibi, quum apud Dolabellam tantum vales, ‘ I con-
gratulate you, because (as a fact) you have so much influence with
Dolabella.'

(b) Quod, quia, quoniam, quandoquidem, which are much more

frequently used than quum in the case just mentioned , take the in-
dicative except in the case stated above, ( 175 , (b) , (5) ) , when the
cause is assigned as the opinion of some other person, so that the
sentence is oblique ; thus , Fecisti mihi pergratum quod Serapionis
librum mihi misisti, ' you have obliged me by sending the book of
Serapion ; but, Hic tu me accusas quod me afflictem, ' here you
accuse me because (as you say) I afflict myself. '

(c) Quippe qui, and ut or utpote qui generally take the sub-
junctive ; as Plato a Dionysio violatus erat, quippe quem venumdari
"
jussisset, Plato had been ill used by Dionysius, for he had ordered
him to be sold .'

(4) In concessive sentences we may have either an extreme

supposition or the statement of a fact ; in the latter case we have
 INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 357

6
generally quamquam, although,' or utut, however much,' followed
by the indicative. An extreme supposition is expressed by etsi,
etiamsi, tametsi, ' even if, ' with the indicative or subjunctive, ac-
cording to the rules for the use of these moods and their tenses in
the conditional sentences ( 176 , ( 1 ) ) . Licet, it is allowable , ' after
which ut must be supplied (178 , Obs. 2) , and quamvis or quantum-
vis, with or without licet, as much as you please, ' properly and
regularly take the subjunctive, although quamvis is used paren-
thetically with the indicative in some few instances, chiefly in the
poets, who also use quanquam in the sense of quamvis with the
subjunctive. Ut, ' granting that, ' necessarily takes the subjunctive.
Thus we have Romani, quanquam fessi erant, tamen procedunt, ‘ the
Romans, although they were tired, nevertheless advance.' Dis
6
quanquam geniti essent, although, as I knew, they were born of
the gods' (Virg. Æn. vI . 394) , i . e. as Heyne says, the reference
is to Charon's thoughts or knowledge. Tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen
6
de meo jure decedam , although I ought to have gained the day,
nevertheless I will relinquish my rights.' Fremant omnes, licet;
dicam quod sentio, although all exclaim against it (they may all
do so, it is allowed) , I will nevertheless say what I think.' Quod
turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nullo modo
potest, ' that which is disgraceful, let it be concealed as much as you
please, still can never become honourable. ' Pollio amat nostram
(quamvis est rustica) musam, ' Pollio loves our muse,-albeit she is
as countrified as you please.' Ut fueris dignior, non competitor in
6
culpâ est, granting that you were more worthy, still your com-
petitor is not in fault. ’

§ 3. Construction of the Infinitive, Participles and other Verbals.

(1 ) Infinitive.
177 The infinitive, which expresses the mere action of the verb,
may be considered either (A) as a substantive, undeclined , and of
the neuter gender (above, 5 (2) , Obs.) , or (B) as a verb in the
objective sentence, with the accusative as its subject (above, 144) .
(A) As a substantive, the infinitive mood is either the nomi-
native to a verb or an oblique case governed by it : (a) when used
as a nominative, the infinitive may have a neuter pronoun or ad-
jective in agreement with it, as Postquam sapere urbi venit nostrum
hoc maris expers, ' after this insipid wisdom of ours has come to the
city ; (b) when used as an oblique case after a verb, the infinitive
may depend on a preposition or have a tertiary predicate dependent
358 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

on it ; as Multum interest inter dare et accipere, ' there is a great

difference between giving and receiving. ' Mori nemo sapiens mise-
rum dixerit, no philosopher will be found to have called death
(the act of dying) miserable.'
(B) As a verb in the objective sentence : (a) the infinitive
with its adjuncts may be the subject of a copulative verb, the
predicate being some noun in the nominative case ; as
Diligere parentes prima naturae lex est, ' to love one's parents
is the first law of nature.'
Apud Persas summa laus est fortiter pugnare, ' among the Per-
sians to fight bravely is the highest excellence . '
(b) The infinitive by itself or in the oblique sentence is the
subject of all verbs of an impersonal nature whether the copula is
expressed or included ; as
Juvat integros accedere fontes, ' to approach the untasted foun-
tains is pleasant.'
Victorem parcere victis aequum est, ' that a conqueror should
spare the vanquished is a right thing.'
Ad salutem civium inventas esse leges constat, ' that laws were
invented for the safety of citizens is an established point. '
Obs. For the case of the predicate with the infinitive, see above,
143, II. For the tense of the infin. in the objective sentence, see below,
(e) Obs. 2. As the infin. has no imperf. or pluperf. tense, the present
and perfect are used when these tenses are required by the context.

(c) The infinitive in the objective sentence is used after all

verbs of seeing, hearing, knowing, thinking, saying, &c.; as
Audio te contumeliose de me dicere, ' I hear that you are speak-
ing of me in an insulting manner.'
Ego tibi hoc confirmo, nihilo te nunc majore in discrimine esse, ‘ I
assure you of this , that you are not now in any greater danger.'
(d) The infinitive, without a subject of its own, appears as the
necessary supplement to those verbs which contain no complete pre-
dication in themselves, for instance, those which express will, obli-
gation, power, necessity, commencement, custom, or cessation ; as
Malo beneficii mei oblivisci, quam periculi vestri meminisse, ‘ I
rather wish to forget my kindness, than remember your danger.'
Quae fortuita sunt, certa esse non possunt, those things which
are casual, cannot be certain.'

(e) The infinitive with the personal or reflexive pronoun fol-

lows a verb of believing, hoping, promising, and in the last two
 INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES , &c. 359

cases we have generally the future active participle without the

substantive verb ; as

Credo me tibi esse carissimum, ' I believe that I am most dear

to you.'
Spero me propediem istuc venturum esse (or without esse) , ' I
hope that I shall soon come to the place where you are.'
Caesar pollicetur se iis auxilio futurum, ' Cæsar promises that
he will assist them.'
Obs. 1 The accusative of personal pronouns may be omitted before
the infinitive when the subject is the same, and the poets even imitate
the Greek construction and place the predicate after esse in the nom.;
as Rettulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos, Ajax declared that he was the
great grandson of Jupiter ; ' like the Greek paσkev Alòs elvai, though
the more common construction is, se pronepotem esse . So also, Phase-
lus ille quem videtis, hospites, ait fuisse navium celerrimus, ' that skiff,
which ye see, O strangers, says that it was the swiftest of vessels.'
After verbs of wishing and endeavouring, the pronoun is generally
omitted, and the nominative retained when the subject is the same ;
as eruditus fieri cupio, ' I desire to be learned.' After volo and nolo
in particular the past passive participle is used with or without esse,
to denote the complete accomplishment of the wish ; as Corinthum
exstinctam esse volo, ' I would have Corinth destroyed ;' id factum nollem,
'I would rather not have that done.'
Obs. 2 In most cases the tense of the infinitive is that of the
dependent verb in English ; as arbitror te dixisse, ' I presume that you
said;' promittebat se venturum, ' he promised that he would come ;'
audio hominem laudatum iri, ' I hear that the man will be praised.'
Sometimes the future is expressed by a periphrasis of fore or futurum
esse for a continuous state, and futurum fuisse for a contingent futurity ;
as spero fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope it will so happen that this
may fall to our lot ; ' ignorabat futurum fuisse ut urbs dederetur, ' he
knew not that it would have come to pass that the city would be given
up.' But after verbs expressing possibility or obligation, the past tense
is expressed by the main verb, and the infinitive is always present ; thus
we say licuit mihi ire, ' it was allowed to me to go ' ' I might have
gone ;' facere potui, ' I had the power to do it ' - ' I could have done it ;'
oportuit te dicere, ' it behoved you to speak' = ' you ought to have spoken. '
Although spero is generally followed by the future, according to the rule
(above, (e) ), there are some few instances in which it takes the present
infinitive ; as Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus, Cic. ad div.
II. 2. Magnitudine poenae reliquos deterrere sperans. Cæs. B. C. III. 8.
Obs. 3 We have an infinitive of the passive voice after coeptus sum
and desitus sum ; as Desiderari coepta est Epaminondae diligentia, the
diligence of Epaminondas began (was begun) to be missed.' Papirius
is, qui primus Papisius vocari est desitus, that Papirius, who was the
first who left off (was left off) being called Papisius. ' We have also
sometimes a passive infinitive after solitus sum.
360 SYNTAX OF VERBS.

Obs. 4 We occasionally find the present participle instead of the

infinitive, after audire, videre, and facere (in the sense to introduce or
exhibit in writing ' ) ; as Heraclitum studiose audivi contra Antiochum
disserentem, I have heard Heraclitus eagerly reasoning against Anti-
ochus .' Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem, formam Dei quaeri non
oportere, " Xenophon introduces Socrates arguing that the form of the
Deity ought not to be inquired into.'

Obs. 5 Verbs of seeing, &c. (above, (c)) do not take the infinitive
in an indirect interrogation ; thus we say ex his intelligitur, quanta
Ciceronis fuerit auctoritas (above, 128, XII. ), not quantam Ciceronis
fuisse auctoritatem. But it is good Latin to say Quantam censes Cicero-
nis fuisse auctoritatem, because in this case quantam is a mere predicate.

Obs. 6 If the dependent infinitive has an accusative of the object as

well as an accusative of the subject, and if the context is not sufficient
to remove all ambiguity, the active construction is changed into the
passive ; thus we say Clitarchus narravit Darium ab Alexandro supera-
tum esse, not Darium superasse Alexandrum. But the context shows
that Amazones is the subject in Constat magnam Asiae partem tenuisse
Amazones.

178 Whenever we wish to express the end rather than the ob-
ject of an action, that is , whenever the preposition ' to ' prefixed to
an English infinitive means ' to the end that,' or ' in order to ,' we
must use ut with the subjunctive instead of the infinitive in Latin.
Thus, as a general rule , we have ut with the subjunctive after verbs
of asking, commanding, advising, intending, and effecting; as
Id agit ut se conservet, ' he does his best to (i. e. to the end that
he may) preserve himself."
Te oro et hortor ut diligens sis, ' I beg and exhort you to (i. e. to
the end or intent that you may) be diligent .'

Obs. 1 Some verbs belonging to this class take the infinitive as

well as the subjunctive with ut, but with a difference of meaning : thus
when moneo or admoneo signifies ' to inform or remind' it takes the
infinitive ; as moneo te hoc falsum esse, ' I apprize you that this is
false ;' but we have moneo ut quiescas, ' I exhort you to be quiet .' Per-
suadeo, ' I convince,' takes the infinitive ; as persuasit mihi hoc verum
esse, ' he convinced me that this was true ;' but when it means 'I induce '
it is followed by the final sentence with ut ; as quis tibi persuasit ut hoc
faceres? who so far persuaded you that you did this ?' i. e. ' who in-
duced you to do it ?' Jubeo, ' I order,' takes the infinitive because it
expresses the thing commanded rather than the purpose ; it may how-
ever have the subjunctive with ut, when it is used absolutely in the
sense ' I give orders,' and this is generally the case with all other verbs
of commanding. Fac, ' suppose,' and efficio, ' I prove,' take the infini-
tive, but facio, ' I effect, accomplish, bring it to pass, ' is so regularly
 INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, & c. 361

used with the final clause that facio ut is often a mere periphrasis for a
verb of action ; as faciunt inviti ut_dent = dunt inviti, ' they give un-
willingly;' libenter ac saepe fecerunt ut laudarent, they often and
willingly praised.' The same is the case with many verbs expressing a
result, a consequence, a contingency, as fit ut, fieri potest ut, accidit
ut, accedit ut, sequitur ut, &c.

Obs. 2 Some verbs of willingness or permission, which usually

take the infinitive, and some verbs of asking and advising, take the
subjunctive without ut ; this is particularly the case with fac, velim,
nolim, malim, licet, necesse est, and oportet ; as tu velim animo sapienti
sis, I wish you to be wise.'

179 Whenever we wish to express the object or reference of an

emotion with some indication of the cause, we use quod with the
finite verb instead of the infinitive . This is particularly the case
with verbs of grief, joy, surprise and admiration, and the sense is
sometimes strengthened by a demonstrative antecedent ; as
Doleo quod stomacharis, ' I am sorry that (or ' because ') you
are angry.'
Illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit,
' that is particularly worthy of admiration, namely, that he advised
the retention of the prisoners.'
But gaudeo, doleo, miror may also take the infinitive (e. g. Cic.
Att. xv. 27 ; vi . 3 ; ad div. I. 7) , and there is only a shade of dif-
ference between the objective and causal construction.

180 There are three cases in which the infinitive may be used
without the support of any finite verb :

(a) In the oblique narration , where it may even appear in

relative sentences ; as se quoque, quum transiret mare, non Cili-
ciam aut Lydiam, quippe tanti belli exiguam hanc esse mercedem,
sed Persepolim, &c., imperio suo destinasse, where scripsit or dixit
is to be supplied.

(b) As an equivalent to the present or imperfect indicative ,

which is probably a result of the oblique narration, the main verb
being tacitly supposed ; thus, ingenium ejus haud absurdum ; posse
versus facere, &c., it is reported that her abilities were the reverse
of contemptible ; that is, she could make verses, &c.; ' postquam in
aedes irruperunt, diversi regem quaerere, after they broke into the
palace [we are told] , they went in different directions to seek the
king.'
362 SYNTAX OF VERBS .

Obs. The ellipsis of coepit, coeperunt, which is given in most Gram-

mars, is not always applicable, and seems not to be founded in truth.

(c) In exclamations the accusative is used with the infinitive,

as a merely objective sentence, just as the accusative alone is used
with interjections (168) ; thus, adeone hominem esse infelicem quen-
quam, ' could any man at all be so unlucky !'

(2) Participles.

181 The participle, which must be regarded as a verb used

adjectively, retains the verbal meaning of its tenses, so far as they
are distinguished in this form, and governs the same case as its
verb, except when it has assumed a secondary and attributive
meaning ; thus ,
Dionysius cultros metuens tonsorios candenti carbone sibi adure-
bat capillum, ' Dionysius fearing the barber's rasor used to burn his
hair with red hot charcoal.'
Caesar aggressus Pompeianos ex vallo deturbavit, ' Cæsar hav-
ing attacked the Pompeians, drove them from the rampart. '
Quid nimis grave est in homines tanti facinoris convictos ?
' what is too severe for men convicted of so great a crime ?'
Atticus liberalitate utens nullas inimicitias gessit, ' Atticus, em-
ploying liberality, cherished no enmity.'
Obs. 1 When the present participle does not signify an action but
a condition it becomes a mere adjective and is followed by a genitive
(see above, 151 ). On the other hand, a verbal noun may take the case
of the verb from which it is formed ; as Quid tibi istunc tactio est ? ' what
have you to do with touching that man?' Quid tibi huc receptio ad te
est meum virum ? ' what right have you to receive my husband into your
house ?
' This usage seems, however, to be confined to interrogations.
Obs. 2 As the passive voice has no present participle, and as only
deponent verbs have a past participle with an active signification, it
is obvious that the application of the Latin participle to the expression
of subordinate ideas must be very limited. And the want of a definite
article leaves us no outward means of distinguishing between the par-
ticiple as an epithet or description, and the same word as a causal,
concessive, or hypothetical term. Hence, while on the one hand it
is generally more convenient to substitute a complete sentence with
some conjunction for the participle, as used in Greek, on the other hand,
the Latin participle easily passes into a mere adjective, and, from that,
becomes fixed in use as a substantive. Thus the active participles
adolescens, parens, and sapiens are constantly used as substantives ;
secundus, following,' is always an adjective, ' second,' i. e. ' following in
time or order,' and is generally used in a metaphorical or applied sense,
as secundus ventus, ' a fair wind,' i. e. ' one which follows the ship,'
 INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, &c. 363

secundae res, fair, favouring, prosperous circumstances.' It is used

properly in Virgil, En. 1. 156 : curru secundo, the chariot which follows
them,' i. e. the steeds. The passive participles acutus, argutus, &c ., are
almost always employed as epithets, and the neuters commentum, con-
sultum, dictum, furtum, placitum, praeceptum, scriptum, &c., are to all
intents and purposes substantives. And some of the participles in -ns
have their degrees of comparison like the ordinary adjectives.

182 The participle is used in its proper or verbal sense,

(a) As a secondary predicate or apposition to the subject,

which may be resolved into a parallel verb with a copulative con-
junction ; as
Lex est voluntas Dei, imperans honesta, prohibens contraria, ' law
is the will of God, and it commands what is virtuous, and prohibits
the contrary .'

(b) As a tertiary predicate or apposition to the object, which

may also be resolved as in the former case ; but here the participle
is in the perfect passive, and precedes in the resolved construc-
tion ; as

Triginta tyranni plurimorum bona publicata inter se diviserunt,

' the thirty tyrants confiscated and divided among themselves the
property of very many persons.'
Antiocho bellum a Romanis denuntiatum est, quod ille facile sus-
ceptum infeliciter gessit, ' the Romans declared war against Antio-
chus, which he undertook without hesitation but carried on unfor-
tunately.'
(c) In temporal sentences ; as
Domum reversus, litteras inveni tuas, ' when I got home, I
found your letter.'

(d) In final sentences ; as

"
Pergit ad Hammonem consulturus oraculum, he goes to Jupi-
ter Hammon, for the purpose of consulting the oracle. '
(e) In causal sentences ; as
Aer effluens huc et illuc ventos efficit, the air by rushing to
and fro (i. e. because it does so) produces winds.'

(f) In concessive sentences, sometimes with quamvis, &c.

added ; as

Caesarem milites, quamvis recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt

secuti, ' the soldiers went so far as to accompany Cæsar to Africa,
although he refused to have them.'
364 SYNTAX OF VERBS.

(g) In the ablative absolute, as hypothetical, temporal, causal,

or concessive ; as
Tarquinio regnante, when Tarquin was king.'
Antonius, repudiata Octavia, Cleopatram duxit uxorem, ‘ An-
tony, having divorced Octavia (i. e. after he had done so) , married
Cleopatra.'
Comprehendi non poterat, tot Persarum millibus laturis opem
regi, he could not be taken, because so many thousand Per-
sians were likely to assist their king.'
Proposita sibi morte, although death was set before him.'

Obs. 1 In some passive participles the ablative absolute is used

impersonally to denote the previous state of things which caused or
suggested the main action ; as Alexander, audito, Darium appropin-
6
quare, &c., Alexander, it being heard (i. e. intelligence having been
brought) that Darius was drawing near, &c.'
The participles generally used in this way are audito, cognito, com-
perto, desperato, nunciato, edicto.

Obs. 2 Some passive participles are used in the neuter accus. after
habeo, to form a periphrastic perfect, as in many of the modern lan-
guages ; such are cognitum, comprehensum, constitutum, deliberatum, ex-
ploratum, perspectum, persuasum, &c .; as hoc cognitum habeo = hoc cog-
novi. All these, except persuasum, may agree with the object of the
verb; as Omnes habeo cognitos sensus adolescentis, ' I have learnt all the
feelings of the young man.'

(3) Gerunds and Gerundives.

183 The participle in -ndus is really only another form of that

in -ns ; it is therefore present in tense and active in significa-
tion ; as
Volvenda dies, en, attulit ultro, ' time rolling on has brought it
to you unexpectedly.' (Virg. Æn.En. IX. 7.)
Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem traduntur, ' traditions
derived from a period when the city was neither built nor
building. ' (Liv. Præfat.)

184 The participle in -ndus is generally found as a substitute

for some use of the infinitive active (above, 70 , (e) , Obs. 2) ; and
it is called the gerundium or gerund, when it governs the case of
the verb, and the gerundivum or gerundive, when it agrees with
the object ; thus in consilium capiendi urbem we have a gerund,
but in consilium urbis capiendae, a gerundive, and both phrases
mean the design of taking the city.' This gerundive is merely
 INFINITIVE , PARTICIPLES , & c. 365

an attraction ; for dandus = dans , means ' giving ; ' ad dandum opes
means for giving riches ; ' and this is attracted into the case of the
object in ad opes dandas , ' for riches-giving,' with precisely the
same signification .
185 This attraction always takes place in the nominative after
the impersonal est, in the sense of ' it is the duty, part, obligation,
or destiny,' so that the verb becomes personal ; in such a phrase as
sapientis est seipsum nosse, it is the part of a wise man to know
himself,' we should not think of inserting the gerund or gerundive ;
and we might say also, est Romanorum delere Carthaginem , ' it is
the part of the Romans to destroy Carthage ;' but if, instead of the
genitive with the infinitive, we had the dative of the person, the
only allowable construction would be that of the attracted gerund
or gerundive: delenda vobis est Carthago, ' Carthage is for you to
destroy,' = ' you ought to destroy it. ' This would commonly be
rendered Carthage is to be destroyed ,' and, from our idiom, it has
been supposed that the participle in -ndus is future and passive.
But it is often a matter of indifference in English , whether we use
6
the active or passive infinitive ; thus, he is a man to love, ' = ‘ he
is a man to be loved ; ' ' I give you this to eat,' = ' I give you this to
be eaten,' &c.; and this is the reason why a similar interchange
has been erroneously presumed in Latin. No one can doubt that
the gerund is active ; but if vivendum est = vivere est = oportet
vivere, there can be no reason why the gerundive should not be
active also ; for they are used sometimes in the very same sentence ;
as nunc est bibendum , nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus, ' now we
must drink, now we must beat the ground with free foot ;' and
the gerundive and active infinitive are used indifferently, though the
former is preferred , after verbs which express that a thing is given
out, commissioned , or undertaken to be done ; such as do, trado,
permitto, accipio ; thus we may have Antigonus Eumenem mortuum
propinquis sepeliendum tradidit, ‘ Antigonus gave up the dead body
of Eumenes to his friends for burial ' (i. e. ' to bury ' ) . (Corn. Nep.
Eumen. 13) ; or, tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creti-
cum portare ventis , ' I will give up sorrow and fear to the wanton
winds for transportation (i . e . ' to carry ') to the Cretan sea. ' (Hor.
1 Carm. XXVI. 1.)
186 The gerund in -dum, as it is called, is always dependent
on prepositions , and mostly on ad or inter; as
366 SYNTAX OF VERBS.
!
Locus ad agendum amplissimus, ' a place most honourable to
plead in.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative, the gerundive is

commonly preferred ; as ad tolerandos labores, ' for enduring la-
bours,' because tolero is transitive.

187 The gerund in -di is always used as a genitive after sub-

stantives implying desire, design, hope, power, cause, &c.; and
after relative adjectives which require a genitive to complete their
meaning ; as
Innatus amor habendi, ‘ a natural desire of possessing stores .'
Studiosus erat audiendi, ' he was very fond of hearing.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative, the gerundive

is preferred ; as consuetudo hominum immolandorum, ' the custom
of sacrificing human beings ,' because immolo is transitive. The
gerundive repetundus is used only in the gen. and abl. pl . to agree
with pecuniarum and pecuniis, expressed or understood (gene-
rally the former in Cicero) , and in the sense of extortion, illegal
exaction ; ' as legem de pecuniis repetundis tulit, he brought in a
law about extortion, i. e. concerning money to be redemanded and
refunded' (see Tacit. Ann. XIII . 33, and cf. Varrón . p. 430) .

188 The gerund in -do is either dative or ablative . (a) When

dative, it usually follows adjectives and verbs, to signify limitation
or design ; the adjectives most generally used with the dative of
the gerund are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus,
par, utilis, and inutilis ; after which, however, the gerund in -dum
with ad may be substituted for the dative ; thus we have both uti-
lis bibendo and utilis ad bibendum, ' useful for drinking ; ' the verbs
used with this gerund are generally sum and its compounds ; as
non solvendo est, he is insolvent ; ' scribendo adfuerunt, they were
present at the drawing up of the decree. '

(b) When ablative, the gerund in -do either denotes the in-
strument, in which case, of course, no preposition is necessary ; as

Alitur vitium vivitque tegendo, ' the disease is nourished and

lives by concealment ; '
or it is an ablative depending on ab, de, ex, or in ; as
Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo amplitudo Platonis, ' the
grandeur of Plato did not deter Aristotle from writing.'
 INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, &c. 367

Summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, ' the greatest pleasure is

derived from learning.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative case, the gerundive

is preferred to the gerund in -do, whether it be dative or ablative ;
as
"
Tresviri reipublicae constituendae, a board of three commis-
sioners for settling the constitution.'

Consul placandis dis dat operam, ' the consul pays attention
to the appeasing of the gods.'
Fortitudo in laboribus periculisque subeundis cernitur, ' courage
is manifested in undergoing toils and dangers.'

(4) Supines.

189 The supine in -tum is generally used after verbs of mo-

tion. It may be changed, without any difference of meaning, into
the final subjunctive with ut; thus,

Spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, ' they come to

see ' (we might say also ut spectent) ; ' they come that they may be
seen themselves .'

Obs. 1 The synonymous substitutions for the supine in -tum will

appear from the equivalence of the following usages :
1 Venerunt legati petitum pacem .
2 ...... ... petituri pacem .
3 ... ad petendum pacem (this is rare).
4 ad pacem petendam.
5 ... pacem petendi causa.
6 pacis petendae causa.
7 ut pacem peterent.
8 ... qui pacem peterent.

Obs. 2 The various expressions after which the supine in -tum is

regularly used may be seen in the following examples :
Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit. Liv. 11. 35. Galli gallinacei
cum sole eunt cubitum. Plin. x. 21. Themistocles Argos habitatum
concessit. Corn. Nep. 11. 8. Eumenes Antigonum in Mediam hiematum
coëgit redire ; ipse in finitima regione Persidis hiematum copias divisit.
Corn. Nep. XVIII. 8. Totius fere Galliæ legati ad Cæsarem gratulatum
convenerunt. Cæs. B. G. 1. 10. Lacedæmonii Agesilaum bellatum miserunt
in Asiam. Corn. Nep. IX. 2. Athenienses miserunt Delphos consultum,
quidnam facerent de rebus suis. Corn. Nep. II. 2. Fabius Pictor Del-
phos ad oraculum missus est sciscitatum, quibus precibus suppliciisque
deos possent placare. Liv. XXII. 57. Porsena praedatum milites trans
Tiberim aliis atque aliis locis trajecit. Liv. II. 11. Stultitia est, venatum
368 SYNTAX OF VERBS.

ducere invitas canes. Plaut. Stich. 1. 2. 82. Nulli negare soleo, si quis
esum me vocat. Ib. 1. 3. 28. Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias
civitates collocavit. Cæs. B. G. 1. 18. Augustus filiam Juliam primum
Marcello, deinde Marco Agrippa nuptum dedit. Suet. Aug. 63. Specta-
tum admissi risum teneatis amici, Hor. Ars Poet. 5.

Obs. 3 We have seen (70, 83 ) that the supine in -tum is regularly

used with the passive iri to form the future passive of verbs, and that
some compounds, as venumdo, also contain it ; there are other para-
phrases, such as perditum eo, ultum eo, which add little to the meaning
of the verbs perdo, ulciscor.
Obs. 4 The poets sometimes use the common infinitive instead of
the supine in -tum; as pecus egit visere montes. (Hor. 1. Carm. II. 7. )

190 The supine in -tu is used after fas, nefas, opus, and cer-
tain adjectives denoting quality, as facilis, difficilis, dignus, indig-
nus, jucundus, injucundus, acerbus, honestus, mirabilis, turpis, utilis ;
but only a certain number of supines are used in this way, such as
the following : auditu, cognitu, dictu, exitu, factu, intellectu, gus-
tatu, inceptu, inventu, mémoratu, scitu, visu ; thus we have

Nefas est dictu, miseram fuisse Fabii Maximi senectutem, ‘ it is

wrong to say that the old age of Fabius Maximus was miserable.'
Quid est tam jucundum cognitu et auditu, quam sapientibus sen-
6
tentiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio? What is so pleasant to
apprehend and hear as a speech embellished with wise sentiments
and weighty words ?'
Non longius quam quod scitu opus est in narrando procedetur,
'the narrative will not be carried on farther than is necessary for
information .'
Pleraque dictu quam re sunt faciliora, ' most things are easier in
the saying than in the doing (i. e. more easily said than done) .'
Quod factu foedum est, idem est et dictu turpe, ' that which it is
abominable to do , it is also disgraceful to speak.'

Obs. 1 This supine, like that in -tum, may be changed into the
gerund in -dum with ad; compare quid est tam jucundum auditu (Cic.
de Orat. 1. 8) with verba ad audiendum jucunda (Id. Ibid. 1. 49). A
dative in -tui is occasionally found with much the same meaning (above,
53, (a) ).

Obs. 2 The poets use the infinitive instead of the supine in -tu ;
thus we have cereus in vitium flecti ; mortem spernere nobilis ; opprobria
fingere saevus; facilis legi, &c.
 CHAPTER IV.

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

§ 1. Definitions.

191 IN speaking hitherto of the details of Latin Syntax, we

have addressed ourselves to the task of determining the functions
of nouns and verbs according as their different inflexions contribute
to the machinery of the simple sentence. It is true that any dis-
cussion of the moods and tenses of the verb must lead to some
mention of the different kinds of sentences which they assist in
forming ; and in a less detailed exposition of Latin Syntax, it
might be sufficient to enumerate the different classes of these acces-
sory propositions, with references to the rules in which mention
has been made of their essential elements. The student, however,
who wishes to take a comprehensive view of Latin construction,
and to use it as an exercise of his logical faculties, must make a
fresh start from a knowledge of the facts which have been pre-
sented to him in the preceding chapters ; and instead of contenting
himself with rules for the use of separate words, he must learn to
classify and analyse the different kinds of sentences, to recognize
them when he finds them in the pages of the best authors, and to
construct them himself, when he attempts to express his meaning
in the Latin language.

192 Connected sentences are either co-ordinate, or one of them

is subordinate to the other. This distinction will be best illustrated
by the two different kinds of Hypothetical Propositions. For in
logic all propositions are regarded according to their substance as
either Categorical or Hypothetical. Categorical propositions con-
tain a direct assertion or predication, either unqualified, as Deus est
bonus, ' God is good ; ' or qualified, as homo prudentissimus falli
D. L. G. 24
370 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

potest, ' the wisest man may be deceived .' Hypothetical propositions
consist of two sentences, and they are either conditional or disjunc-
tive. If the hypothetical proposition is conditional, it consists of a
categorical proposition and an adverbial sentence dependent on it ;
as si quid habet, dat, if he has any thing, he gives.' If the hypo-
thetical proposition is disjunctive, both its members are categorical,
but they are rendered hypothetical by the conjunction which con-
nects them, as vel habet vel non habet, ' he either has or has not ; ' and
if the conditional particle is then applied , the inference may also be
disjunctive, as aut dat aut non dat, ' he either gives or does not
give. ' Now the adverbial sentence in the conditional hypothetical
is dependent on the main or categorical sentence ; its construction
is regulated by the construction of the main sentence ; it is therefore
called subordinate ; and the discussion of conditional propositions
belongs to the doctrine of subordinate sentences. On the other
hand, the two constituent sentences in the disjunctive hypothetical
stand on an equal footing ; the construction of the one does not
depend on the construction of the other ; they are therefore called
co-ordinates, and their discussion belongs to the doctrine of co -ordi-
nate sentences .

193 This distinction will give us the following classification .

(A) Co-ordinate sentences are

(a) Copulative , in which two or more sentences stand on the
same footing , and the one is regarded as merely added or appended
to the other.

(b) Disjunctive, in which there are two or more distinct alter-

natives, without any clause to indicate the consequence.
(c) Adversative, in which the predication of the subsequent
clause is opposed to that of the first, but not dependent on it in
construction.

(d) Distributive, which are generally in some sense adversative

also, and in which a main sentence is divided or repeated in two or
more co-ordinate and distributed parts.
(e) Distinctive, in which different subjects or objects are indi-
cated by a parallel use of nouns or pronouns .
(f) Comparative, in which the subject or predicate of one sen-
tence is compared with the subject or predicate of another.
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 371

(B) Subordinate sentences are

(a) Conditional, which consist of a sentence containing ' if,'

' provided that, &c.,' and called a protasis ; and a sentence giving
the result of the condition , and called an apodosis.
(b) Definitive, in which a relative sentence defines or describes
some antecedent in the main sentence, and thus performs the part
of an epithet.
(c) Subjunctive, in which a relative sentence conveys a second-
ary predication with regard to something already predicated in the
main sentence, and thus performs the part of an adverb.
(d) Temporal, which are supplementary to the tenses of the
verb.
(e) Objective, which are supplementary to the cases of the
noun.
(f) Illative or consecutive, when they follow a former predi-
cation as a consequence.

(g) Final, when they declare the end of what is predicated .

(1) Causal, when they declare the cause of what is asserted.
(i) Concessive, when they strengthen or limit by an admission.

(A) Co-ordinate Sentences.

§ 2. (a) Copulative Sentences.

194 The usage of the conjunctions, by means of which copu-

lative sentences are constructed , has been fully discussed above
(pp. 191 sqq.) . Here we have to examine and analyse the logical
structure of the sentences themselves ; and with this view the
following circumstances must be considered.

(a) Copulative sentences are expressed in three ways : (1) by

a mere juxtaposition of words or sentences, as veni, vidi, vici, ‘ I
came (and) I saw, (and) I conquered ; ' and quae res sensibus perci-
piuntur, eas cernimus, audimus, gustamus, olfacimus, tangimus, ' we
see, (and) hear, (and) taste, (and) smell , (and) touch the objects of
the senses : ' (2) by inserting a copulative conjunction before the
appended words and sentences, or the last of them ; as quamvis
reus sum et panem candidum edo, ' I am as guilty as you please,
and still I eat white bread ; ' and auctoritate tua nobis opus est, et
24-2
372 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

consilio et etiam gratia, ' we need your authority, and your advice,
and, in addition, your popularity: ' (3) by inserting some word or
words in the first clause, which presume and require correlative
expressions in the following copulative sentence or sentences ; such
are et―et, -que --que, tum- tum, quum-quum, tum— quum, tam—
quam, non solum-sed etiam, partim—partim, primum—deinde—
tum -postremo, &c.; thus : tu multis de causis vellem me convenire
potuisses ; primum, ut te viderem ; deinde, ut tibi possem praesens
gratulari; tum, ut quibus de rebus vellemus, te tuis ego meis, inter
nos communicaremus ; postremo, ut amicitia nostra confirmaretur
vehementius, ' for many reasons I wish you could have had an inter-
view with me, first, to have the pleasure of seeing you ; then, that
I might personally express my congratulations ; again , that we
might confer together on such of our mutual affairs as we wished ;
lastly, that our friendship might be the more strongly confirmed.'

Obs. 1 The most common cases of the omission of the copulative

particle, or asyndeton, as it is called, are those in which we wish to
give animation and energy to our words, as in the celebrated announce-
ment of Cæsar's victory quoted above ; the enumeration of colleagues in
office, as Cn. Pompeio, M. Crasso, consulibus; in examples, as inferis
inesse fortitudinem saepe dicimus, ut in equis, in leonibus, Cic. de Off. 1.
16 ; in enumerations of classes of persons and things opposed to one
another, as Democritus alba et alia discernere non poterat, at vero bona,
mala; aequa, iniqua ; honesta, turpia; utilia, inutilia; magna, parva
poterat, Cic. Tusc. v. 39 ; similarly we have side by side prima, postrema ;
fanda, nefanda; publica, privata; ultro, citro ; such phrases as Patres,
Conscripti (above, p. 192) ; and formal statements, such as quidquid dare,
facere oportet; aequum, bonum ; sarta, tecta, &c.

Obs. 2 Instead of omitting the copulative particle, we may pro-

duce a similar effect of emphasis and animation, by repeating some word
common to all the copulative sentences ; this is called anaphora, and is
found in words of various kinds ; as adverbs : si recte Cato judicavit, non
recte frumentarius ille, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit
(Cic. de Off. III. 16) ; personal pronouns : nos deorum immortalium templa,
nos muros, &c. , nos leges, &c., defendimus (Cic. Phil. VIII. 3) ; condi-
tional particles : si loca, si fana, si campum, si canes, si equos consue-
tudine adamare solemus, quantum id in hominum consuetudine facilius
fieri potest ? (Cic. Fin. 1. 20) ; adversative particles : promisit, sed diffi-
culter, sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis verbis (Sen. Benef. 1. 1 ).

Obs. 3 When the copulative sentence assumes the correlative form,

non modo (solum) —sed, and the second member includes a negative, the
negative is presumed but not expressed in the first clause ; thus : Philo-
sophi quidam sublata assensione omnem et motum animorum et actionem
rerum sustulerunt, quod non modo (not only not) recte fieri, sed omnino
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 373

fieri non potest. Cic. Acad. IV. 19. Dolere non modo summum (not only
not the chief evil), sed ne malum quidem esse maxima auctoritate philo-
sophi affirmant. Cic. de Off. III. 29. Epicurus cupiditates quasdam ,
quod essent plane inanes, neque necessitatem modo (and not only did not
belong to necessity ), sed ne naturam quidem attingerent, funditus ejicien-
das putavit. Cic. Tusc. v. 33. Praedonum a Chalcide naves non modo
Sunium superare (not only did not dare to double Cape Sunium), sed nec
extra fretum Euripi committere aperto mari se audebant. Liv. xxxi. 22.
Camillorum, &c., virtutes non solum in moribus nostris (are not only not
found in our habits of life), sed vix jam in libris reperiuntur. Cic.
Cael. 17.

(B) In whatever way copulative sentences are expressed, their

original basis is the same as that of the relative construed with
its antecedent. For it is an established fact in philology that the
relative was primarily a demonstrative pronoun denoting relative
proximity, and there are languages which express the strongest
form of the relative sentence either by the correlative of two pro-
nouns expressing nearness, or by placing one of these in the rela-
tive clause (New Cratylus , § 148). While therefore the omission
of the copulative conjunction stands on precisely the same footing
as all other cases of asyndeton, we have the oldest form of the
relative sentence, when the enumeration is expressed by a repeti-
tion of the same demonstrative or relative pronoun ; as in et homi-
nes et viri, or hominesque virique ; and we have the ordinary form
of the relative sentence, when a relative is opposed to a demonstra-
tive particle ; as hominesque et equi, which means where (there are)
men, there (opposite to them, for et =- avra, avтí,
ἀντί, New Cratylus,
§ 194) horses .'

Obs. This analysis of the copulative sentence has its special value in
Latin, for it is well known that the relative is often really equivalent
to the copulative conjunction with a demonstrative pronoun ; thus in
Infima conditio est servorum, quibus non male praecipiunt, qui ita jubent
uti ut mercenariis (Cic. de Off. 1. 13), the relative sentence is equivalent
to Et non male praecipiunt, qui jubent iis uti, ut mercenariis. Similarly
in Grave ipsius conscientiae pondus est, qua sublata jacent omnia (Cic.
Nat. Deor. II. 35), the relative sentence is equivalent to Et hac sublata,
jacent omnia. And so in a number of examples.

§ 3. (b) Disjunctive Sentences.

195 Although copulative and disjunctive sentences seem to be
constructed in a perfectly similar manner, there is an essential
difference in their logical value. For while, as we have seen, the
copulative sentence may be reduced ultimately to that form of the
374 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

relative sentence which constitutes the conditional proposition, with

both the assumption and consequence stated, the disjunctive sen-
tences oppose two assumptions as alternatives , without stating the
consequence of either (above, 192) . Accordingly, while homines-
que et equi means , ' where there are men, there are also horses, ' the
disjunctive sentence vel homines, vel equi implies, ' you may choose
horses, you may choose men, ' and the disjunctive sentence, aut
homines aut equi presumes, where there are men, there are not
horses, ' for, as we have seen, aut and haud are the same word.

Obs. The examples given above (p. 194) of the disjunctive conjunc-
tions vel, aut, and ve render it unnecessary to illustrate their use here.
It must be remarked, however, that the concessive force of vel, which is
seen in the disjunctive sentence, is really preserved by this particle,
when it is said to mean ' even ' or when it introduces an example. In
both cases it may be rendered by ' take, if you please .' In the former
usage, it is especially combined with superlatives, as vel optime, fructus vel
optimus, which may be rendered ' if you like, in the best manner, ' ' pro-
duce, if you please, of the best kind.' That it is not properly rendered
' even ' is shown by its occasional combination in this use with etiam ;
as De rebus nostris satis, vel etiam nimium multa, enough, if you please,
even too much of our affairs.' Cic. ad div. Iv. 14. That it has a con-
cessive value is clear from such passages as Per me vel stertas licet,
' as far as depends on me, you may snore, if you please. ' Cic . Acad. II . 19.
Quam sis morosus vel ex hoc intelligi potest, quod, &c., ' how morose you
are, may, if you please, be understood from this, because, &c.' Precisely
the same is its real force when it means ' for example,' for there it
denotes, take this instance, if you like it ; thus, Amant te omnes
mulieres-vel illae quae here pallio me reprehenderunt, ' take for in-
stance those who pulled me by my cloak yesterday.' Plaut. Mil. Gl. 1.
1. 59.

§ 4. (c) Adversative Sentences.

196 Adversative sentences are constructed by means of the

adversative conjunctions (sed, autem, verum, &c. , which have been
discussed above (p. 196) ) . The logical value of these co-ordi-
nate propositions is to a certain extent dependent on the particle
which is used. Generally, however, the second clause is supposed
to contain some predication essentially different from that which is
conveyed by the former sentence. The difference may amount to a
statement of something inconsistent with what has gone before, or
it may be merely that distinction which is marked in the introduc-
tion of the second proposition of a syllogism. Thus, if we de-
scribe any one, as ingeniosus homo, sed (at, verum) in omni vita in-
constans, we concede his ability, while we oppose to it the very
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 375

different and inconsistent fact that he was fickle in all his actions.
Here the particle used (generally sed, another form of sẽ, and sine)
means ' but ' in the sense of our adversative conjunction (origi-
nally be-outan, without') . Butif we say nunc quod agitur aga-
mus ; agitur autem liberine vivamus an mortem obeamus, we mean,
' let us attend to the business before us ; but the business before us
is whether we are to live in freedom or to die.' Here the particle
used (generally autem ) means ' but, ' in the sense of our ' now' or
'however,' and we naturally expect a third clause beginning with
' therefore.' In the former use of the adversative sentence, its con-
struction is sometimes copulative in Latin ; or we have -que, et , or
ac, where we use but ' in English . This occurs when the former
sentence is negative, and the adversative sentence affirmative.
Thus we have, nostrorum militum impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt
ac terga verterunt (Cæs. B. G. IV. 35) ; the enemy could not with-
stand the attack of our men, but turned their backs.' Here the
Greek would use the strongest adversative particle anλá. The
relative pronoun which, as we have seen, takes the place of the
copulative conjunction, is also used in Latin as a substitute for the
adversative particle, and even in those cases where the first clause
is affirmative ; thus in Romani nutu vocibusque hostes, si introire
vellent, vocare coeperunt, quorum progredi ausus est nemo (Cæs.
B. G. v. 43) , quorum is used for sed eorum, ' but no one of them
dared to do so. ' Similarly in nulla res vehementius rempublicam
continet, quam fides, quae nulla esse potest, nisi erit necessaria
solutio rerum creditarum (Cic. de Off. 11. 24) , quae is used for
sed ea or ea autem, ' this , however, cannot exist, unless the pay-
ment of what is trusted shall be necessary.'

§ 5. (d) Distributive Sentences.

197 Distributive sentences are constructed (a) by the opposi-

tion of the concessive quidem to the adversative sed; or (8) by
means of the indicative pronouns hic and ille (62) ; or (y) by a
repetition of distributive words, as pars, alius, &c.

(a) When we have the opposition of quidem to sed, corre-

sponding to the Greek μév-dé, it is the usual practice of the best
writers to insert a pronoun immediately before quidem in order to
emphasize the word of which the predicate is conceded ; thus ,
 376 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

Oratorias exercitationes non tu quidem reliquisti, sed certe philo-

sophiam illis anteposuisti (Cic. de Fato, 2) , ' you, it must be
admitted, have not abandoned the practice of oratory, but you have
certainly preferred philosophy to those exercises .' Domitius nulla
ille quidem arte, sed Latine tamen et multa cum libertate dicebat
(Cic. Brut. 77) , ' Domitius, it must be owned, did not speak with
much art, but still he spoke good Latin, and with much freedom .'
Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed magnopere moderandus (Cic.
Att. XII. 10), ' your grief, it must be confessed, is prompted by the
feelings of humanity, but it is by all means to be moderated.'
Libri scripti inconsiderate ab optimis quidem viris, sed non satis
eruditis (Cic. Tusc. Disp. 1. 3) , ' books written inconsiderately by
men who were no doubt excellent in their moral character, but who
were not sufficiently learned. 'Ludo et joco uti illo quidem licet,
sed tum quum gravibus seriisque rebus satisfecerimus (Cic. de Off. 1.
29), ' one may indeed indulge in sport and joke, but only when
we have adequately dealt with affairs of weight and seriousness .'
Cyri vitam et disciplinam legunt, praeclaram illam quidem, sed
non tam aptam rebus nostris (Cic . Brut. 29) , ' they read the Cyro-
pædia, an admirable work it must be allowed , but not so well
suited to our business . ' The omission of the pronoun before qui-
dem is of rare occurrence, but we have such constructions as Pro-
posuit quidem legem, sed minutissimis litteris et angusto loco (Sueton .
Cal. 41 ) . And the merely adversative sentence without quidem
has sometimes a distributive sense ; as Ennius esse deos censet,
sed eos non curare opinatur, quid agat humanum genus (Cic. de Div.
1. 58) , where we might insert ille quidem without altering the
signification .

(8) When the distribution has reference to persons or things ,

already mentioned separately, the pronoun hic, this here, ' is gene-
rally used to indicate the last-mentioned ; ille," that other,' to indi-
cate that which was named first ; as Caesar beneficiis atque munifi-
centia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato ; ille (the former-
Cæsar) mansuetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic (to the latter
-Cato) severitas dignitatem addiderat ( Sall. Cat. 54) . But hic
and ille may mean, conversely, the first and the second terms in
the enumeration, because in the idea, though not in the retrospec-
tive order, the first is nearer than the second ; as Melior tutiorque
est certa pax, quam sperata victoria ; haec (the first-mentioned ,
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 377

peace) in tua, illa (the second, victory) in deorum potestate est (Liv.
xxx. 30) .

(7) When the distribution has reference to things already

mentioned in the aggregate, the enumeration of the particulars is
expressed by a repetition of distributive words ; thus we have pars
-pars ; as Ceteri deserti ab ducibus pars (in part, some of them)
transitione, pars (others of them) fuga dissipati sunt (Liv. xxvIII.
16) . Multitudo pars (some of the multitude) procurrit in vias, pars
(others) in vestibulis stat, pars (others) ex tectis fenestrisque prospec-
tant, et quid rei sit rogitant (Liv. XXIV. 21 ) , where it will be ob-
served that it is optional whether we use the singular or the plural
verb with pars in a distributive sentence. Similarly we have pars
-quidam; as Cherusci instant cedentibus collectosque in orbem pars
(some of them) congressi, quidam (certain of the number) eminus
proturbant (Tac. Ann. II . 11 ) . Also alii-alii or alter-alter ; as
Illi ad deprecandum periculum proferebant, alii (some of them) pur-
puram Tyriam, tus alii (others) , gemmas alii ( others) , vina nonnulli
(some few) Graeca (Cic. Verr. VII . 56) . Duae filiae harum altera
(one of the two) occisa, altera (the other) capta est (Cæsar, B. G. 1 .
53) . Sometimes the distribution is expressed in a single sentence,
as when we have Discedebant alius in aliam partem (alius alio),
'they separated one to one side, one to the other. ' So also Aliter
cum aliis loqueris, ' you speak differently to different people. ' Haec
aliter ab aliis definiuntur, ' these things are defined by different
persons in different manners.' Sometimes the distribution is ex-
pressed without an enumeration of parts by the mere pronoun quis-
que; as Neque mirum, ubi vos separatim sibi quisque (each of you
for himself) consilium capitis (Sall. Cat. 52) . Infensus miles me-
moria laborum se quisque (each of the soldiers) , ultione et sanguine
explebant (Tac. Ann . IV. 25). Quisque suos patimur Manes (Virg.
En. VI. 745) . So also we have hic et hic, hic et ille, ille et ille,
this and that,' ' one or two.'

§ 6. (e) Distinctive Sentences.

198 As the distributive sentence is often in a certain sense
adversative, so the distinctive sentence may approximate in logical
value to the distributive. But the distributive is of wider applica-
tion than the adversative, and the distinctive than the distributive.
The main instrument in the construction of a distinctive sentence
378 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

in Latin is the pronoun, and a discussion of this form of the co-

ordinate sentence resolves itself into an examination of the syntax of
the different demonstrative and indefinite pronouns ; but although
the Latin language is much more precise in this respect than the
English, it sometimes omits the pronoun where we should insert it ;
it dispenses with the verb when distinctive nouns are used ; and it
often repeats the same word where we should use some distinctive
expression. It will be convenient, before we investigate the syntax
of the different pronouns, which are used as substitutes for nouns
in distinctive sentences, to consider those cases in which the pro-
noun or verb is omitted, and in which the same word, whether
noun or pronoun, is repeated to mark a distinctive relation.

(a) Omission of the Pronoun or Verb.

199 (aa) The pronoun is not inserted , as in English , when

there are distinctive genitives in reference to the same noun ; as
Perspicuum est benevolentiae vim esse magnam, metus (that of fear,
i.e. vim metus) imbecillam. Cic. de Off. II. 8.

(bb) The same verb is not repeated in distinctive sentences ,

even though a different person or number would be required ; thus
we have Abi rus ergo hinc : ibi ego te (i.e. feram, ' I will put up
with you'), tu me feres. Ter. Heaut. IV. 2. 4. In Hyrcania plebs
6
publicos alit canes, optimates domesticos (i . e. canes alunt, rear dogs
in their houses ') . Cic. Tusc. Disp. 1. 45.

(B) Repetition of Distinctive Words.

200 (aa) The same noun is repeated, when mutuality or cor-

respondence is signified ; as Placet Stoicis homines hominum causa
esse generatos (Cic. de Off. III. 17) , ' it is the opinion of the Stoics.
that men have been created for the sake of one another.' Ad Va-
dimonis lacum Etrusci, lege sacrata coacto exercitu, quum vir virum
legisset (each man having chosen his mate) , dimicarunt. Liv. IX.
39 .

(bb) More frequently the same pronominal word is repeated in

this sense ; as Sergius Virginiusque noxii ambo alter in alterum cau-
sam conferunt (lay the blame upon one another, i. e. the one upon
the other) . Liv. v. 11. Nihil aliud in judicium venit, nisi uter utri
insidias fecerit (which of the two plotted against the other) . Cic.
Mil. 12. Magni est judicis statuere quid quemque cuique praestare
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 379

oporteat (what every man ought to do for his neighbour, i. e. every

man for every man) . Cic. de Off. III. 17. Alius alio gravius
atque ornatius de mea salute dixit (every successive speaker out-
stript the previous speaker in the dignity and eloquence with which
he enlarged on my safety) . Cic. Sext. 34. Equites sine duce relicti
alii alia (one in one way, another in another) in civitates suas
dilapsi sunt. Liv. XLIV. 43.

(7) Use of the Distinctive Pronouns.

201 The signification of the pronouns has been already given

(above, Part 1. Chap. III .) ; but it belongs to the syntax of co-
ordinate sentences to illustrate by examples the construction of the
demonstrative and indefinite pronouns, which are used as the vehi-
cles of distinctive reference.

(aa) Is.
The pronouns, which are most especially distinctive, are is and
its two derivatives idem and ipse, corresponding, as we have seen
(above, 63), to the three usages of the Greek autós. In its most
ordinary use, is is either the correlative of qui in a definitive sen-
tence, as A me ii contenderunt, qui apud me et amicitia et dignitate
plurimum possunt (Cic. Rosc. Am. 1 ) , ' I was applied to by the par-
ticular persons , who have the greatest influence with me on grounds
of friendship or worthiness ; ' or it is a mere pronoun of reference ;
as Omitto Isocratem discipulosque ejus, Ephorum et Naucratem (Cic.
Or. 51), ' I omit Isocrates and his scholars (the scholars of the
person in particular just mentioned) Ephorus and Naucrates.' In
regard to the former usage, the is sometimes introduces not qui, but
quicunque or siquis ; as Eam fortunam quaecunque erit tua (Cic.
Mil. 36) . Ex ea facilitate, si quam habet (Cic. Div. in Caecil. 15) .
As a pronoun of reference is becomes emphatically distinctive ,
when it is used by itself with a copulative or disjunctive conjunc-
tion, so that et is, et is quidem, atque is, or isque, means ' and that
too,' and nec is means ' and that not ; ' as in the following examples :
Exempla quaeruntur et ea (and those) non antiqua. Cic. Verr. III .
90. Epicurus una in domo et ea quidem (and that too) angusta
quam magnos quantaque amoris conspiratione consentientes tenuit
amicorum greges ! (Cic. Fin. 1. 20) . Uno atque eo facili (and that
an easy one) proelio caesi ad Antium hostes (Liv. IV. 57). Unam
rem explicabo eamque maximam (Cic. Fin. 1. 8) , ' I will explain one
380 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

circumstance, and that a point of the greatest importance.' Galli

legionem nec eam plenissimam (and that not a very complete one)
propter paucitatem despiciebant (Cæs. B. G. III . 2) . If the distinction
added belongs to the general predication, we have et id or idque ; as
Crassum cognovi studiis optimis deditum idque a puero (Cic. ad div .
XIII. 16) , ' I have known Crassus to be devoted to the best pursuits,
and that too (i. e. the circumstance that he was so devoted) from his
boyhood.' We have also sed is in a similar sense ; as Severitatem
in senectute probo, sed eam modicam (Cic. Sen. 18) . The distinctive
sentence with is sometimes stands by itself and independently of
the context. In this case it begins the sentence ; as P. Annius
Asellus mortuus est C. Sacerdote praetore. Is quum haberet unicam
filiam, eam bonis suis heredem instituit (Cic. Verr . I. 41 ) . In this
casę the proper name of the person referred to is sometimes repeated
in the distinctive sentence, and we write, for instance, is Piso (Sull .
Cat. 19) , much in the same way as we should write in Greek ó
Пllow . We have also is est and id est in the sense ' I mean to
speak of.'

(bb) Idem.
Besides its common use in expressions of identity, where we
say 'the same,' idem is employed distinctively when we introduce
some adverbial phrase denoting correspondence (' also , ' ' likewise, '
' at the same time , ' ' in the same manner ' ) or contrast (' still,' ' on
the other hand, ' ' notwithstanding ') ; as Nihil utile, quod non idem
honestum (Cic. de Off. III . 7) , ' nothing is useful , which is not also
(at the same time) virtuous.' Etiam patriae hoc munus debere vi-
detis, ut ea, quae salva per te est, per te eundem sit ornata (Cic. Leg.
1. 2) , ' you seem to owe this good service to your country, that
being saved by you , it should be adorned by you also . ' Inventi
multi sunt, qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, iidem (still ,
notwithstanding, on the other hand) gloriae jacturam ne minimam
quidem facere vellent (Id. ibid. 1. 24) . Epicurus, quum optimam et
praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem esse in deo gra-
tiam (Cic. N. D. 1. 43) , ' Epicurus, although he says that the na-
ture of God is the best and most excellent, denies all the while that
there is any feeling of favour in the Deity.'
(cc) Ipse.
We may use ipse either alone or with an immediate reference to
the personal or reflexive pronouns. In the former case, it denotes
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 381

(1) the most emphatic or exclusive distinction, as when the Py-

thagoreans said of their master : Ipse dixit (avròs epa) (Cic. N. D.
1. 5, § 10) , he said it himself,' ' you have his own authority
for it; or (2) spontaneity ; as Ipsae lacte domum referent distenta
capellae ubera (Virg. Ecl. iv. 21 ) , which Horace (Epod. XVI . 49) ex-
presses thus : Injussae veniunt ad mulctra capellae ; or (3) exact
measurement, especially of time ; as Triginta dies erant ipsi, quum
has dabam litteras, per quos nullas a vobis acceperam (Cic. Att.
III. 21 ) , ' exactly thirty days had elapsed ; ' nunc ipsum ea lego,
ea scribo, ut ii qui mecum sunt difficilius otium ferant, quam ego
laborem (Cic. Att. XII . 40) , ' at this particular time I read and
write such things that those who are with me find it more difficult
to endure their leisure than I do to bear my toil.' When ipse is
used with immediate reference to the personal or reflexive pronouns ,
it admits of two constructions ; it is used in the nominative with a
personal or reflexive pronoun in an oblique case, if we wish to inti-
mate that the agency is confined to the subject of the sentence ;
thus we say, Non egeo medicina, me ipse consolor (Cic. Lael. 3) , ' I
need no medicine ; ' ' I console myself, ' i. e . ' I need no external or
foreign consolation ; ' ' I alone minister consolation to myself.' Val-
vae clausae repagulis subito se ipsae aperuerunt (Cic. N. D. 11. 3) ,
' the doors, though shut and bolted , suddenly opened themselves by
their own agency.' Non potest exercitum is imperator continere, qui
se ipse non continet (Cic. pro leg. Manil. 13) , ' the general, who
does not by his own efforts keep himself under control, cannot con-
trol his army.' But if we wish to intimate that the results of the
action are confined to the subject, we put ipse in the same oblique
case with the reflexive pronoun ; thus we say, Sensim tardeve potius
nosmet ipsos cognoscimus (Cic. Fin. v. 15) , ' we get to know our
very selves gradually, or rather slowly, ' i. e. ' it is only with refer-
ence to ourselves that this knowledge is so difficult.' We find ,
however, that ipse is used in the nominative in a sort of redundant
manner, where we should expect it to be in the same case with the
reflexive pronoun ; but here the distinctive value of the pronoun is
very apparent ; thus we say Ipse sibi inimicus est (Cic. Fin. v. 10) ,
he is his own enemy,' i. e. ' he has no other enemy.' Secum ipsi
loquuntur (Cic. R. P. 1. 17) , ' they soliloquize, ' i. e. ' there are no
other speakers .' Crassus et Antonius ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis
non potuerunt (Cic. de Orat. 11. 2), ' Crassus and Antonius could not
be learnt from their own writing in their distinctive characteristics .'
382 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

(dd) Se, suus.

The reflexive pronoun, which is thus used with ipse, is the

regular vehicle of a distinctive reference to the main subject of a
sentence.

(1) Properly the reflexive is the pronoun of distinctive refer-

ence to the nominative of the main sentence ; thus, Id ea de causa
Caesar fecit, ne se (i . e. Cæsar himself) occupatum opprimerent.
Exposuit, cur ea res parum sibi (i . e . to Cæsar) placeret. Accusat
amicos, quod se (himself, i. e. Cæsar) non adjuverint. Ariovistus
respondet, si quid Caesar se (him, the speaker, Ariovistus) velit,
illum (Cæsar) ad se (Ariovistus ) venire oportere. Cæsar, B. G. I.
34. Tum ei dormienti idem ille visus est rogare, ut quoniam sibi
(the murdered man, whose ghost asked the question) vivo non sub-
venisset, mortem suam (his , the ghostly speaker's death) ne inultam
esse pateretur. Cic. de Div. 1. 27.

(2) Se, suus are also used , whenever there is an expression of

reciprocal or mutual action ; in the former case it is often combined
with ipse, as we have seen above ; thus we have Ipse se quisque
diligit (Cic. Am. 21 ) , ' every man loves himself. ' Bestiis homines
uti possunt ad suam utilitatem (Cic. Fin. III. 20) , men may make
use of the lower animals for their own requirements ' (i. e. of the
men who use them) . Etiam feras inter se partus et educatio conci-
liat (Cic. Rosc. Am. 22) , ' birth and education bind even wild
beasts to one another.' Veri amici non solum colent inter se et
diligent, sed etiam verebuntur (Cic. Am . 22) , ' true friends will not
only serve and love one another, but will also feel mutual
respect.'

(3) We may use se, suus, even without any distinctive re-
flexion to the subject, if there is an emphatic reference to any per-
son or thing in the sentence, where we introduce the phrase ' his,
her, its own,' in English ; thus, Hannibalem sui cives e civitate
ejecerunt (Cic. pro Sext. 68) , ' his own citizens banished Hannibal.'
Si ceteris recte facta sua prosunt, mihi mea ne quando obsint provi-
dete (Cic. Cat. III . 12 ) , ' if their own good deeds are advantageous
to others, take care that mine be not at any time injurious to me.'
Cui proposita est conservatio sui, necesse est huic quoque partes sui
caras esse (Cic. Fin . v. 13) , ' it is necessary that the parts of himself
should be dear to the man, who has proposed to himself his own
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 383

preservation.' Sometimes it may appear doubtful whether we

ought to use suus or ejus. Thus, while we have Dicaearchum cum
Aristarcho, aequali et condiscipulo suo, omittamus (Cic. Tusc. I. 18 ) ,
we have in a sentence apparently very similar, Omitto Isocratem
discipulosque ejus Ephorum et Naucratem (Cic. Or . 51 ) . But in
the former the use of the preposition cum conveys an idea of ac-
companiment which makes the reference emphatic ; ' let us pass
over Dicæarchus, and with him his own scholar Aristarchus ;' but
in the second case, we merely say, ' I pass over Isocrates and his
scholars (the scholars of that particular rhetorician) Ephorus and
Naucrates. ' Similarly we have Fabius a me diligitur propter
summam suam humanitatem et observantiam (Cic. ad Div. xv. 14) ,
where the writer intimates that the politeness and attention of
Fabius were peculiarly his own ; but in a precisely similar sentence
we find, Pisonem nostrum merito ejus amo plurimum (Cic. ad Div.
XIV. 2) , because there is no emphasis in the attribution of merit
to Piso.

Obs. 1 Se, suus may be used in a reflexive sense, though they do not
refer to the nominative of the main sentence, but to the word which
constitutes the real rather than the grammatical subject of the general
proposition ; thus, Jam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam
stirpem apud se educari (Liv. 1. 5), because Faustulo spes fuerat is
quite equivalent to Faustulus speraverat. A Caesare valde liberaliter
invitor sibi ut sim legatus (Cic. Att. 18), because a Caesare invitor is
quite equivalent to Caesar me invitat.

Obs. 2 In a dependent sentence, the reflexive pronoun may refer

to either of two nouns in the main sentence, or there may be two
reflexive pronouns referring respectively to the two nouns previously
introduced ; thus we may say, Hortensius ex Verre quaesivit, cur suos
(i. e. Hortensii) familiarissimos rejici passus esset (Cic. Verr. 1. 7), be-
cause the direct interrogative would have been Cur meos familiaris-
simos rejici passus es ? Again we may say, Livius Salinator Q. Fabium
Maximum rogavit, ut meminisset opera sua (i. e. Livii) se (i. e. Fabium)
Tarentum recepisse (Cic. de Or. II. 67), because the direct sentence would
have been Memento opera mea te Tarentum recepisse.
Obs. 3 Sometimes the necessity for a distinctive reference obliges
the writer to use is with reference to the nominative of the main
sentence, and se, suus with reference to the subordinate word ; thus
we find such sentences as the following : Helvetii persuadent Rauracis
et Tulingis, uti, eodem usi consilio, oppidis suis vicisque (i. e. Raura-
corum et Tulingorum) exustis, una cum iis (i. e. Helvetiis) proficiscantur
(Cæs. B. G. 1. 5), because there would be à confusion if the reflexive
were used after the appropriation of suis in the absolute sentence.
384 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

Obs. 4 Even in a purely dependent sentence and in oratio obliqua

we may have is for se when a new subject is interposed ; as Audistis
nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos, Mercurium, qui sacris anniversa-
riis apud eos (i. e. Tyndaritanos) coleretur, Verris imperio esse sublatum
(Cic. Verr. IV. 39), because the new subject of the infinitive, Mercurium,
intervenes between the main subject and the pronoun of distinctive
reference. On the other hand, we have the reflexive instead of is,
even when there is no dependent sentence, if the pronoun of reference
immediately follows the main subject, though it may be grammatically
dependent on a verb containing another subject ; as Chrysogonus hunc
sibi (i. e. Chrysogono) ex animo scrupulum, qui se (i. e. Chrysogonum)
noctes diesque stimulat ac pungit, ut evellatis postulat (Cic. Rosc. Am. 2).
Hence we have such phrases as quantum in se est ; and hence too se is
used with reference to an indefinite subject ; as Negligere, quod de se
quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis, est sed etiam omnino dissoluti
(Cic. de Off. 1. 28), ' to neglect (i . e. that any one should neglect) what
everybody thinks about oneself (i. e. about himself, with reference to
the indefinite person, who is supposed to be negligent), is not only the
part of an arrogant, but of an absolutely dissolute person.'

(ee) Hic.

Besides their use in distributive sentences (above, 197 , (B) ) , hic

and ille are employed, with iste, in an indicative sense, which con-
tributes to the formation of distinctive sentences. Hic, in particu-
lar, is used (a) to denote that which is present in space or time ; as
Opus vel in hac magnificentia urbis conspiciendum (Liv. vi. 4) , a
work worthy of notice even in the present magnificence of the
city ' ' the splendour which it has reached in our time.' Qui
vituperare haec volunt, Chrysogonum tantum posse queruntur (Cic.
pro Rosc. Am. 48) , those who desire to find fault with the exist-
ing state of things, complain that Chrysogonus has so much
power.' Hic is also used (8) to denote that which follows in the
sentence ; as Libertas pauperis haec est (Juven . III. 299) , ' the
liberty of a poor man is as follows , ' and then we have an account
of his miserable condition . Hic is also used (y) as the definite
antecedent to a relative, instead of is, either to denote relative
proximity, as Haec quae a nobis hoc quadriduo disputata sunt
(Cic. Tusc. IV. 38) , ' these things which have been discussed by
us in the last four days ; ' or to give a marked emphasis , as Quos
ego campos antea nitidissimos viridissimosque vidissem , hos vastatos
nunc atque desertos videbam (Cic. Verr. III. 18) , ' the very plains,
which I had previously seen in the highest cultivation and fertility,
these I now saw laid waste and desolate .'
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES . 385

(ff) Iste.
Iste is the indicative pronoun of the second person, and is
properly used with reference to the person addressed.
(a) It is often directly referred to tu and tuus ; as De istis
rebus exspecto tuas litteras (Cic. Att. II . 5) , ' I expect a letter from
you respecting what is going on where you are.' Quaevis mallem
causa fuisset, quam ista quam dicis (Cic. de Orat. II . 4) , ' I would
rather it were any cause than that which you mention . ' And in
this way it is directly opposed to hic ; as Tisdem hic sapiens, de quo
loquor, oculis, quibus iste vester terram, mare, intuebitur (Cic. Acad.
Iv. 33) , this philosopher, of whom I am speaking, will gaze on
the earth and sea, with the same eyes as that man, whom you men-
tion. ' Hence, in a law-court, hic is the client of the speaker, iste,
' the person before you (the judges) ' is the other party.
(B) Iste may be used to distinguish the words of the speaker,
when, having been uttered , they are, as it were, transferred to the
hearer, and left to his consideration ; as Utinam tibi istam mentem
dii immortales duint (Cic. Cat. 1. 9) , ' I wish the gods would give
you such a mind as that which I have mentioned.' Fructum istum
laudis in alia tempora reservemus (Cic. Verr. 1. 11 ). That it dif
fers from hic in this idiomatic usage merely by implying a trans-
ference for the moment of that which really belongs to the speaker,
may be seen from such passages as the following, in which the two
pronouns are used together : Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus
imperti; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. 1 Epist. vI . 67) , ' if you
know anything more correct than what I have mentioned-what is
now before you- candidly impart it ; if not, join me in acting on
these principles of mine. '
(gg) Ille.
(a) As opposed to hic, denoting that which is before our eyes,
ille indicates that which is absent or unseen ; thus, Si illos, quos
jam videre non possumus, negligis, ne his quidem, quos vides, consuli
putas oportere (Cic. pro Rab. 11) , if you neglect those, whom
we can no longer see, you do not think that regard ought to be
paid even to these whom you see. '
(B) As opposed to iste, which is frequently used in expressing
contempt, ille often denotes distinction or eminence ; as Alexander
ille magnus, that well-known Alexander the Great ;' Medea illa,
'the notorious Medea.'
D. L. G. 25
386 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

(7) As referring to that which follows in the sentence, ille is

used much in the same way as hic, with this exception, that hic
denotes that which is immediately introduced, but ille, that which
is either new, or remarkable, or well-known ; thus, Nonne, quum
multa alia mirabilia, tum illud imprimis ? (Cic. de Div. 1.10) , while
many other things are wonderful, is not that particular circum-
stance especially so ?' Hence we find hoc Thrasybuli, ' the follow-
ing remark of Thrasybulus, ' illud Pherecydis, that memorable
saying of Pherecydes.'
(8) Ille is often repeated when an emphatic distinction is in-
tended, as in the following passage (Cic. de Orat. I. 41 ) : nisi ille
prius, qui illa tenet, habeat illam scientiam .

(hh) Alter, alius.

Alius, which is merely another form of ille = ollus (62, Obs. 4) ,
is used to denote an indefinite number of persons or things differ-
ent from the object or objects mentioned ; but alter is confined to
those cases in which only one other person or thing is mentioned.
Thus while we say alii plures (Hor. 1 Serm. VI . 110) , ‘ several other
persons,' we say unus atque item alter (Ter. Andr. I. 1) , ' one, and
then one other ;' solus aut cum altero (Cic. Att. XI . 15) , alone or
with one other person ; ' ne te sit ditior alter (Hor. 1 Serm. 1. 40 ) ,
' that no single person besides should be richer. ' So while we
have Fonteius Antoni, non ut magis alter, amicus (Hor. 1 Serm. v.
33), where only two are compared, we have Ut non magis quis-
quam alius (Hor. 2 Serm. VIII . 40) , where we exclude all other
persons from the comparison. Hence we have such phrases as
alter Nero, a second Nero,' &c. , where we mean a second person
of the same kind. But alius alone is used when we imply a dif-
ference or diversity.

(ii) Uterque, ambo, quisque.

Uterque and ambo refer to both of two persons or things, and
quisque includes every one of a given number. But although
uterque and ambo imply both of two, uterque means , both the one
and the other,' and intimates a distinction of act or condition at the
particular time, whereas ambo means ' both together ; ' as the follow-
ing example will sufficiently show (Ter. Adelph. 1. 2. 50) :
Curemus æquam uterque partem ; tu alterum,
Ego alterum : nam ambos curare propemodum
Reposcere illum est quem dedisti.
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES . 387

'Let both the one and the other of us take an equal share in
the business ; do you look to one of them ; let me look to the
other ; for to concern yourself with both together is almost to
demand back again the boy whom you gave me.' Quisque on
the other hand signifies ' each ' or ' every one ' of a larger number
taken separately ; as Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat
(Cic. Tusc. I. 18) , ' let each one practise the art in which he (as
distinguished from other men) excels .' Ut quisque maxime ad
suum commodum refert quaecunque agit, ita minime est vir bonus
(Cic. Leges, 1. 18) , ' in proportion as each man refers all his actions
to his own interest, in the same proportion is he deficient in
Non quantum quisque prosit, sed quanti quisque sit,
goodness . '
ponderandum est (Cic. Brut. 73 , § 257) , ' we must estimate, not
what is the usefulness , but what is the value of each man taken
by himself. ' From this function of marking the individual and
distinguishing him from a considerable number, quisque is specially
used with superlatives ; as Ex philosophis optimus et gravissimus
quisque confitetur multa se ignorare (Cic. Tusc. III. 28), of the
general mass of philosophers, every one, who is most distinguished
by his excellence and power, confesses that he is ignorant of many
things.' As the ordinal belongs to the same class as the superla-
tives we have quisque also in this combination, and primus quisque
means that which on each occasion is first, i. e. in succession ; as
Primum quidque consideremus (Cic. N. D. 1. 27) , ' let us consider
each circumstance in its order.' So also tertius quisque, quartus
quisque, &c. ' every third,' ' every fourth ; ' but ' every other ' is
expressed by alternus, as alternis diebus ' everyother day.' In
accordance with the same usage we have quisque with quotus ; and
quotus quisque means ' what number is each of a long series counted
by?' as Quotus quisque philosophorum invenitur, qui sit ita moratus
ut ratio postulat? (Cic. Tusc. II. 4) , ' what of a given number
is each philosopher, who is so constituted in his character as nature
requires ? '-e. g. is he one in five, one in fifty, or one in five
hundred ? and this amounts to the exclamatory inference : ' how
few philosophers there are who are so qualified .' It has been
already mentioned (above 69, Obs. 2) , that quisquis is occasion-
ally used for quisque, and that in this case the neuter is written quic-
quid instead of quidquid.

25-2
388 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

(kk) Quis, quispiam ; aliquis, aliquispiam.

The opposition between ' some ' and ' any ' is expressed in
Latin by prefixing the syllables ali- (a relic of the indicative
pronoun ille or alius) to the indefinite quis or quispiam, ali-quis-
piam, however, being of very rare occurrence. We have quis
convertible with quispiam in such phrases as dicat quis, dicat
quispiam, ' suppose any one were to say,' by the side of dicat
6
aliquis, suppose some one were to say;' we have quis in preference
to quispiam after relatives, and in interrogative, conditional, or final
sentences ; as Illis promissis standum non est, quae coactus quis
metu, quae deceptus dolo promisit (Cic. de Off. 1. 10) . Num quis
irascitur pueris, quorum aetas nondum novit rerum discrimina ?
(Sen. de Ira, II. 9.) Galli legibus sanctum habent, ut si quis quid
de republica a finitimis rumore acceperit, uti ad magistratum deferat.
(Cæs. B. G. vi. 20) . Fieri potest, ut recte quis sentiat, et id, quod
sentit, polite eloqui non possit (Cic . Tusc. 1. 3) . Id ego arbitror
apprimis in vita esse utile, ut ne quid nimis (Ter. Andr. 1. 1. 34) .
In all these passages we must translate quis by ' any ; ' but if in
similar constructions we wish to express the meaning of ' some '
we must use aliquis even after si or ne, as Si aliquid de summa
gravitate Pompeius, si multum de cupiditate Caesar remisisset, pacem
stabilem nobis habere licuisset (Cic. Phil. XIII . 1 ) , ' if Pompey had
given up somewhat of his high dignity, if Cæsar had given up
much of his ambition , we might have had durable peace .' Timebat
Pompeius omnia, ne vos aliquid timeretis (Cic . pro Mil. 24) ,
' Pompey feared all things, that you might not have some par-
ticular object of fear. ' The difference between quispiam and
aliquis may be seen by such passages as the following : Si de
rebus rusticis agricola quispiam, aut etiam, id quod multi, medicus
de morbis, aut de pingendo pictor aliquis diserte dixerit aut scrip-
serit, non idcirco illius artis putanda sit eloquentia (Cic. de Orat.
II. 9, § 38) , if any person versed in agriculture shall have written
or spoken with eloquence on rural affairs, or even any physician, as
many have done, on diseases, or if some painter shall have so
discussed painting, eloquence would not therefore be considered
as belonging to the particular art which was so illustrated .' The
difference between quispiam and quisque may be seen by comparing
the two following passages of Cæsar : Quoties quaeque cohors pro-
curreret, ab ea parte magnus hostium numerus cadebat (B. G. v. 34) ,
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES . 389

' as often as each or every cohort rushed forward, a great number

of the enemy fell on that side.' Quum quaepiam cohors ex orbe
excesserat, hostes fugiebant (B. G. 1. 35) , ' when any cohort had left
the circle, the enemy fled.' Aliquis and quispiam may occur in the
same phrase ; as Forsitan aliquis aliquando ejusmodi quidpiam
fecerit (Cic. Verr. II . 32) , ' some one may at some time have done
any thing of that kind . '

(11) Quivis, quilibet, quisquam, ullus.

If we wish to speak of ' any ' person or thing with an un-

restricted liberty of selection, we must write quivis or quilibet. If
we wish to speak of ' any ' person or thing, in an exclusive sense,
we must use quisquam substantively, and ullus as an adjective.
The distinction between quivis or quilibet and quisquam or ullus
is clearly given in such oppositions as the following : Cuivis potest
accidere quod cuiquam potest, (Publ. Syrus, ap. Sen. de Tranqu. XI .
8), what may happen to any one at all, may happen to any one
you please.' The distinction between quivis or quilibet and aliquis
appears in such passages as, Dummodo doleat aliquid doleat quid-
libet (Afranius, ap. Cic. Tusc. Disp. IV. 25) , ' provided he only
suffers some pain let him suffer any thing you please.' The near
approximation in meaning between quisquam and quispiam appears
in such passages as the following : Nego esse quicquam a testibus
dictum, quod aut vestrum cuipiam esset obscurum, aut cujusquam
oratoris eloquentiam quaereret (Cic. Verr. 1. 10) , ' I deny that any-
thing at all has been said by the witnesses, such that it should
be obscure to any one of you, or should require the eloquence
of any orator at all.' Ne suspicari quidem possumus, quenquam
horum ab amico quidpiam contendisse, quod contra rempublicam esset
(Cic. Am. 11 ) , ' we cannot even suspect that any one at all of these
has sought anything from a friend, of such a nature as to be against
the commonwealth . ' That quisquam and ullus are used in the
same sense may be seen by comparing Si quisquam est, ille sapiens
fuit (Cic. Am. 2) with Si tempus est ullum jure hominis necandi,
certe illud est non modo justum, verum etiam necessarium (Cic. pro
Mil. 4) . Although ullus is generally used as an adjective, in the
place of quisquam, which is not completely, inflected and has no
feminine (above, 68, Obs. 1) , we sometimes find ullus used without a
noun ; as Tu me existimas ab ullo malle mea legi probarique, quam
a te ? (Cic. Att. IV. 5) . Conversely we may have scriptor quis-
390 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

quam, quisquam Gallus, &c.; thus, Quasi vero quisquam vir excel-
lenti animo optabilius quidquam arbitretur, quam se a suis civibus
reipublicae causa diligi (Cic. Vat. 3).

§ 7. (f) Comparative Sentences.

202 Comparative sentences, which express either the identity
or the difference in kind and degree of two subjects or predicates,
are constructed in the former case by means of the correlation of
certain adverbs, and in the latter case by a comparative adjective
either followed by quam or by the ablative case of the noun in-
dicating the standard of comparison.
(a) When the comparison presumes an identity or dissimilarity
in the same degree of comparison it may be expressed by the
following uses of relatives, and correlative adverbs.

(aa) We may have ut, uti, ' as,' with itidem, sic, isto modo, sic
item or sic contra, as in the following examples : Ut filium bonum
patri esse oportet, itidem ego sum patri. Plaut. Amph. 111. 4. 9. Ut
vos hic, itidem illic apud vos meus servatur filius. Id. Capt. II . 2.11 .
Ut in urbe retinenda tunc, sic nunc in Italia non relinquenda
testificabar sententiam meam. Cic. Att. VIII. 1. Ariovistus respondit :
Ut sibi concedi non oporteret, si in nostros fines impetum faceret,
sic item nos esse iniquos , quod in suo jure se interpellaremus . Cæs.
B. G. 1. 44. Ut hi miseri, sic contra illi beati, quos nulli metus
terrent. Cic. Tusc. v. 6. Non ille ut plerique, sed isto modo, ut
tu, distincte, graviter, ornate dicebat. Cic. N. D. 1. 21. Ut op-
tasti , ita est. Cic. Fam. II. 10. Uti initium, sic finis est. Sall.
Jug. II.
(bb) In the expressions ut fit, ut est, ut opinor, ut dico, ut scrip-
tum est, ut videtur, &c. , we must regard the whole of the correlative
sentence as the antecedent of ut ; thus we have, Qui in sua re
fuisset egentissimus erat, ut fit, insolens in aliena. Cic. Sex. Rosc.
8. Si vero improbus fuerit, ut est, duces eum captivum in trium-
pho. Cic. Fam. v. 11. Triginta dies tibi ad decedendum lege, ut
opinor, Cornelia constituti sunt. Ib . III. 6. Antonius illa dicendi
mysteria enunciet. Ut videtur, inquit Sulpicius. Cic. Or. 1. 47.
His consulibus, ut in veteribus commentariis scriptum est, Nævius
est mortuus. Cic. Brut. 15. Erat hoc, ut dico, factitatum semper.
Cic. Verr. VII. 24.

(cc) An identity of relation between two predicates may be

 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 391

definitely expressed by quemadmodum or quomodo, either alone or

with ita or sic as the antecedent ; thus we have, Si quemadmodum
soles de ceteris rebus, quum ex te quæruntur, sic de amicitia dispu-
taris. Cic. Am . 4. Necesse est, quo tu me modo esse voles, ita
esse, mater. Plaut. Cist. I. 1. 48. Ut quemadmodum guberna-
tores optimi vim tempestatis, sic illi fortunæ impetum superare non
possent. Cic. Q. Fr. I. 1. Nos in Senatu, quemadmodum spero,
dignitatem nostram, ut potest in tanta hominum perfidia, retinebi-
mus. Cic. Fam. I. 2. Quomodo hominum inter homines juris esse
vincula putant Stoici, sic homini nihil juris esse cum bestiis. Cic.
Fin. III. 20. Postulatio brevis, et, quomodo mihi persuadeo, ali-
quanto æquior. Cic. Sex. Rosc. II.

(dd) Similarity or dissimilarity, when the predication is in the

positive degree, may be expressed by atque, ac, after the adjectives,
and adverbs mentioned above (p. 173) . This idiom has been already
explained, but for the sake of method some additional examples
are here subjoined : Hostes inter se jactabant, similem Romæ pa-
vorem fore, ac bello Gallico fuerit. Liv. VI. 28. Hannibal Minu-
cium Rufum, magistrum equitum, pari ac dictatorem imperio, dolo
productum in proelium fugavit. Corn. Nep. XXIII . 5. Agrippa
Menenius erat vir omni vita pariter Patribus ac plebi carus. Liv.
II. 33. Civibus victis ut parceretur, aeque ac pro mea salute labo-
ravi. Cic. Fam. XI. 28. Ostendant milites, se juxta hieme atque
æstate bella gerere posse. Liv. v. 6. Virtus eadem in homine ac
deo est. Cic. Leg. I. 8. Equi non item sunt spectandi, atque ha-
bendi . Varr. II . 7, 15. Miltiades cum totidem navibus, atque erat
profectus, Athenas rediit. Corn . Nep. I. 17. Desiderium absen-
tium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit. Plin. Ep. VI . 1. Honos talis
paucis est delatus, ac mihi. Cic. Vatin. 4. Posteaquam mihi re-
nuntiatum est de obitu Tulliæ, filiæ tuæ, sane quam pro eo, ac
debui, graviter molesteque tuli. Sulpicius in Cic. Fam. IV. 5.
Dissimulatio est, quum alia dicuntur, ac sentias. Cic. Or. II. 67.
Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt, longeque aliter se habere, ac sensibus
videantur. Cic. Acad. 11. 31. Tecum agam, Servi, non secus, ac
si meus esses frater. Cic. Mur. 4. Vides, omnia fere contra, ac
dicta sint, evenisse. Cic. Div . II . 24. Verres inter alios contrarium
decernebat, ac proximis paullo ante decreverat. Cic. Verr. I. 46.
Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate, et eam appetit, ut
bonum. Cic. Fin. II. 10.
392 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

(ee) A negation of dissimilarity is expressed by nihil aliud,

non aliud, quid aliud, &c. , followed by quam, if nihil aliud means
nothing different in kind ; ' by atque, ac, if nihil aliud is equivalent
to idem ; and by nisi, or praeter, if nihil aliud nisi means hoc
unum or tantum ; in the last case aliud may be omitted. The fol-
lowing examples will illustrate these distinctions : Virtus est nihil
aliud, quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura. Cic.
Leg. 1. 8. Lysander nihil aliud molitus est, quam ut omnes civi-
tates in sua teneret potestate. Corn. Nep. vi . 1. Militiæ causam
nullam aliam invenietis, quam ne quid agi de commodis vestris
posset. Liv. v. 2. Non aliud malorum levamentum esse dicebant,
quam si linquerent castra infausta. Tac. I. 30. Difficile est in
Asia, Cilicia, Syria, regnisque interiorum nationum ita versari ves-
trum imperatorem, ut nihil aliud, quam de hoste ac de laude cogi-
tet. Cic. Manil. 22. Si essent omnia mihi solutissima, tamen in
republica non alius essem, atque nunc sum. Cic. ad div. I. 9. 61.
Bellum ita suscipiatur, ut nihil aliud, nisi pax quæsita esse vi-
deatur. Cic. Off. 1. 23. Erat historia nihil aliud, nisi annalium
confectio. Cic. Or. II . 12. Philosophia, omnium mater artium,
quid est aliud, nisi, ut Plato ait, donum, ut ego, inventum
deorum ? Cic. Tusc. I. 26. Non alia fuit ulla causa inter-

missionis litterarum, nisi quod, ubi esses , plane nesciebam. Cic.

ad div. VII. 12. Rogavit, num quid aliud ferret, praeter arcam .
Cic. Or. II. 69.

(ff) Adverbs of comparison are changed into correlative pro-

nouns, if quality, magnitude, and number, are distinctly compared ;
in other words, we do not say tam bonus or malus, tam magnus,
tam multi, but talis, tantus, tot, with their correlatives ; thus, Quales
sumus, tales esse videamur. Cic. Off. II. 13. At si quis est talis,
quales esse omnes oportebat, qui me vehementer accuset, quod tam
capitalem hostem non comprehenderim potius, quam emiserim : non
est ista mea culpa, sed temporum. Cic. Cat. II. 2. Tanta conten-
tione decertavi, quanta nunquam antea ulla in causa. Cic. ad div. v.
8. Amicitia tantas opportunitates habet, quantas non queo dicere.
Cic. Lael. 6. In sua quisque navi dicit se tantum habuisse nau-
tarum, quantum oportuerit. Cic. Verr. v. 39. Quot homines, tot
causæ . Cic. Or. II. 31. Quid miserius, quam eum, qui tot annos ,
quot habet, designatus consul fuerit, fieri consulem non posse ? Cic.
Att. IV. 8.
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 393

(gg) The highest degree of a quality, magnitude, or number,

is expressed by quam or quantus with the superlative and the verb
possum, which, however, may be omitted even with a superlative
adverb. Thus we have, Jugurtha quam maximas potest copias
armat. Sall. Jug. 13. Gallinæ avesque reliquæ cubilia sibi nidosque
construunt, eosque quam possunt mollissime substernunt, ut quam
facillime ova serventur. Cic. N. D. 11. 52. Hannibal medio Etru-
riæ agro prædatum profectus, quantam maximam vastitatem potest
cædibus incendiisque consuli procul ostendit. Liv. XXII . 3. Mihi
nihil fuit optatius, quam ut quam gratissimus erga te esse cognos-
cerer. Cic. ad div. 1. 5. Definitio est oratio, quæ, quid sit id, de
quo agitur, ostendit quam brevissime. Cic. Or. 33. Tam sum

amicus reipublicæ, quam qui maxime. Cic. ad div . IV. 2. Gratissi-

mum mihi feceris, si huic commendationi meæ tantum tribueris ,
quantum cui tribuisti plurimum. Ibid. XIII . 22. Grata ea res, ut
quae maxime senatui unquam , fuit. Liv. v. 25. Cæsar sit pro
prætore eo jure, quo qui optimo. Cic. Phil. v. 16.

(B) When a difference of degree is implied in the comparison,

we have the three following forms of the comparative sentence .

(aa) A comparative or superlative adjective is introduced in

.
both clauses, which are placed on an equal footing by the opposition
of quo eo, quanto tanto with the comparatives, and of ut quisque
-ita with the superlatives, as in the following examples : Quo
major est in animis præstantia et divinior, eo majore indigent dili-
gentia. Cic. Tusc. IV. 27. Duæ ad Luceriam ferebant viæ, altera
aperta, sed quanto tutior, tanto fere longior, altera per furculas Cau-
dinas brevior. Liv. ix. 2. Quo quisque est sollertior et ingenio-
sior, hoc docet iracundius et laboriosius. Cic. Q. Rosc. 11. Quanto
perditior quisque est, tanto acrius urget. Hor. Serm. I. 2. 15.

In morbis corporis ut quisque est difficillimus, ita medicus nobi-

lissimus atque optimus quæritur. Cic. Cluent. 21. Ut quisque est
vir optimus, ita difficillime esse alios improbos suspicatur. Cic.
Q. Fr. 1. 1. 4. Ut quisque optime dicit, ita maxime dicendi facul-
tatem, variosque eventus orationis timet. Cic. Or. 1. 26.

(bb) A comparative is introduced into the first clause only,

and the object compared is introduced by quam ; thus, Minus dixi,
quam volui de te. Plaut. Capt. II . 3. 70. Segnius homines bona,
quam mala sentiunt. Liv. xxx. 21. Meliora sunt ea, quæ natura,
394 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

quam illa, quæ arte perfecta sunt. Cic. N. D. II. 34. Nihil prae-
stabilius viro, quam periculis patriam liberare. Cic. Mil. 35.

(cc) This quam is omitted after the neuters plus, amplius,

minus, longius, when the standard of comparison is a definite num-
ber or magnitude ( 163, (e) , 8) ; thus we have, Nec enim plus
decem millia hominum erant. Liv. XLII . 8. Commius cum equi-
tibus venerat, qui numero non amplius erant quingenti. Cæs. B. G.
VIII . 10. Constabat, non minus ducentos Carthaginiensium equi-
tes fuisse. Rex, qua sex mensibus iter fecerat, eadem minus
diebus triginta in Asiam reversus est. Corn . Nep. II. 5. Spa-
tium , quod non est amplius pedum DC. Cæs. B. G. 1. 38. Cæsar
certior est factus, magnas Gallorum copias non longius millia pas-
suum octo ab hibernis suis afuisse. Ib. v. 53.

(dd) We have an ablative with pro, when the standard of

comparison is an expectation rather than the object itself, as in the
following examples : Proelium atrocius, quam pro numero pugnan-
tium , editur. Liv. XXI . 29. In quiete utrique consuli dicitur visa
species viri majoris, quam pro humano habitu, augustiorisque. Liv.
VIII. 6. Minor caedes, quam pro tanta victoria, fuit. Liv. x. 14.
Suevi frumenta ceterosque fructus patientius, quam pro solita Ger-
manorum inertia, laborant. Tac. Ger. XLV.

(ee) The object compared is expressed by the ablative alone

(above, 163, (e) ) , if it is implied that the quality is possessed bythat
object, though not in the same degree ; thus, Elephanto beluarum
nulla prudentior est. Cic. N. D. 1. 35. Tunica propior pallio
est. Plaut. Trin. v. 2. 30. Vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus
aurum. Hor. Ep. 1. 1. 52. Sapientia humana omnia inferiora vir-
tute ducit. Cic. Tusc. IV. 26. Quid est in homine ratione divinius ?
Cic. Leg. 1. 7. Non ego hac nocte longiorem vidi. Plaut. Amph. 1.
1. 123. O matre pulcra filia pulcrior. Hor. 1 Carm. I. 16.
Obs. This construction is particularly common with the ablatives
solito, justo, aequo, dicto, spe, exspectatione, opinione, when we wish
to express that the degree is higher than what is customary, right,
proper, or than our words, thoughts, hopes, expectations, or opinious
(163, (e) y) ; thus we say, Seditionem solito magis metuendam Manlius
faciebat. Liv. VI. 14. Non verendum est, ne plus aequo quid in amici-
tiam congeratur. Cic. Lael. 16. Cæsar opinione celerius venturus
esse dicitur. Cic. ad div. XIV. 23. Lævinus consul serius spe om-
nium Romam venit. Liv. xxvi. 26. Servilius consul minus opinione
sua efficiebat. Cæs. B. C. III. 21.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 395

B. Subordinate Sentences.

§ 8. (a) Conditional Sentences.

203 It has been mentioned above (192) that the conditional
sentence is that form of the hypothetical, in which a categorical
proposition has an adverbial sentence dependent on it. This ad-
verbial sentence is really of the nature of a relative clause, to which
the categorical sentence furnishes the antecedent. Though it is
most usually expressed by means of the particle si, the inflected
relative may be used in the same sense ; for qui haec fecerit,
bonus erit is quite equivalent to si quis haec fecerit, bonus erit.
But the proper meaning of si itself is in whatever case ;' and its
correlative or antecedent may be occasionally expressed by ita or sic,
as Hoc ipsum ita justum est, quod recte fit, si est voluntarium (Cic.
de Off. 1. 9) , ' this very thing is just on the condition that it is rightly
done in those cases in which it is voluntary. ' Patres decreverunt,
ut quum populus regem jussisset, id sic ratum esset, si Patres auc-
tores fierent (Liv. I. 17) , ' that should be determined on the condition
that (in those cases in which) the Senate recommended it. '
Obs. That the conditional clause is really relative is shown also by
the structure of the optative sentence, which is expressed not only by si
and ut or utinam (above, 172, ( 1 ) , (e) 128, xiv. Obs.), but also by qui, as
in the phrase : qui illum Dii omnes perduint (Ter. Phorm. 1. 2. 73.
Plaut. Men. III. 1, 6. cf. Cic. Att. iv. 7).
The four different kinds of conditional propositions are given
and explained in 128. XVI ; and the usage of the different moods
and tenses is discussed in the preceding chapter. It only remains
to show the various forms in which the Latin idiom exhibits the
connexion between the protasis or conditional clause and the main
clause or apodosis .

(a) Regularly and properly the apodosis appears as the direct

antecedent or correlative of the conditional clause, as in the follow-
ing examples : Si fato omnia fiunt, nihil nos admonere potest, ut
cautiores simus. Cic. Div. II. 8. Dies affert, vel hora potius , nisi
provisum est, magnas sæpe clades. Cic. Phil. III. 1. Ante misissem
ad te literas, si genus scribendi invenirem. Cic. ad div. VI . 10 med.
Non possem vivere, nisi in literis viverem. Cic. ibid. IX. 26.

(B) Sometimes , however, the apodosis must be supplied from

the terms of the main sentence, which , as it is expressed , stands in
an indirect relation to the conditional clause . This is really the
396 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

case when an indicative takes the place of the subjunctive in the

apodosis to a past tense of that mood (above, Ch . III. 172 ; iv. (c) ) .
The following examples will explain this indirect construction :
Occasio egregie rei gerendæ fuit, si (Furius) protinus de via ad
castra oppugnanda duxisset. Liv. XXXI . 21. Admonebat me res ,
ut hoc quoque loco intermissionem eloquentiæ deplorarem : ni
vererer, ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri. Cic. Off. II. 19. Præ-
clare viceramus , nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem Lepidus rece-
pisset Antonium. Cic. ad dir . XII . 10. Pons sublicius iter pæne hos-
tibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles. Liv. II. 10. Ipsæ
inter se legiones octava et quintadecuma ferrum parabant ; ni miles
nonanus preces et adversum aspernantis minas interjecisset. Tac. I.
23. Trudebantur in paludem, ni Caesar productas legiones in-
struxisset. Ib. 63. Cæcina circumveniebatur, ni prima legio sese
opposuisset. Ib. 65. Stesichorus si tenuisset modum, videtur
æmulari proximus Homerum potuisse. Quint. x. 1. 62. Here the
true apodosis in the first example would be, res egregie gesta esset ;
in the second, et deplorassem ; in the fourth, paene dedit implies
et dedisset ; in the fifth , the ferrum parabant leads us to the apo-
dosis, et decertassent ; in the sixth, the consequence is not the im-
perfect trudebantur, ' they were in the act of being thrust,' but
et trusi essent, which must be supplied ; the same remark applies to
the seventh example, where we must add, et circumventus esset,
and the full form of the last example would be, Stesichorus videtur
aemulari proximus Homerum potuisse, etproximus aemulatus esset, si
tenuisset modum. In the third example, as in those given above (172 ,
IV. (c) ) , it is possible to understand the pluperfect indicative as the
real apodosis to recepisset, but the implied meaning is expressed most
clearly, if we add to viceramus the phrase, et victoriafrueremur.

(7) The apodosis is omitted altogether, if the conditional clause

amounts to the expression of a wish (above, 172, 1. (e) ) , in which
case the result is that which we would do, if the wish were
realized. And this omission also takes place when the apodosis
would be expressed by the same verb as that of the conditional
clause, in a sentence dependent on some expression of attempting,
expecting, wondering, or the like. The following examples illustrate
the latter usage : Circumfunduntur ex reliquis hostes partibus, si
quem aditum reperire possent. Cæs. B. G. vi . 37. Palus erat non
magna inter nostrum atque hostium exercitum . Hanc si nostri
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 397

transirent, hostes exspectabant. Ib. II. 9. Helvetii, si perrumpere

possent, conati, operis munitione et militum concursu et telis repulsi,
hoc conatu destiterunt. Ib. 1. 8. Tentata res est, si primo impetu capi
Ardea posset. Liv. I. 57. Te adeunt fere omnes , si quid velis. Cic.
ad. div. III. 9. Mirabar, si tu mihi quicquam adferres novi. Ter.
Phorm. III. 2. 5. If we examine these passages, we shall see that in
the first we must supply ut reperirent aliquem aditum ; in the second,
the enemies ' expectation would be clearly expressed if we added
quid facturi essent nostri ; in the third and fourth the full phrases
would be conati perrumpere si possent ; and capere Ardeam, si capi
posset ; in the fifth we must insert ut discant; and in the last the
meaning is mirabar, quid novi adferres, si quid adferres.
(8) The conditional particle may be occasionally omitted, if
the construction is otherwise complete and obvious, as in the fol-
lowing examples : Unum cognoris, omnes noris . Ter. Phorm. II. 1 .
35. cf. I. 4. 9. Decies centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento ;
quinque diebus nihil erat in loculis. Hor. Serm. I. 3. 15. Dedisses
huic animo (Corellii Rufi) par corpus ; fecisset, quod optabat. Plin.
Ep. 1. 12.
(e) The conditional particle may be added to the comparative
particles, ut, velut, ac, quam, and it forms one word with quam in
quasi, but it is generally omitted after tamquam. Thus we have ,
Milites, quis impugnandus agger, ut si murum succederent, gravi-
bus superne ictibus conflictabantur . Tac. Ann. II . 20. Sequani ab-
sentis Ariovisti crudelitatem, velut si coram adesset , horrebant. Cæs.
B. G. 1. 32. Egnatii absentis rem ut tueare, æque a te peto, ac si
mea negotia essent. Cic. Fam. XIII . 43. Deleta est Ausonum gens
perinde ac si internecivo bello certasset. Liv. IX. 25. Quidam id-
circo deum esse non putant, quia non apparet, nec cernitur : pro-
inde, quasi nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus . Cic . Mil. 31 .
Stultissimum est, in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio
mæror levetur. Cic. Tusc. III . 26. Parvi primo ortu sic jacent,
tamquam omnino sine animo sint. Cic. Fin. v. 15. Antonium
Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et igni interdictum
sit. Cic. Phil. VI. 4.
Obs. On the distinction between nisi and si non, see p. 201 .

§ 9 (b). Definitive Sentences.

204 The rules for the construction of the relative pronoun
have been fully given (above, 141 ) ; and it has been shown
398 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

(above, 194, (B) , Obs. 196) that the relative may be used for the
demonstrative combined with a copulative or adversative particle.
In this place, however, it is necessary to direct the student's atten-
tion to those cases in which the relative with the indicative mood
represents the functions of the defining adjective (above, 123 , 8, (b) ;
128, x. , (a) ) , and especially to those forms of the defining sentence
in which the relative seems to be in itself conditional or indefinite.
The distinction between the definitive and the subjunctive sen-
tence should be obvious to every one who can recognize the dif-
ference between an epithet and a predicate (above , 124) . It is
clear that this distinction does not consist in the meaning of the
epithet or predicate used, but in the construction of the word which
for the time being serves to define or predicate. As is well known,
the most indefinite of all the pronouns may be used as the subject
of a sentence, and we have seen that these pronouns , no less than
the demonstratives, contribute to the machinery of the distinctive
sentence. Although therefore the relative word may be vague or
indefinite in itself, or may have the conditional particle prefixed , it
will still form a definitive sentence , if it serves as the attribute or
qualification of some single term and is used with the indicative
mood. If we say ' a possible contingency, ' ' an uncertain amount,'
' however large a sum, ' &c., it is manifest that these vague attri-
butes are, in point of syntax , as completely epithets, qualifications,
or defining expressions as the most precise and distinct adjectives
would have been, and, conversely, that a different construction
would convert the most definite expressions into predicates or even
adverbs. The student then will see that we have definitive sen-
tences in all the following uses of the relative or relative particles
with the indicative mood.

(a) The relative or relative particle with si may introduce a

definitive sentence ; thus, Errant, si qui in bello omnes secundos
rerum proventus exspectant. Cæs. B. G. VII. 29. Tu melius existi-
mare videris de ea, si quam nunc habemus , facultate. Cic. Brut. 87.
Nuda fere Alpium cacumina sunt, et si quid est pabuli, obruunt
nives. Liv. XXI. 37. Summum bonum est, vivere seligentem, quæ
secundum naturam sunt, et si quae contra naturam sunt, rejicientem .
Cic. Fin. III . 9. Jam non tam mihi videntur injuriam facere, si
qui hæc disputant, quam si cujus aures ad hanc disputationem
patent. Cic. ad div . III . 6. - Studiose equidem utor poëtis nostris , sed
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 399

sicubi illi defecerunt, verti multa de Græcis, ne quo ornamento

careret Latina oratio. Cic. Tusc. II . 11 .
Obs. If the verb is subjunctive the nature of the sentence is of
course changed ; thus in the following passages the sentences dependent
on sicunde and si quando are conditional and not definitive : Tenta-
bantur urbes, sicunde spes aliqua se ostendisset. Livy, xxvI. 38. Utinam,
inquit Pontius Samnis, tum essem natus, si quando Romani dona acci-
pere cœpissent ! Cic. de Off. 11. 21.

(B) The vague relatives and relative particles quicunque, ' who-
• ever,' ubicunque, ' wherever,' undecunque, ' whencesoever,' quocun-
que, ' whithersoever,' quandocunque, ' whensoever, ' utcunque, ‘ how-
soever,' quantuscunque, ' how great soever,' quotcunque, ' how many
soever, ' are used with the indicative in adjectival sentences ; thus ,
Quoscunque de te queri audivi, quacunque ratione potui, placavi.
Cic. Quint. Fr. I. 2. Quemcunque hæc pars perditorum lætatum
morte Cæsaris putabit, hunc in hostium numero habebit. Cic. Att.
XIV. 13. Hoc mementote, quoscunque locos attingam, unde ridicula
ducantur, ex iisdem locis fere etiam graves sententias posse duci.
Cic. Or. II. 61. Quod quibuscunque verbis dixeris, facetum tamen
est, re continetur ; quod mutatis verbis, salem amittit, in verbis
habet leporem omnem. Cic. Or. II. 62. Nihil est virtute amabilius,
quam qui adeptus erit, ubicunque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur.
Cic. Nat. Deor. I. 44. Ubicunque Patricius habitat, ibi carcer priva-
tus est. Liv. VI . 36.
Non undecunque causa fluxit, ibi culpa est.
Quint. VII. 3. 33. Hæc novi judicii forma terret oculos, qui,
quocunque inciderunt, veterem consuetudinem fori, et pristinum
morem judiciorum requirunt. Cic. Mil. 1. Verres quacunque iter
fecit, ejusmodi fuit, ut non legatus populi Romani , sed ut quædam
calamitas pervadere videretur. Cic. Verr. 1. 16. Quandocunque ista
gens (Græcorum) suas literas dabit, omnia corrumpet. Plin . N. H.
XXуIII. 1 med. Orator utcunque se adfectum videri et animum
audientium moveri volet, ita certum vocis admovebit sonum. Cic.
Or. XVII . Hoc, quantumcunque est, quod certe maximum est,
totum est tuum . Cic. Marcell. 2. Homines benevolos, qualescunque
sunt, grave est insequi contumelia. Cic. Att. XIV. 14. But the
following sentences are conditional : Debeo, quantumcunque possim ,
in eo elaborare , ut &c. Cic. Fin. 1. 4. Quotcunque Senatus creverit,
populusve jusserit, tot sunto. Cic. Leg. III. 3.

(7) The same sense of vagueness may be conveyed in a defini-

tive clause by the reduplicated pronouns and particles, quisquis,
400 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

ubiubi, undeunde, quoquo, utut, quantus quantus, quotquot ; thus,

Quisquis homo huc profecto venerit, pugnos edet. Plaut. Amph.
I. 1. 153. Omnia mala ingerebat (Hecuba), quemquem adspexerat.
Id. Men. v. 1. 17. Quisquis honos tumuli, quidquid solamen
humandi est, Largior. Virg. Æn . x. 193. Plus certe attulit huic
populo dignitatis, quisquis ille est, si modo est aliquis, qui non
illustravit modo, sed etiam genuit in hac urbe dicendi copiam, quam
illi, qui Ligurum castella expugnaverunt. Cic. Brut. 73. Quid-
•
quid erit, tibi erit. Cic. ad div. II. 10. In amicitia quidquid est, id
verum et voluntarium est. Cic. Lael. VIII. Nunc ubiubi sit animus,
certe quidem in te est. Cic. Tusc. 1. 29. Quoquo hic spectabit, eo
tu spectato simul. Plaut. Pseud. III . 2. 69. Id, utut est, etsi dede-
corum est, patiar. Plaut. Bacch. v. 2. 73. Quantiquanti, bene emi-
tur, quod necesse est. Cic. Att. XII . 24. Tu, quantus quantus, nil
nisi sapientia es. Ter. Ad. III . 3. 40. Si leges duæ, aut si plures,
aut quotquot erunt, conservari non possunt, quia discrepant inter se,
ea maxime conservanda putatur, quæ ad maximas res pertinere
videtur. Cic. Inv. II. 49.
Obs. The particles quamvis and quamtumvis, though apparently
synonymous with quantusquantus, are used with the subjunctive mood,
and constitute a concessive sentence, thus, Ista, quantumvis exigua
sint, in majus excedunt. Sen. Ep. 85. Illa mali generis vineta quæ,
quamvis robusta sint, propter sterilitatem fructu carent, emendantur
insitione facta. Colum. IV. 22.

§ 10. (c) Subjunctive Sentences.

205 The subjunctive sentence, properly so called, is a special
characteristic of Latin syntax, at least so far as concerns the
uniform employment of the subjunctive mood. Its general effect
is to express by means of the relative clause a number of adverbial
or predicative phrases. The predicative or adverbial nature of
the subjunctive sentence is most plainly seen in the use of the
subjunctive after sunt qui, inveniuntur qui, reperiuntur qui, &c.; for
here qui = talis ut ( 175) , (4) , Obs .) , and this meaning may be con-
veyed by the predicative adjective (140, (b) ) . Even relative clauses
which would otherwise be definitive, become subject to the operation
of this rule when they are found included in an oblique or predica-
tive sentence. Thus in the example given above (p. 242) , Socrates
dicebat omnes in eo, quod scirent, satis esse eloquentes , it is clear that
we should have written omnes in eo, quod sciunt, satis sunt
eloquentes, if we had been expressing the thought as our own, for
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 401

quod sciunt is strictly a definitive clause ; but the objective sentence

formed by the accusative with the infinitive is itself predicative,
because the accusative constitutes a secondary predicate (above,
125). By a kind of attraction therefore the included relative
clause assumes the dependent or subjunctive form .

Subjunctive sentences may be divided into the following classes :

(a) The indirect interrogative.

Whenever a direct question is made dependent on another

sentence-in other words, when it becomes indirect or oblique- the
verb is necessarily in the subjunctive mood (above, 126, XII .) .

(aa) The indirect interrogative is dependent on a main sen-

tence expressive of seeing, hearing, feeling, supposing, thinking,
knowing, learning, saying, certainty, uncertainty, likelihood,
wonder, &c. Thus : Videamus primum, deorumne providentia
mundus regatur ; deinde consulantne rebus humanis. Cic. Nat. Deor.
III. 25. Sentiet, qui vir siem. Ter. Eun. 1. 1. 21. Qua sint illæ
sorores dignitate, potes ex his pueris suspicari. Cic. Inv. II . 1. Ad
ferendum dolorem placide et sedate plurimum proficit, toto pectore,
ut dicitur, cogitare, quam id honestum sit. Cic. Tusc. II. 24. Disce,
quid sit vivere. Ter. Heaut. v. 2. 18. Qualis sit animus, ipse
animus nescit. Cic. Tusc. 1. 22. Credo te audisse, ut me circum-
stiterint judices. Cic. Att. 1. 6. Cæsar docebat, ut omni tempore
totius Galliæ principatum Ædui tenuissent. Cæs . B. G. 1. 43. Vide-
mus, ut luna accessu et recessu suo solis lumen accipiat. Cic. Or.
III. 45. Quid quæque nox, aut dies ferat, incertum est. Liv. III. 27 .
Mirum est, ut animus agitatione, motuque corporis excitetur. Plin.
Ep. 1. 6. Verisimile non est, ut Heius religioni suæ monumentisque
majorum pecuniam anteponeret. Cic. Verr. IV. 6. Postrema syllaba
brevis, an longa sit, ne in versu quidem refert. Cic. Or. 64, § 217.
Quaeritur, cur doctissimi homines de maximis rebus dissentiant.
Cic. Or. III. 29. Iphicrates quum interrogaretur, utrum pluris
patrem, matremne faceret; matrem, inquit. Corn. Nep. xI . 3.

(bb) The indirect interrogative is dependent on a verb expres-

sive of fear, anxiety, or doubt ; and in this usage vereor, timeo,
metuo ut mean I fear that it will not be so ; ' but vereor, timeo,
metuo ne mean ' I fear that it will be so .' That this construc-
tion is that of the indirect interrogative with verbs of seeing, con-
D. L. G. 26
286

the evil must

ubire, dummod
the whole weigh
be averted from

Obe 4 The
used instead of
for, or at, how
sayrempro nil

157 The
used in Latin
Tacitus, who
Vetus mil
'experienced
reigning, in
Modicus

Integer v
Maturus

Ambigu
Lassus
journeys .'

Obs. 1
tive.

158
fix 'to'
are two
dative
object
is limi
nation
prope
the d
with
with
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 401

uod sciunt is strictly a definitive clause ; but the objective sentence

ormed by the accusative with the infinitive is itself predicative,
because the accusative constitutes a secondary predicate (above,
125) . By a kind of attraction therefore the included relative
lause assumes the dependent or subjunctive form.

Subjunctive sentences may be divided into the following classes :

(a) The indirect interrogative.

Whenever a direct question is made dependent on another

sentence-in other words, when it becomes indirect or oblique-the
verb is necessarily in the subjunctive mood (above, 126, XII .) .

(aa) The indirect interrogative is dependent on a main sen-

tence expressive of seeing, hearing, feeling, supposing, thinking,
knowing, learning, saying, certainty, uncertainty, likelihood,
wonder, &c. Thus : Videamus primum, deorumne providentia
mundus regatur; deinde consulantne rebus humanis. Cic. Nat. Deor.

III. 25. Sentiet, qui vir siem. Ter. Eun. 1. 1. 21. Qua sint illæ
sorores dignitate, potes ex his pueris suspicari. Cic. Inv. II. 1. Ad
ferendum dolorem placide et sedate plurimum proficit, toto pectore,
ut dicitur, cogitare, quam id honestum sit. Cic. Tusc. II. 24. Disce,
quid sit vivere. Ter. Heaut. v. 2. 18. Qualis sit animus, ipse
animus nescit. Cic. Tusc. 1. 22. Credo te audisse, ut me circum-
stiterint judices. Cic. Att. 1. 6. Cæsar docebat, ut omni tempore
totius Galliæ principatum Edui tenuissent. Cæs. B. G. 1. 43. Vide-
mus, ut luna accessu et recessu suo solis lumen accipiat. Cic. Or.
III. 45. Quid quæque nox, aut dies ferat, incertum est. Liv. III. 27.
Mirum est, ut animus agitatione, motuque corporis excitetur. Plin.
Ep. 1. 6. Verisimile non est, ut Heius religioni monumentisque
majorum pecuniam anteponeret. Cic. Verr. IV. rema syllaba
brevis, an longa sit, ne in versu quidem refert. 64, § 217.
dissentiant.
Quaeritur, cur doctissimi homines de maxin
pluris
Cic. Or. III. 29. Iphicr um interrog
3.
patrem, matremne face nquit. Con
pres
(bb) The indire epend
sive of nxiet
metuo 416 bese ‫ونگ‬
met ant.
I fest
Au-
tion
qui
 402 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

sidering, &c. is clear from the fact that these verbs, when they
express not only uncertainty but anxiety, may be followed by ne ;
thus : Vide, ne superbi sit, aspernari Cæsaris liberalitatem. Cic.
ad div. IV. 9. Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videatur, cogi-
tandum tamen est, ne tutior non sit. Ib. Accordingly we might, if
it were necessary, add to the verb of fearing some participle, as
cogitans, cogitantes, to express the uncertainty on which the appre-
hension rested. The following are examples of the usage : Omnes
labores te excipere video. Timeo, ut sustineas. Ib. XIV. 2. De
amicitia tua etsi non dubitabam, tamen, ut incorrupta maneret,
laborabam. Ib. XI . 28. Timebam, ne evenirent ea, quæ acciderunt.
Ib. VI. 21. Non vereor, ne mea vitæ modestia parum valitura sit
contra falsos rumores . Ib. XI . 28. Verebamini, ne non id facerem,
quod recepissem semel. Ter. Phorm. v. 7. 8. Dubito, an idem
nunc tibi, quod tunc mihi, suadeam. Plin. Ep. VI. 27. De Baiis
nonnulli dubitant, an Cæsar per Sardiniam veniat. Illud enim .
adhuc prædium suum non inspexit. Cic. ad div . IX, 7. Vereor, quid
sit. Cic. Att. VII . 7. Recessum tuum quomodo acciperent homines,
quam probabilis necessitas futura esset, vereor etiam nunc. Cic.
ad div. VIII. 10.

(cc) The indirect interrogative is dependent on a noun express-

• ing an apprehension , a reason, or a thought. Thus :
Pavor ceperat
milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis. Liv. XXIV. 42. Cura
incesserat patres , ne plebs tribunos militum ex plebe crearet. Ib.
IV. 50, Difficile dictu est, quænam causa sit, cur (ea?) quæ maxime
sensus nostros impellunt voluptate, et specie prima acerrime com-
movent, ab iis celerrime fastidio quodam et satietate abalienemur.
Cic. Or. III. 25. Me quidem Athenæ non tam operibus magnificis
delectant, quam recordatione summorum virorum, ubi quisque habi-
tare, ubi sedere, ubi disputare sit solitus. Cic. Leg. II . 2.

(B) The relative predication .

The manner in which the subjunctive sentence with the relative

serves as a secondary predication , may be seen by an examination
of the following examples :

(aa) The relative sentence may be a secondary predication of

the end. Clusini legatos Romam, qui auxilium ab senatu peterent,
misere. Liv. v. 35. In Germania quum bellum civitas aut illatum
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 403

defendit, aut infert, magistratus, qui et bello praesint, ut vitæ necis-

que habeant potestatem, deliguntur. Cæs. B. G. VI. 23.

(bb) The relative sentence may be a secondary predication of the

cause : O magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum ingenia facile
se ipsa defendat! Cic. Cael. 26. Nunquam laudari satis digne
possit philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus ætatis sine molestia
possit degere. Cic. Sen. 1. Magna est Pelopis culpa, qui non
erudierit filium, nec docuerit, quatenus esset quidque curandum.
Cic. Tusc. 1. 44. Actio maluimus iter facere pedibus, qui incom-
mode navigassemus. Cic. Att. v. 9. Tarquinio quid impudentius,
qui bellum gereret cum iis, qui ejus non tulerant superbiam ! Cic.
Tusc. III. 12.

(cc) The relative sentence may be a secondary predication of the

consequence, or the relative may be rendered by talis ut, ‘ such that '
(above, 175, (b) , 3) : Qui post factam injuriam se expurget, parum
mihi prosit. Ter. Hec. v. 1. 16. Vendat ædes vir bonus propter
aliqua vitia, quae ipse norit, ceteri ignorent. Cic. Off. III. 13. Ex-
cellentibus ingeniis citius defuerit ars, qua civem regant, quam qua
hostes superent. Liv. II . 43. Incidunt sæpe multæ causæ , quae
conturbent animos utilitatis specie. Cic. Off. III . 10. Sæpe vidimus
fractos pudore, qui ratione nulla vincerentur. Cic. Tusc. II . 21 .
Natura est, quae contineat mundum omnem, eumque tueatur. Cic.
Nat. Deor. II. 11. Nunc id dicam, quod tacitus tu mihi assentiare.
Cic. Caecil. 7. Duo tum excellebant oratores, qui me imitandi
cupiditate excitarent, Cotta et Hortensius . Cic. Brut. 92.

Obs. There are two special illustrations of the use of qui with the
subjunctive to introduce a predication of the consequence ; the first
is when is sum qui, I am such a person as, ' is used as an abbreviated
form of the illative or consecutive sentence ; thus, Ego is sum, qui Cæsari
concedi putem utilius esse, quod postulat, quam signa conferri. Cic.
Att. VII. 8. Num tu is es, qui in disputando non tuum judicium sequare,
sed auctoritate aliorum pareas ? Cic. Leg. 1. 13. Non is sum, qui,
quidquid videtur, tale dicam esse, quale videatur. Cic. Acad. 11. 7. In
corpore si quid ejusmodi est, quod reliquo corpori noceat, uri secarique
patimur. Cic. Phil. VIII. 5.

The other case is when est qui, invenitur qui and the like are simi-
larly used to introduce a special qualification (above, 205) ; thus, Sunt,
qui (= tales ut) duos tantum in Sacro monte creatos tribunos esse dicant.
Liv. II. 33. Fuit, qui (= talis ut) suaderet, adpellationem mensis Au-
gusti in Septembrem transferendam. Suet. Aug. 100. Inventus est, qui
26-2
404 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

(= talis ut) flammis imponeret manus. Sen. Ep. 76. Qui (= tales ut) se
ultro morti offerant, facilius reperiuntur, quam qui dolorem patienter
ferant. Cæs. B. G. VII. 72. Est aliquis, qui (= talis ut) se inspici, æsti-
mari fastidiat. Liv. vI. 41. But if sunt qui, &c., merely contains the
definite statement, ' there are certain persons who,' the sentence is defi-
nitive, and the indicative must be used, as we have explained above
(175, (b), (4), Obs.), and as the following examples will show : Insularum
(Rheni) pars magna a feris barbarisque nationibus incolitur, ex quibus
sunt, qui piscibus atque ovis avium vivere existimantur. Cæs. B. G. IV.
10. Sunt, qui officia lucis noctisque pervertunt, nec ante diducunt oculos,
quam appetere nox cœpit. Sen. Ep. 122. Tum primum reperta sunt,
quae per tot annos rempublicam excedere. Tac. 11. 27. Sunt principes
consilii publici ; sunt (alii), qui eorum sectam sequuntur. Cic. Sext. 45.
Sunt, quibus e ramo frondea facta casa est. Ovid, Fast. III. 527. Est
deus occultos qui vetat esse dolos. Tibull. 1. 9, 24. Eum te esse finge,
qui sum ego. Cic. Fam. III. 12. Multa sunt quae dici possunt. Cic.
Cluent. 60. Sunt permulti viri, qui valetudinis causa in his locis conve-
niunt. Cic. ad div. IX. 14.

(dd) The relative sentence may be a secondary predication of the

(
concession, or the relative may be rendered by although ' with the
demonstrative pronoun : Mihi permirum videtur, quemquam exstare,
qui etiam nunc credat Chaldæis , quorum prædicta quotidie videat re
et eventis refelli. Cic. Div. 11. 47. Neque est boni, neque liberalis
parentis, quem procrearit et eduxerit, eum non et vestire et ornare.
Cic. Or. II . 28. Quis est, qui C. Fabricii, Manii Curii non cum
caritate aliqua et benevolentia memoriam usurpet, quos nunquam
viderit? Cic. Lael. 8. Sapiens posteritatem ipsam, cujus sensum
habiturus non sit, ad se putat pertinere. Cic. Tusc. 1. 38.

(ee) The relative sentence may be a secondary predication of

the condition, or qui may be rendered by ' if any one ' (above, 203) ;
thus, Errat longe, mea quidem sententia, qui imperium credat gra-
vius esse aut stabilius, vi quod fit, quam illud, quod amicitia ad-
jungitur. Ter. Ad. 1. 1. 40 .

(7) The reference to a conception or supposition .

The relative is followed by the subjunctive, when it does not

merely define a fact but refers to some conception, so that qui may
be rendered , ' who, as it is, or was understood ; ' as in the following
examples : Recte Socrates exsecrari eum solebat, qui primus utili-
tatem a natura sejunxisset. Cic. Leg. 1. 12. In Hispania proro-
gatum veteribus prætoribus est imperium cum exercitibus, quos
haberent. Liv. XL. 18. Mos est Athenis, laudari in concione eos,
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 405

qui sint in præliis interfecti. Cic. Or. 44. Hannibal tabernas

argentarias, quae circa forum Romanum tunc essent, jussit venire.
Liv. XXVI. 11. Themistocli fuit optabilius oblivisci posse potius,
quod meminisse nollet, quam quod semel audisset, vidissetve , memi-
nisse. Cic. Or. II . 74. Erat Hortensio memoria tanta, ut, quae
secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet,
quibus cogitavisset. Cic. Brut. 88. Quid me reducem esse volu-
istis ? An, ut inspectante me expellerentur ii, per quos essem resti-
tutus ? Cic. Mil. 37. Multa in silva Hercynia genera ferarum
nasci constat, quae reliquis in locis visa non sint. Cæs. B. G.
VI. 25. Ego me minus diu senem esse mallem, quam, esse senem
ante, quam essem. Cic. Sen. 19.

(8) The oblique narration.

The relative is followed by the subjunctive even in a definitive

sentence, if this is included in an objective sentence dependent on
a verb of speaking or thinking, so that there is, as in the case just
considered , a reference , however tacit, to the words or thoughts of
another. (Above , 126 , XI. )

In the oblique narrative (obliqua oratio) , the dependent infini-

tive expresses the main verb of the direct narrative (oratio directa) ,
but the relative sentences and those parts of the main sentence which
denote a wish or a command, a condition or a cause, exhibit the
verbs in the subjunctive mood ; as in the following examples :
Legatos ad Cæsarem mittunt (milites) : sese paratos esse portas
aperire, quaeque imperaverit facere et L. Domitium in ejus potes-
tatem transdere. Cæs. B. C. 1. 20. Legationi Ariovistus respondit :
Si quid ipsi a Cæsare opus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse; si
quid ille a se velit, illum ad se venire oportere. Ib. B. G. 1. 34.
Theopompus et Timæus de Alcibiade prædicarunt, quum Athenis ,
splendidissima civitate, natus esset, omnes splendore ac dignitate
superasse; postquam inde expulsus Thebas venerit, adeo studiis
eorum inservisse, ut nemo eum labore corporisque viribus posset
æquiparare. Corn. Nep. vII. 11. Hirri necessarii fidem implora-
runt Pompeii : Praestaret, quod proficiscenti recepisset. Cæs. B.C.
III. 22. Pyrrho adcīto a Tarentinis in Italiam a Dodonæo Jove
data dictio erat : caveret Acherusiam aquam Pandosiamque urbem :
ibi fatis ejus terminum dari. Liv. VIII. 24. Athenis lege sanctum
est : ne quis sepulcrum faceret operosius , quam quod decem homines
406 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

effecerint triduo. Cic. Leg. 11. 26. Addit hæc (Milo) : Fortes et
sapientes viros non tam præmia sequi solere recte factorum, quam
ipsa recte facta ; se nihil in vita, nisi præclarum fecisse, siquidem
nihil sit præstabilius viro , quam periculis patriam liberare ; beatos
esse, quibus ea res honori fuerit a suis civibus ; nec tamen eos
miseros, qui beneficio cives suos vicerint : sed tamen ex omnibus
præmiis virtutis, si esset habenda ratio præmiorum, amplissimum
esse præmium gloriam ; esse hanc unam, quæ brevitatem vitæ pos-
teritatis memoria consolaretur ; quæ efficeret, ut absentes adessemus,
mortui viveremus : hanc denique esse, cujus gradibus etiam homines
in cælum viderentur adscendere. Cic. Mil. 35. Cæsar scribit Labieno,
si reipublicæ commodo facere posset, cum legione ad fines Nervio-
rum veniat. Cæs. B. G. v. 46. Cæsar orat et postulat : Rempublicam
suscipiant atque una secum administrent : sin timore defugiant,
illis se oneri non futurum et per se rempublicam administraturum.
Id. B. C. 1. 32. Eleus Hippias quum Olympiam venisset, glo-
riatus est, nihil esse ulla in arte rerum omnium, quod ipse nesciret ;
nec solum has artes, quibus liberales doctrinæ atque ingenuæ conti-
nerentur, sed annulum , quem haberet, pallium, quo amictus, soccos,
quibus indutus esset, se sua manu confecisse. Cic. Or. III. 32.
Socratem solitum aiunt dicere, perfectum sibi opus esse, si quis
satis esset concitatus cohortatione sua ad studium cognoscendæ
percipiendæque virtutis : quibus enim id persuasum esset, ut nihil
mallent se esse, quam bonos viros, iis reliquam facilem esse doctri-
nam. Id. ibid. 1. 47. Legationi Ariovistus respondit : Se neque sine
exercitu in eas partes Galliæ venire audere, quas Cæsar possideret,
neque exercitum sine magno sumptu atque emolimento in unum
locum contrahere posse ; sibi autem mirum videri , quid in sua
Gallia, quam bello vicisset, aut Cæsari, aut omnino populo Romano
negotii esset. Cæs . B. G. 1. 34. Cato mirari se aiebat, quod
non rideret haruspex, haruspicem quum vidisset. Cic. Div. II. 24.

Obs. 1 Interrogations, and those relative sentences which are copu-

lative rather than definitive, have their verbs in the infinitive in the
oblique narration ; but if the verbs would have been subjunctive in the
oratio recta, this mood is retained. The following examples will illus-
trate this rule : Haud mirum esse Superbo inditum Romæ cognomen.
An quicquam superbius esse, quam ludificari sic omne nomen Latinum ?
Cui non adparere, adfectare eum imperium in Latinos ? Liv. 1. 50.
Plebs fremit : Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri, si quod
duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi non possint ?
Liv. VII. 18. Tribuni militum nihil temere agendum existimabant :
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 407

Quid esse levius aut turpius, quam, auctore hoste, de summis rebus
capere consilium Cæs. B. G. v. 28. Tum jussa Messalinæ prætendi,
et labare defensio. Cur enim neminem alium delectum, qui sævienti,
impudicæ vocem præberet ? Puniendos rerum atrocium ministros, ubi
pretia scelerum adepti, scelera ipsa aliis delegent. Tac. Ann. XIII. 43.
Cur enim differri nuptias suas ? formam scilicet displicere, et triumphales
avos ? an fecunditatem et verum animum timeri, ne uxor saltim injurias
Patrum, iram populi adversus superbiam avaritiamque matris aperiat ?
Tac. Ann. xiv. 1. Quantum interesse inter moderationem antiquorum et
novam superbiam crudelitatemque. Liv. VIII. 33. Unumquemque nos-
trum ? censent philosophi mundi esse partem ; ex quo illud natura
consequi, ut communem utilitatem nostræ anteponamus. Cic. Fin. III.
19. Fama est, aram esse in vestibulo templi Laciniae Junonis, cujus
cinerem nullo unquam moveri vento. Liv. xxiv. 3. Themistocles apud
Lacedæmonios liberrime professus est, Athenienses suo consilio deos
patrios muris sepsisse. Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum oppo-
sitam esse barbaris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium.
Corn. Nep. 11. 7. Quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent,
id iis eripi, quis pati posset ? Cæs. B. G. 1. 43. Sextius Liciniusque
primores Patrum interrogando fatigabant : Auderentne postulare, ut
quum bina jugera agri plebi dividerentur, ipsis plus quingenta jugera
habere liceret ? Liv. vI. 36. Si bonum virum ducerent, quid ita pro
malo ac noxio damnassent ? si noxium comperissent, quid ita, male
credito priore consulatu, alterum crederent ? Liv. xxvii. 34. Singulos
sibi olim Reges fuisse, nunc binos imponi ; e quibus Legatus in san-
guinem, Procurator in bona saeviret. Tac. Agr. 15.

Obs. 2 The indicative is retained after relatives in the oratio

obliqua, when the relative clause introduces a statement or explanation
from the narrator rather than the supposed speaker, and when it is
intimated that the statement so introduced is an absolute fact, not
merely an opinion or assertion of the person whose words are quoted.
Thus we have, Cæsari nuntiatur, Sulmonenses, quod oppidum a Corfinio
septem millium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere, quæ vellet, sed a
Q. Lucretio, Senatore, et Attio Peligno prohiberi, qui id oppidum
septem cohortium præsidio tenebant. Cæs. B.C. 1. 18. Juris interpretes
contendunt, tribunos vetere jurejurando plebis, quum primum eam
potestatem creavit, sacrosanctos esse. Liv. III. 55. Atticum ipsum vere
gloriantem audivi, se nunquam cum sorore fuisse in simultate, quam
prope æqualem habebat. Corn. Nep. xxv. 17. Cogitavit (Gaius) etiam
de Homeri carminibus abolendis. Cur enim sibi non licere, dicens,
quod Platoni licuit, qui eum e civitate, quam constituebat, ejecerit ?
Suet. Calig. 34. Cæsar per exploratores certior factus est, ex ea parte
vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, montesque, qui
impenderent, a maxima multitudine teneri. Cæs. B. G. III. 2. Perseus
cohortatus est milites ad bellum. Omnia, quæ regia cura præparanda
fuerant, plena cumulataque habere Macedonas. Liv. XLII. 52.

Obs. 3 The following may be taken as an example of the manner

in which the oratio obliqua may be reduced or restored to the oratio
recta.
408 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

LIV. III. 17. Oratio recta. Oratio obliqua.

Quid hoc rei est, inquit, tribuni ? clamans: Quid hoc rei esse ? Ap.
Ap. Herdonii ductu et auspicio Herdonii ductu et auspicio rem-
rempublicam eversuri estis ? Tam publicam eversuros esse ? Tam feli-
felix vobis corrumpendis fuit, qui cem eis corrumpendis fuisse, qui
servitia vestra non commovit auc- servitia eorum non commovisset
tor? Quum hostes supra caput sint, auctor ? Quum hostes supra ca-
discedi ab armis, legesque ferri put essent, discedi ab armis, leges-
placet ? que ferri placere ?

Inde ad multitudinem oratione versa:

Si vos urbis, Quirites, si vestri Si eos urbis, si ipsorum nulla

nulla causa tangit, at vos veremini cura tangat ; at vereantur Deos
Deos Patrios ab hostibus captos. patrios ab hostibus captos, Jovem
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Juno Optimum Maximum, Junonem re-
regina, et Minerva, alii Dii Deaeque ginam, et Minervam, alios Deos
obsidentur : castra servorum pub- Deasque obsideri : castra servorum
licos vestros penates tenent. Haec publicos populi Romani penates
vobis forma sanæ civitatis videtur ? tenere. Hanc eis formam sanæ civi-
Tantum hostium non solum intra tatis videri ? Tantum hostium non
muros est, sed in arce, supra forum, solum intra muros esse, sed in arce,
curiamque. Comitia interim in foro supra forum, curiamque : comitia
sunt; senatus in curia est; velut interim in foro (esse) : senatum in
quum otium superat, senator sen- curia esse : velut quum otium su-
tentiam dicit; alii Quirites suffra- peret, senatorem sententiam dicere :
gium ineunt. Non, quidquid Pa- alios Quirites suffragium inire.
trum plebisque est, consules, tribu- Non, quidquid Patrum plebisque
nos, Deos hominesque omnes ar- esset, consules, tribunos, Deos homi-
matos opem ferre, in Capitolium nesque omnes armatos opem ferre,
currere, liberare ac pacare augus- in Capitolium currere, liberare ac
tissimam illam domum Jovis Op- pacare augustissimam illum domum
timi maximi decuit ? Romule pater, Jovis Optimi Maximi decuisse ?
tu mentem tuam, qua quondam Tum precibus ad Romulum patrem
arcem ab his iisdem Sabinis auro versus oravit: Mentem suam, qua
captam recepisti, da stirpi tuae; quondam arcem ab iisdem Sabinis
jube hanc ingredi viam, quam tu auro captam recepisset, daret stirpi
dux, quam tuus ingressus exercitus suae: juberet eam ingredi viam,
est. Primus, en, ego consul, quan- quam ipse dux, quam ipsius in-
tum mortalis Deum possum, te ac gressus exercitus esset. Primum se
tua vestigia sequar. consulem, quantum mortalis Deum
posset, eum atque ejus vestigia se-
cuturum.

Ultimum orationis fuit :

Se arma capere, vocare omnes Ego arma capio, voco omnes Qui-
Quirites ad arma ; si quis impediat, rites ad arma. Si quis impediet,
jam se consularis imperii, jam tri- jam ego consularis imperii, jam tri-
bunici potestatis, sacratarumque buniciae potestatis, sacratarumque
legum oblitum, quisquis ille sit, ubi- legum oblitus, quisquis ille erit,
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 409

cunque sit, in Capitolio, in foro, pro ubicunque erit, in Capitolio, in foro

hoste habiturum. Juberent tribuni, pro hoste habebo . Jubete, tribuni,
quoniam in Ap. Herdonium veta- quoniam in Ap. Herdonium vetatis,
rent, in P. Valerium consulem sumi in P. Valerium consulem sumi arma.
arma : ausurum se in tribunis, quod Audebo ego in tribunis, quod prin-
princeps familiæ suae ausus in re- ceps familiæ meae ausus in regibus
gibus esset. est.

§ 11. (d) Temporal Sentences.

206 Temporal sentences are differently expressed according

to the differences of the time denoted .

(a) Contemporary acts are denoted by quum, quando, ut, ubi,

simulac, dum with the indicative ( 176 , 2, (a) ) ; by the participle in
agreement with the subject (182 (c) ) ; or in the ablative absolute
(182 (g) ) . Thus : Tum, quum in Asia res magnas permulti amise-
rant, scimus , Romæ, solutione impedita, fidem concidisse. Cic. Manil.
7. Quid egeris, tunc apparebit, quum animam ages. Sen. Ep. 26.
Ubi satur sum, nulla crepitant intestina : quando esurio , tum cre-
pant. Plaut. Men. v. 5. 57. Hæc dum Romæ geruntur, Quintius
interea de saltu agroque communi a servis communibus vi detru-
ditur. Cic. Quint. 6. Dum hominum genus erit, qui accuset eos ,
non deerit : dum civitas erit, judicia fient. Cic. S. Rosc. 32. Simul
ac primum Verri occasio visa est, consulem deseruit. Cic. Verr. I.
13. Fuit quoddam tempus, quum in agris homines passim bestia-
rum more vagabantur. Cic. Inv. 1. 2. Nunquam obliviscar noctis
illius, quum tibi vigilanti pollicebar, &c. Hence also, Fuit, quum
hoc dici poterat : Patricius enim eras et a liberatoribus patriæ
ortus. Liv. VII . 32. Ille ubi videt, me tam facile victum quæ-
rere, ibi homo cœpit me obsecrare, ut sibi liceret discere id de me.
Ter. Eun. II. 2. 29. Hæc ubi filio nuntiata sunt, statim exanimatus
ad ædes contendit. Cic. Verr. I. 26. Ubi primum illuxit, abire
sine certamine cupiunt. Liv. x. 35. Varro ut advenit, extemplo
Hostilius legionem unam signa in urbem ferre jussit. Liv. XXVII.
24. Ut ab urbe discessi, nullum adhuc intermisi diem, quin aliquid
ad te literarum darem. Cic. Att. VIII . 15. Pompeius ut me pri-
mum decedens ex Syria vidit, complexus et gratulans meo bene-
ficio patriam se visurum esse dixit. Cic. Phil. II. 5. Dum ea Romæ
geruntur, jam Sutrium ab Etruscis obsidebatur. Liv. IX. 33. Hæc
dum nostri colligunt, rex ipse e manibus effugit. Cic. Manil. 9.
Dum elephanti trajiciuntur, interim Hannibal Numidas equites quin-
gentos ad castra Romana miserat speculatum. Liv. XXI. 29. Dum
410 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

Sulla in aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant interea, qui suis vulneribus
mederentur. Cic. S. Rosc. 32. In has clades incidimus, dum metui,
quam cari esse et diligi, malumus. Cic. Off. II . 8. (See Heindorf.
ad Hor. Serm. p. 127) . Hipparchus, Pisistrati filius, in Marathonia
pugna cecidit, arma contra patriam ferens. Cic. Att. IX. 10. Ne
mente quidem recte uti possumus , multo cibo et potione impleti. Cic.
Tusc. v. 35. Socratis morti illacrimare soleo, Platonem legens. Cic.
N. D. III. 33. Pleræque scribuntur orationes, habitae jam, non ut
habeantur. Cic. Brut. 24. Alit lectio ingenium, et studiofatigatum
reficit. Sen. Ep. 84. Aranti Quintio Cincinnato nuntiatum est, eum
dictatorem esse factum. Cic. Sen. 16. Tiberius, trajecturus Rhenum ,
commeatum omnem non ante transmisit, quam explorasset vehicu-
lorum onera. Suet. Tib. 18. Nihil affirmo, dubitans plerumque et
mihi ipse diffidens. Cic. Div. 11. 3. Æduorum milites legatis
Cæsaris renuntiant, se Biturigum perfidiam veritos revertisse. Cæs.
B. G. VII. 5. Hostes, hanc adepti victoriam, in perpetuum se fore
victores confidebant. Ibid. v. 39. Mendaci homini ne verum qui-
dem dicenti credere solemus. Cic. Div. 11. 70. Ut oculus, sic ani-
mus, se non videns, alia cernit. Cic. Tusc. 1. 27. Scripta tua, Varro,
jam diu exspectans, non audeo tamen flagitare. Cic. Acad. I. 1 .
Crastino die oriente sole redite in pugnam. Liv. III. 2. Diony-
sius prior decessit florente regno. Corn. Nep. xxI. 2. Artes innu-
merabiles repertæ sunt, docente natura . Cic. Leg. 1. 8. Maximas
virtutes jacere omnes necesse est, voluptate dominante. Cic. Fin. 11.
35. Nihil præcepta atque artes valent, nisi adjuvante natura.
Quint. Prooem. 26. Solon et Pisistratus Servio Tullio regnante
viguerunt. Cic. Brut. 10. Sole orto Volsci firmiore se munimento
ab Romanis circumvallatos , quam a se urbem viderunt. Liv. IV. 9.
Tarquinius Turnum oblato falso crimine oppressit. Liv. I. 51 .
Dione Syracusis interfecto Dionysius rursus Syracusarum potitus
est. Corn. Nep. xx. 2. Regibus exactis consules creati sunt. Liv. IV.
4. Quænam sollicitudo vexaret impios, sublato suppliciorum metu ?
Cic. Leg. 1. 14. Deserere Rheni ripam, irrupturis tam infestis
nationibus, non conducit. Tac. Hist. 11. 32. Res, quum hæc scri-
bebam, erat in extremum adducta discrimen. Cic. ad div . XII. 6.
Credo tum, quum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis , magna artificia
fuisse in ea insula. Cic. Verr. IV. 21. Quum redeo, Hortensius
venerat et ad Terentiam salutatum deverterat. Cic. Att. x. 16.
Fabius prætor quum primum Cretæ litus adtigit, nuntios circa civi-
tates misit, ut armis absisterent. Liv. XXXVII . 60. Dionysius
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 411

tyrannus ea ipsa, quæ concupierat, ne tum quidem, quum omnia se

posse censebat, consequebatur. Cic. Tusc. 11. 20.
But we have quum with the imperfect subjunctive, if a necessary
connexion is presumed between the contemporaneous events. Thus ,
Quum Lacedæmonii quererentur, opus nihilo minus fieri : interim
reliqui legati sunt consecuti. Corn. Nep. II . 7. Plura quum scri-
bere vellem, nuntiatum est mihi, vim parari. Sall. Cat. 35. Quum
per colloquia principum succedens muris parum proficeret : postremo
ingressus urbem precibus evicit, ut permitterent se Romanis. Liv.
XXXVIII. 9. Epistolam quum a te avide exspectarem ad vesperum,
ut soleo : ecce tibi nuntius, pueros venisse Roma. Cic. Att. II. 9.
Нæс quum moliretur Alcibiades, eodem tempore Critias ceterique
tyranni Atheniensium certos homines ad Lysandrum in Asiam mise-
runt. Corn. Nep. VII . 10. We have the subjunctive with quum
in the oblique narration ; thus, Herculem Prodicium dicunt, quum
primum pubesceret, exisse in solitudinem. Cic. Off. 1. 32. Also
when the time is dependent on the expression of a wish . Thus ,
Utinam diem illum videam, quum tibi gratias agam. Cic. Att. III .
1. Utinam tunc essem natus , quando Romani dona accipere cœpis-
sent ! Cic. Off. 11. 21 .

(B) Repeated acts are denoted by quoties, quum, uti, si, or some
other particle with the present, perfect, or future tense ; and the
pluperfect indicative is often used with relatives or relative par-
ticles when the main verb implies repetition and is used in the
imperfect (175, 5) . The best writers, as Cicero, Cæsar, and Sallust,
generally prefer the indicative mood, or treat the subordinate sen-
tence as definitive. Thus we have : Consul non unius anni, sed
quoties bonus atque fidus judex honestum praetulit utili. Hor. 4
Carm. IX. 40. Quoties te Roma tuo reddet Aquino, me quoque
convelle a Cumis. Juv. III. 318. Quamcunque in partem equites
impetum fecerant, hostes loco cedere cogebantur. Cæs. B. C. 11. 41 .
Quum quæpiam cohors ex orbe excesserat, hostes fugiebant. Cæs.
B. G. v. 34. Numidæ si a persequendo hostes deterrere nequive-
rant, disjectos a tergo et lateribus circumveniebant ; sin opportunior
fugæ collis quam campi fuerant, Numidarum equi facile evadabant.
Sall. Jug. 50. But these authors sometimes regard the circum-
stances as necessarily connected, and therefore use the subjunctive
in this construction . The following are examples of this use of
the subjunctive : Quoties quæque cohors procurreret, ab ea parte
 412 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

magnus hostium numerus cadebat. Cæs. B. G. v. 34. Id fecialis

ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum mittebat. Liv. 1. 32. See also
above, 175 (6).

(y) Subsequent acts are denoted by quum, simul, or postquam

with the indicative unless it is intended to imply that there is a
necessary connexion-as of cause and effect-with the preceding
circumstance ; and then we have the subjunctive in the dependent
clause (above, 176, 2 , (a) ) . Thus we have the indicative in such
passages as the following : Quum diutius in negotio curaque fueram,
ad Capuam revertebar. Cic. Verr. v. 61. Quum Pompeius in His-
pania bellum acerrimum et maximum gesserat, quo jure Gaditana
civitas esset nesciebat ? Cic. Balb. 6. Quum ver esse coeperat,
ejus initium Verres non a Favonio notabat, sed quum rosam vide-
rat, tunc incipere ver arbitrabatur. Cic. Verr. v. 10. Poenus postea-
quam obstinatos vidit, obsidere inde atque oppugnare parat. Liv.
XXIII. 17. But we have the subjunctive in the following cases :
Epaminondas quum vicisset Lacedæmonios apud Mantineam atque
ipse gravi vulnere exanimari se videret, quæsivit salvusne esset
clipeus. Cic. Fin. II. 30. Simul ego tribunus vocare tribus in suf-
fragium coepero, tu statim consul sacramento juniores adiges , et in
castra educes. Liv. IV. 5. Posteaquam mihi nihil de adventu tuo
scriberetur, verebar, ne id ita caderet, ne ante, quam tu in provin-
ciam venisses, ego de provincia decederem. Cic. ad div . II. 19. His
de rebus multa disputata sunt quondam in Hortensii villa, quum eo
Catulus et Lucullus nosque ipsi postridie venissemus, quam apud
Catulum fuissemus. Cic. Acad. II. 3. Postquam Juba ante portas
diu multumque primo minis pro imperio egisset cum Zamensibus ...
ubi eos in sententia perstare animadvertit, tertio petit ab eis , ut sibi
conjuges liberosque redderent. Hirt. B. Afr. 91 .
(8) Continued acts are denoted by donec, quoad, dum, with the
indicative, if the time only is signified, but with the subjunctive,
if a condition or necessary connexion is implied. Thus :
(aa) Egroto dum anima est, spes esse dicitur. Cic. Att. IX.
10. Catilina erat unus timendus tam diu, dum moenibus urbis.
continebatur. Cic. Cat. III . 7. Hoc feci, dum licuit. Cic. Phil. III.
13. Tiberius Gracchus tam diu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum
Romanarum manebit. Cic. Off. II. 12. Donec eris felix, multos
numerabis amicos : tempora si fuerint nubila, solus eris. Ovid,
Trist. 1. 8. 5. Cato quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit. Corn. Nep.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 413

XXIV. 2. Redemptio mansit usque ad eum finem, dum indices re-

jecti sunt. Cic. Verr. A. 1. 6. Delibera hoc, dum redeo. Ter.
Ad. II. 1. 42. Saltim, dum, quid de Hispaniis agamus, scitur,
exspecta. Cic. Att . x. 9.Julius Cæsar exanimis aliquamdiu jacuit,
donec lecticæ impositum tres servuli domum rettulerunt. Suet. Caes.
82. Epaminondas ferrum usque eo retinuit, quoad renuntiatum
est, vicisse Bootios. Corn . Nep. xv. 9.

(bb) Elephanti in trajiciendo nihil trepidabant, donec conti-

nenti velut ponte agerentur. Liv. XXI. 28. Quantus amor bestia-
rum est in educandis custodiendisque iis , quæ procreaverunt, usque
ad eum finem, dum possint se ipsa defendere ! Cic. Nat. Deor. II .
51. Exspectate, dum consul aut dictator fiat Kæso , quem privatum
viribus et audacia regnantem videtis. Liv. III. 11. Rhenus servat
nomen et violentiam cursus, qua Germaniam prævehitur, donec
Oceano misceatur. Tac. Ann. II . 6. Multis Patrum orantibus, po-
nerent odia in perniciem itura, mansere infensi ac minitantes (con-
sules) , donec magistratu abirent. Ibid. v. 11. cf. II . 34. Domi cer-
tum est obsidere , donec redierit. Ter. Ad. IV. 6. Perseus in castris
Romanis progredi præ turba occurrentium ad spectaculum non
poterat, donec consul lictores misisset, qui submovendo iter ad præ-
torium facerent. Liv. XLV. 7. Cf. Tac. Hist. 1. 35 , III . 10. Quoad
perventum sit eo, quo sumpta navis est, non domini est navis, sed
navigantium. Cic. Off. 111. 23.

(cc) Latrones, dum sit, quod rapiant , quod auferant, nihil sibi
defuturum arbitrantur. Cic. Phil. IV. 4. Cæsar ex eo tempore, dum ad
flumen Varum veniatur, se frumentum militibus daturum pollicetur.
Cæs. B. C. 1. 87. Me amicissime admones, ut me integrum, quoad
possim, servem. Cic. Att. VII. 26. Nihil puto tibi esse utilius, quam
ibidem opperiri, quoad scire possis, quid tibi agendum sit. Cic.
ad div. VI. 20.

(e) Previous acts are denoted by antequam or priusquam, with

the indicative, if time only is indicated ; but with the subjunctive
if a conditional turn is given to the sentence (above, 176, 2, (b)) .
Thus : Non prius sum conatus misericordiam aliis commovere,
quam misericordia sum ipse captus. Cic. Or. 11. 47. Membris uti-
mur prius, quam didicimus, cujus ea utilitatis causa habeamus.
Cic. Fin. III. 20. Ante, quam opprimit lux, majoraque hostium
agmina obsepiunt, iter, erumpamus. Liv. XXII . 50. Memmius:
414 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

pridie, quam ego Athenas veni, Mitylenas profectus erat. Cic.

Att. v. 11. Tragoedi quotidie, antequam pronuntient, vocem sensim
excitant. Cic. Or. I. 59. In omnibus negotiis prius, quam aggre-
diare, adhibenda est præparatio diligens. Cic. Off. 1. 21. Ante
videmus fulgurationem, quam sonum audiamus. Sen. Nat. Quaes. II.
12. Si quis de cælo servavit, non habitis comitiis, sed prius, quam
habeantur, debet nuntiare. Cic. Phil. 11. 32. Ægyptii quamvis
carnificinam prius subierint, quam ibim, aut aspidem, aut felem,
aut canem, aut crocodilum violent. Cic. Tusc. v. 27. Hannibal
omnia et in prælio apud Zamam, et ante aciem, priusquam ex-
cederet pugna, erat expertus. Liv. xxx . 35. Aristides interfuit
pugnæ navali apud Salamina, quæ facta est prius, quam pœna
(exsilii) liberaretur. Corn. Nep. III. 2. Cæsar ad Pompeii castra
pervenit prius, quam Pompeius sentire posset. Cæs. B. C. III . 67.
Providentia est, per quam animus futurum aliquid videt, antequam
factum sit. Cic. Inv. 11. 54. Sæpe magna indoles virtutis, prius-
quam reipublicæ prodesse potuisset, exstincta fuit. Cic. Ph. v. 18 .
Scis , me quodam tempore Metapontum venisse , neque ad hospitem
ante divertisse, quam Pythagoræ ipsum illum locum, ubi vitam
ediderat, sedemque viderim. Cic. Fin. v. 2.

§ 12. (e) Objective Sentences.

207 Objective sentences are expressed either by the oblique

case of the object followed by the infinitive mood ( 128, VIII.) , or by
the conjunction quod with a finite verb. The construction of the
accusative with the infinitive has been sufficiently illustrated above
(177) . The other form of the objective sentence, which approaches
very nearly to the force of the causal sentence, admits of the fol-
lowing distinctions : (a) If the statement introduced by quod, i. e.
' that' or ' because,' is regarded as a fact or as stated only by the
subject of the main sentence, the verb is in the indicative mood ;
(b) but if the statement is supposed to rest on the opinion or asser-
tion of some other person, the verb is subjunctive, as in the oratio
obliqua. Thus we have,

(a) Gratulor tibi, quod ex provincia salvum te ad nos recepisti.

Cic. ad div. XIII. 73.

(b) Sæpenumero admirari soleo, M. Cato, quod nunquam se-

nectutem tibi gravem esse senserim. Cic. Sen. 2. Quum contem-
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 415

plor animo, reperio quatuor causas, cur senectus misera videatur :

unam quod avocet a rebus gerendis ; alteram, quod corpus faciat
infirmius ; tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quartam,
quod haud procul absit a morte. Cic. Sen. 5. Videor mihi gratum
fecisse Siculis, quod eorum injurias meo labore, miseriis, periculo
sim persecutus. Cic. Verr. II . 6. • Laudat Africanum Panatius,
quod fuerit abstinens . Cic. Off. 11. 22. Phalereus Demetrius Peri-
clem vituperat, quod tantam pecuniam in præclara illa propylæa
conjecerit. Ibid. II. 17.

The cases in which quod with a finite verb is preferred to an

infinitive with the accusative are as follows :

(aa) When we use ' that' of a fact, but not of one perceived or
directly asserted. Thus, Mitto, quod invidiam, quod omnes meas
tempestates subieris. Cic. ad div. xv. 4. 27. Habet hoc optimum
in se generosus animus , quod concitatur ad honesta. Sen. Ep.
39. Adde, quod ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes , emollit mores,
nec sinit esse feros . Ov. Pont. II. 9. Num reprehendis, quod
libertus patronum juvabat eum, qui tum in miseriis erat? Cic.
Verr. 1. 47.

(bb) When we have an impersonal verb in the main sentence,

or when the nominative case is a neuter pronoun, or some general
expression as ea res. Thus, Relinquitur illud, quod vociferari non
destitit, non debuisse, quum prætor esset, suum negotium agere.
Cic. Flac. 34. Hoc cecidit mihi peropportune, quod transactis
jam meis partibus, ad Antonium audiendum venistis. Cic. Or. II. 4.
Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi , quod alienæ erat
civitatis. Corn. Nep. XVIII . 1. Non ea res me deterruit, quominus
literas ad te mitterem, quod tu nullas ad me miseras, sed quia
nihil, quod scriberem , in tantis malis reperiebam. Cic. ad div. v1. 22.
Accedit, quod patrem plus etiam, quam non modo tu, sed quam
ipse scit, amo. Cic. Att. XIII . 21. Accedit, quod tibi certamen est
tecum. Plin. Ep. VIII. 24. Huc accedit, quod paullo tamen occul-
tior ac tectior vestra ista cupiditas esset (= esse debebat) . Cic.
Sext. Rosc. 36. Vitium est, quod quidam nimis magnum studium
multamque operam in res obscuras atque difficiles conferunt, eas-
demque non necessarias. Cic. Off. 1. 6. Multa sunt admirabilia,
sed nihil magis, quam quod ita stabilis est mundus, atque ita
cohaeret ad permanendum, ut nihil ne excogitari quidem possit
aptius. Cic. Nat. Deor. II . 45.
416 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

(cc) When ' that ' expresses the cause of grief, joy, wonder,
congratulation, complaint, or the like. Thus, Dolet mihi, quod
stomacharis . Cic. Brut. 17. Gaudeo, quod te interpellavi. Cic.
Leg. III. 1. Tibi gratulor quod te summa laus prosecuta est. Cic.
ad div. xv. 14. Hannibal unus Antiocho, Magis mirari se, aiebat,
quod non jam in Asia essent Romani, quam venturos dubitare.
Liv. xxxvi. 41. Falso queritur de natura sua genus humanum,
quod, imbecilla atque ævi brevis, forte potius, quam virtute regatur.
Sall . Jug. I.

Obs. 1 Quum is sometimes used for quod, especially in the last

case (above, 176, 3 (a) ). Thus we have Tibi gratias ago, quum tantum
litteræ meæ potuerunt. Cic. ad div. XIII. 24. Gratulor tibi, quum tan-
tum vales apud Dolabellam. Ib. IX. 14. Gratissimum fecisti, quum eum
indignum ea fortuna amicum nobis quam servum esse maluisti. Ib. xvI .
16. Memini, quum mihi deripere videbare, quod cum istis potius viveres,
quam nobiscum. Ib. vII. 28. Jovi Diisque ago gratias merito magnas,
quom te reducem tuo patri reddiderunt, quomque ex miseriis plurimis
me exemerunt. Plaut. Capt. v. 1. 1 .

Obs. 2 In the sense ' so far as,' quod is the objective apposition to
the whole sentence, and in this usage is followed by the subjunctive.
Suæ cuique utilitati, quod sine alterius injuria fiat, serviendum est. Cic.
ad div. v. 2. Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem profiteri est ausus.
Cic. Fin. II. 3. Aristides unus post hominum memoriam, quod quidem
nos audierimus, cognomine Justus appellatus est. Corn. Nep. II. 1 .

§ 13. (f ) Illative Sentences.

208 Illative, intensive, or consecutive sentences are expressed

by ut with the subjunctive in an affirmative sense, or by ut non, ut
nihil, negatively, after intensive words, as tantus, talis, tot, adeo,
ita, sic, usque eo, and or with some such word implied in the former
sentence (175, (b) , 3) . Thus , Siciliam Verres per triennium ita
vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo
possit. Cic. Verr. A. I. 4. Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate
sic, ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim . Cic. Brut. 88.
Epaminondas paupertatem adeo facile perpessus est, ut de republica
nihil, præter gloriam, ceperit. Corn. Nep . xv. 3. Piso eo usque
corruptionis profectus est, ut sermone vulgi parens legionum habe-
retur. Tac. Ann. II. 55. Eo rem jam adducam , ut nihil divinatione
opus sit. Cic. Sext. Rosc. 34. Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus
ut in vita omnia sint apta inter se et convenientia. Cic. Off. 1. 14 .
Atticus quum tanta prosperitate usus esset valetudinis, ut annos,
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 417

triginta medicina non indiguisset, nactus est morbum. Corn. Nep.

XXV. 21. Hæc quum viderem tot vestigiis impressa , ut in his
errari non posset, non adscripsi, quod tua non referret. Cic.
Fam. v. 20. Arboribus consita Italia est, ut tota pomarium videa-
tur. Varr. R. R. 1. 2. Romani ex loco superiore strage ac ruina
fudere Gallos, ut nunquam postea nec pars nec universi tentave-
rint tale pugnæ genus. Liv. v. 43 .

Obs. 1 After a comparative we may have quam ut in an illative

sense ; thus, Isocrates majore mihi ingenio videtur esse, quam ut cum
orationibus Lysiæ comparetur. Cic. Or. 13. Chabrias vivebat laute et
indulgebat sibi liberalius, quam ut invidiam vulgi posset effugere. Corn.
Nep. XII. 13.
Obs. 2 After tantum abest we may have two sentences with ut, of
which the first represents the subject of abest, and the second is the con-
sequence of tantum. Thus, Tantum abest, ut nostra miremur, ut usque
eo difficiles et morosi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes.
Cic. Or. 30. Tantum abest, ut enervetur oratio compositione verborum,
ut aliter in ea vis esse non possit. Ibid. 68. Tantum abfuit, ut civilia
certamina terror externus cohiberet, ut contra eo violentior potestas tribu-
nicia esset. Liv. vi. 31 .

Obs. 3 Ut with the subjunctive seems to represent the subject of such

impersonal verbs as fit, accidit, evenit, non venit, est ( it takes place'),
abest ( it is far from happening '), contingit, relinquitur, restat, sequitur,
reliquum est, extremum est, accedit, mos est, consuetudo est, convenit, fas
est, jus est: and as in this case the negative is non, never ne, we must
refer these verbs to the class of illative rather than of final sentences.
The following are examples : Fieri non potest, ut quis Romæ sit, quum
est Athenis. Quint. v. 9, 5. Plerisque accidit, ut præsidio litterarum
diligentiam in perdiscendo ac memoriam remittant. Cæs.B.G. VI. 14. Forte
evenit, ut in Privernati essemus. Cic. Or. 11. 55. Volo hoc oratori con-
tingat, ut, quum auditum sit, eum esse dicturum, locus in subselliis occu-
petur, compleatur tribunal. Cic. Brut. 84. Apud Romanos nunquam
fere usu venit, ut in magno discrimine non et proximi vestem mutarent.
Liv. vi. 20. Est, ut plerique philosophi nulla tradant præcepta dicendi,
et habeant paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant. Cic. Or. II. 36.
Esto, ut hi sint optimates, quiqui integri sunt et bene de rebus domes-
ticis constituti. Cic. Sext. 45. Næ ille longe aberit, ut argumentis
credat philosophorum. Cic. Acad. II. 36. Absit, ut Milonem deseram.
Apul. Met. 11. 3. Restat, ut his respondeam, qui sermonibus ejusmodi
nolint personas tam graves illigari. Cic. Acad. II. 2. Relinquitur, ut, si
vincimur in Hispania, quiescamus. Cic. Att. x. 8. Reliquum est, ut
nihil a te petam, nisi, ut ad eam voluntatem, quam tua sponte erga Cæci-
nam habiturus esses, tantus cumulus accedat commendatione mea, quanti
me a te fieri intelligo. Cic. ad div. VI. 9. Sequitur, ut doceam, omnia
subjecta esse naturæ eaque ab ea pulcherrime geri. Cic. N. D. II. 32.
Si hæc enuntiatio non vera est, sequitur, ut falsa sit. Cic. Fat. 12.
Accedit, ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc aëre, quod nihil est animo
D. L. G. 27
418 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

velocius. Cic. Tusc. 1. 19. Eo accedebat, ut in caritate civium nihil spei

reponenti metu regnum tutandum esset. Liv. 1. 49. Mos est hominum,
ut nolint, eundem pluribus rebus excellere. Cic. Brut. 21. Qui convenit,
ut tibi Aricina natus ignobilis videatur, quum tu eodem materno genere
soleas gloriari ? Cic. Phil. III. 6. Expedit omnibus, ut singulæ civitates
sua jura et suas leges habeant. Just. XXXIV. 1. Cæsari Ariovistus respon-
dit : jus esse belli, ut, qui vicissent, iis, quos vicissent, quemadmodum
vellent, imperarent. Cæs. B. G. 1. 36.

§ 14. (g) Final Sentences.

209 Final sentences , which declare the end of what is pre-
dicated , are expressed by ut or quo affirmatively, and by ne, ut ne,
quominus, and quin negatively, followed in every case by the sub-
junctive (128, XIII.; 175, (b) , (2 ) ) . Sometimes this sentence is con-
tained in a future participle ( 182 , (b) ) , or conveyed by the gerund
with ad (186) , or the supine in -tum ( 189) , or introduced by a
relative (205, (B) , (aa) ) . These latter usages have been sufficiently
discussed. It is only necessary in this place to classify the final
sentences which are expressed by means of the final conjunctions
(above, p. 202 ).
(a) Ut and ne.

(aa) Ut is used to denote the end, when a purpose or object is

distinctly expressed, and it is sometimes introduced by idcirco ;
thus, Legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus.
Cic. Cluent. 53. Romani ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut
dictator esset. Cic. Fin. II. 4. Ne nimium multi pœnam capitis
subirent, idcirco illa sortitio comparata est. Cic. Cluent. 46. Illos
idcirco non commemoro, ne de miseriis meorum necessariorum con-
querens, homines, quos nolo, videar offendere. Cic. ad div. XIII . 8.

(bb) Ut denotes the end after verbs of wishing, willing, com-

manding, endeavouring, and the like ; thus, Phaëton ut curru patris
tolleretur optavit. Cic. Off. III. 25. Equidem vellem, ut aliquando
redires. Cic. Fam. VII. 31. Cæsar Dolabellæ dixit, ut ad me
scriberet, ut in Italiam quam primum venirem. Cic. Att. II . 7.
Deliberantibus Atheniensibus Pythia respondit, ut moenibus ligneis
se munirent. Corn . Nep. II . 2. Cæsar per litteras Trebonio manda-
verat, ne per vim Massiliam expugnari pateretur. Cæs. B. C. II.
13. Sol efficit, ut omnia floreant. Cic. Nat. Deor. II . 15. Habet
hoc virtus, ut viros fortes species ejus et pulchritudo etiam in hoste
posita delectet. Cic. Pis. 32. Tribuni plebis postulant, ut sacro-
sancti habeantur. Liv. III. 19.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 419

(cc) Ut is similarly used to denote the end or object after

verbs of expecting, persuading, constraining, and the like ; thus,
Magno opere te hortor, mi Cicero, ut non solum orationes meas,
sed hos etiam de philosophia libros studiose legas. Cic. Off. 1. 1 .
Te illud admoneo, ut quotidie meditere, resistendum esse iracundiæ.
Cic. Quint. Fr. 1. 1 , 13. Huic persuadet, uti ad hostes transeat. Cæs.
B. G. III . 18. Impellimur natura, ut prodesse velimus quam pluri-
mis, imprimis docendo. Cic. Fin. XIII . 20. Senatus P. Lentulum,
ut se abdicaret prætura, coëgit. Cic. Cat. IV. 8. Opera danda est,
ut verbis utamur quam usitatissimis et quam maxime aptis, id est,
rem declarantibus. Cic. Fin. v. 20. Ante senectutem curavi, ut
bene viverem ; in senectute, ut bene moriar. Sen. Ep. 61. Con-
sulere vivi ac prospicere debemus , ut liberorum nostrorum solitudo
et pueritia quam firmissimo præsidio munita sit. Cic. Verr. 1. 58.

(B) Quo and quominus.

Quo = ut eo is used to denote the end when there is an im-

plication of the means, by which it may be effected ; and in
this form of the final sentence we have often an adjective or
adverb in the comparative degree (see, e. g. Ter. Phorm. 1. 2 .
54) . This is always the case in the negative form, and quo
minus = ut eo minus expresses the negative end or purpose after
verbs signifying to hinder or refuse (above, p . 203) . Thus we
have In funeribus Atheniensium sublata erat celebritas virorum ac
mulierum , quo lamentatio minueretur. Cic. Leg. 11. 26. Ager non
semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fœtus possit et
grandiores edere. Cic. Or. II . 30. Medico puto aliquid dandum
esse, quo sit studiosior. Cic. ad div. XVI. 4. Rebus terrenis multa
externa, quo minus perficiantur, possunt obsistere. Cic. Nat. Deor. II.
13. Nihil impedit, quo minus id , quod maxime placeat, facere
possimus. Cic. Fin. 1. 10. Mors non deterret sapientem , quominus
in omne tempus reipublicæ suisque consulat. Cic. Tusc. I. 38.
Præter quercum Dodoneam nihil desideramus, quominus Epirum
ipsam possidere videamur. Cic. Att. II. 4. Nihil de me tulistis ,
quo minus in civium essem numero. Cic. Dom. 31. Nemini civi
ulla, quo minus adesset, satis justa excusatio est visa. Cic. Pis. 15.
Quæ relligio C. Mario fuerat, quo minus C. Glauciam prætorem
occideret, ea nos relligione in privato Lentulo liberamur. Cic,
Cat. III. 16 .

27-2
420 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

(7) Quin.
As we have seen above (p. 203) , quin denotes the negation of a
consequence after a sentence which is in itself negative. Its usages
may be divided into two classes-the negation of a doubt, and the
absolute negation .

(aa) Quin ( but that') is used after non dubito, non dubium est,
quis dubitat ? = nemo dubitat. Thus , Non dubitari debet, quin fue-
rint ante Homerum poëtæ. Cic. Brut. 18. Non debes dubitare, quin,
aut aliqua republica, sis futurus, qui esse debes ; aut perdita, non
afflictiore conditione, quam ceteri . Cic. Fam. VI. 1. Jus jurandum ,
patri datum, ita conservavi, ut nemini dubium esse debeat, quin
reliquo tempore eadem mente sim futurus. Corn. Nep. XXIII . 2.
Quis dubitet, quin in virtute divitiæ positae sint ? Cic. Par. VI . 2.

(bb) Quin (' so , such that— not' ) is used generally after an

absolute negation in the main sentence, or when it contains a ques-
tion equivalent to an absolute negation. Thus, Cleanthes negat
ullum esse cibum tam gravem, quin is die et nocte concoquatur. Cic.
Nat. Deor. II . 9. Ego nihil prætermisi, quantum facere potui, quin
Pompeium a Cæsaris conjunctione avocarem. Cic. Phil. II . 10. Nemo
Lilybæi fuit, quin viderit ; nemo in Sicilia, quin audierit. Cic. Verr.
v. 54. Nego ullam gemmam aut margaritam fuisse, quin quaesierit,
inspexerit, abstulerit. Ib . Iv.1 . Dies vero nullus est, quin hic Satrius
domum meam ventitet. Cic . Att. I. 1. Literas ad te nunquam habui ,
cui darem, quin dederim. Cic. Fam. XII . 19. Quis est, quin cernat,
quanta vis sit in sensibus ? Cic. Acad. 11. 7. Nihil est, quin male
narrando possit depravari. Ter. Phorm. IV. 4. 17. Non possum
facere, quin quotidie ad te mittam literas. Cic. Att. XII . 27. • Non
possum quin exclamem. Plaut. Trin. III. 2. 79. Non potest, quin
obsit. Plaut. Mil. III. 1. 7. Prorsus nihil abest, quin ego sim miser-
rimus . Cic. Att . XI . 15. Haud multum abfuit, quin interficeretur.
Liv. XLII. 44. Aberit non longe, quin hoc a me decerni velit.
Cic. Att. IX. 9. Causæ nihil erat, quin secus judicaret ipse de se
Quintius. Cic. Quint. 9. Quid est causæ, quin decemviri coloniam
in Janiculum possint deducere ? Cic. Agr. 11. 27. Non est in nostra
potestate, quin illa eveniant, quorum causæ fuerint. Cic. Fat. 19.

Obs. 1 If the negation in the final clause is emphatic we must have

ut non instead of quin. Thus, Neque ullo modo facere possum, ut non
sim popularis . Cic. Agr. 1x. 9. Fieri non potest, ut eum tu in provincia
non cognoris. Cic. Verr. II. 77.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 421

Qbs. 2 If the main sentence and the final clause have the same
subject, we may translate the latter by the participle with the preposi-
tion without.' Thus, Timoleontem mater post fratris necem nunquam
adspexit, quin eum fratricidam impiumque compellaret. Corn. Nep. xx.
1 ( without calling him a fratricide and unnatural monster'). Nulli
ex itinere excedere licebat, quin ab equitatu Cæsaris exciperentur. Cæs.
B. C. 1. 79 ( no one could fall out on the march, without being cut off
by Cæsar's cavalry').

§ 15. (h) Causal Sentences.

210 Causal sentences explain the cause of what is asserted, and

are expressed by the relative (above , 205 (8) , (bb) ) , by the participle
(182, (c) ) , by quia, quod, quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, siqui-
dem, followed by the indicative (176 , (3) , (b) ) , by quum, generally
followed by the subjunctive (176, (3 ) , (a) ) , and by qui, ut qui,
quippe qui most frequently with the subjunctive ( 176 , (3) , (c) ) .
The conjunctions nam and enim form distinct and independent
clauses, which are not even co-ordinate sentences , unless these
particles are connected with adversative or copulative conjunc-
tions. These usages in their general application have been suffi-
ciently illustrated above (pp. 199, 200) . It will be observed
that, when relative particles are used, the causal sentence is a
modification either of the temporal sentence, in its application
to contemporary acts (206, (a) ) , or of the objective sentence ,
when the antecedent is expressed or distinctly implied. But in
the causal application of the temporal sentence we have the in-
dicative only when the contemporary occurrence is regarded as
in itself the explanation of the fact, and here we generally have
quoniam (= quum jam) , quando or quandoquidem , rather than
quum. Thus, Quoniam tu ita vis, nimium me gratum esse con-
cedam. Cic. Planc. 33. Quando artibus , inquit, honestis, nullus
in urbe locus [est ] , res hodie minor est here quam fuit, atque
eadem cras deteret exiguis aliquid, proponimus illuc ire. Juv. III .
21. Deos quæso, ut sit superstes, quandoquidem ipse est ingenio
bono. Ter. Andr. III. 2. 7. On the other hand, we have the sub-
junctive, and generally with quum when the idea of time is sub-
ordinated to that of dependence on the circumstance mentioned in
the main clause, as the following examples will show : Quum soli-
tudo et vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa
monet, amicitias comparare. Cic. Fin. 1. 20. Dionysius quum
in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet, concionari ex
turri alta solebat. Cic. Tusc. v. 20. Socratis ingenium variosque
422 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

sermones immortalitati scriptis suis Plato tradidit, quum ipse litte-

ram Socrates nullam reliquisset. Cic. Or. III. 16. De pietate Attici
quid plura commemorem, quum hoc ipsum vere gloriantem audi-
erim in funere matris suæ, se nunquam cum ea in gratiam redisse.
Corn. Nep. xxv. 17. Aliæ in historia leges observandæ, aliæ in
poëmate, quippe quum in illa ad veritatem referantur, in hoc ad
delectationem pleraque. Cic. Leg. 1. 1. Percrebuerat ea tempestate
pravissimus mos , quum plerique orbi fictis adoptionibus adsciscerent
filios. Tac. Ann. xv. 19. Munatius Plancus, tribunus plebis, quo-
tidie meam potentiam criminabatur, quum diceret, senatum, non
quod sentiret, sed quod ego vellem, decernere. Cic. Mil. 5. Contendi
cum P. Clodio, quum ego publicam causam, ille suam defenderet.
C. Anton. in Cic. Att. XIV. 13. The immediate reference of quod
or quia to an antecedent expressed or implied in the main sentence
is shown by such passages as the following : Hoc uno præstamus vel
maxime feris, quod colloquimur inter nos , et quod exprimere dicendo
sensa possumus. Cic. Or. 1. 8. Dupliciter delectatus sum tuis literis,
et quod ipse risi, et quod te intellexi jam posse ridere . Cic. ad div.
IX. 20. Aristides nonne ob eam causam expulsus est patria, quod
præter modum justus esset? Cic. Tusc. v. 36. Alcibiades ostendit,
Lacedæmonios eo nolle confligere classe, quod pedestribus copiis
plus , quam navibus valerent. Corn. Nep. vII . 8. Eram otiosus in
Tusculano propterea, quod discipulos obviam miseram. Cic. ad div.
IX. 18. Recordatione nostræ amicitiæ sic fruor, ut beate vixisse
videar, quia cum Scipione vixerim. Cic. Lael. 4. Quia scripseras
te proficisci cogitare, eo te hærere censebam. Cic. Att. x. 15.

§ 16. (i) Concessive Sentences.

211 Concessive sentences, which strengthen or limit by an ad-
mission, are expressed by the participle with or without quamvis or
quamquam ( 182, (d) ), by qui with the subjunctive ( 205, (B) , (dd) ) ,
by quanquam and utut generally with the indicative (176, (4) ) ,
by etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, with either the indicative or subjunctive,
according to the rule for the use of si in conditional propositions
(128, xvI . , 176, (4) ) , and by quamvis, quantumvis, licet, ut, quum,
with the subjunctive only (176 , (4) ) . The use of the concessive
conjunctions has been sufficiently illustrated above (pp. 202, 357) .
When quum is used as a concessive particle, it is followed by
the indicative, if the temporal meaning prevails ; as Has tabulas
Marcellus, quum omnia profana fecit ( ' at the time when he profaned
everything, although he was at that time profaning everything') ,
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 423

non attigit. Cic. Verr. IV. 55. But more frequently the subjunctive
is used to indicate the dependence of the secondary predication .
Thus we have, Druentia, Alpinus amnis, quum aquæ vim vehat
ingentem, non tamen navium patiens est. Liv. XXI . 31. Marcelli ,
Scipionis, Mummii domus quum honore et virtute florerent, signis
et tabulis pictis erant vacuæ. Cic. Verr. 1. 24. Phocion fuit per-
petuo pauper, quum divitissimus esse posset. Corn. Nep. XIX. 1 .
Toto prælio, quum ab hora septima ad vesperam pugnatum sit,
aversum hostem videre nemo potuit. Cæs. B. G. 1. 26 .

§ 17. Figures of Speech.

212 In order to complete the subject of Syntax, it will be
convenient here to enumerate the different figures of speech which
have been defined and exemplified by rhetoricians . The writers
on oratory treat of figurae sententiarum as well as figurae dictionis.
The grammarian is concerned only with the latter, which may
be divided into the following classes : (A) Figures of Syntax ;
(B) Figures of Style.

(A) Figures of Syntax.

The figures of syntax are the following :

(a) Figures of excess :

(aa) Pleonasm, or accumulation of words either in a single

phrase, as audivi auribus, vidi oculis; or in co-ordinate sentences,
as gaudeo vehementerque laetor, oro te atque obsecro, &c.

(bb) Polysyndeton , or superabundance of conjunctions, as Fa-

taque, fortunasque virum, moresque manusque.

Obs. 1 This figure is regularly adopted in some cases. For instance,

two or more epithets in agreement with the same substantive require
the intervention of a copulative conjunction, unless one of them is so
closely connected with the substantive as to form only one idea with it.
Thus we must not say multae graves causae, multa magna incommoda,
though we omit the conjunction in English, but we must say multae et
graves causae, multa et magna incommoda. On the other hand we may
say navis oneraria maxima, agreste duplex amiculum, because navis
oneraria is a particular kind of ship, and duplex amiculum a particular
kind of garment. We may also say multi fortissimi atque optimi viri
(Cic. ad div. v. 17), because the included epithets indicate a special and
distinguished class of men. We find occasionally such phrases as exter-
nos multos claros viros (Cic. ad div. vI . 24) ; militare honestum funus
(Corn. Nep. XVIII. 13) ; but these are exceptional usages, and should not
be imitated.
424 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

Obs. 2 In the case of three or more nouns, the best writers either
omit the conjunction or insert it between each. For instance, they
would either write amicitiam summa fide, constantia, justitia servavit;
or, summa fide et constantia et justitia. And similarly with verbs.

(cc) Parenthesis, when a new sentence is inserted, as Credo

equidem (nec vana fides) genus esse deorum.

(b) Figures of defect :

(aa) Ellipsis, when some word, easily supplied, is omitted, as

Scite enim Chrysippus (scil. dicit) ; Non est solvendo (scil. aptus) .

(bb) Zeugma, when the same word is made to do double duty,

or to represent some other word of similar meaning in a corre-
sponding sentence ; as Si legatus imperii terminos, obsequium erga
imperatorem exiit, where with terminos we must supply excessit,
the corresponding word to exiit.

(cc) Asyndeton, or deficiency of conjunctions ; as Rex, miles,

plebs, negat illud. Quid dicam de utilitate litterarum? Erudiunt,
ornant, oblectant, consolantur.

(c) Figures of the context :

(aa) Hyperbaton, when a word is out of its place in the sen-

tence ; as Vina bonis quae deinde cadis onerarat Acestes, littore
Trinacrio, dederatque abeuntibus , heros dividit.

(bb) Hypallage, when the cases are changed ; as Necdum illis

labra admovi, for necdum illa labris admovi.

(cc) Enallage, when there is a change of number, person, or

tense ; as Ni faciat for Ni faceret.

(dd) Anastrophe, when the order of successive words is

changed ; as Italiam contra for contra Italiam.

(B) Figures of Style.

The figures of style are (1 ) Tropes, which consist in single

words ; (2) Figures, in the limited sense of that term, which con-
sist in propositions :

(1) Tropes are as follows :

(a) Metaphora or Translatio, a contracted simile ; as Segetes

sitiunt.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES . 425

(b) Metonymia, when a thing is expressed by means of some

circumstances connected with it ; as Vulcanus for ignis ; Mars for
bellum; Lego Horatium for opera Horatii.
(c) Synecdoche, when a part is put for the whole ; as Decem
aestates vixi sub hoc tecto, where aestates is put for annos and tecto
for domo.

(d) Antonomasia, when a descriptive word or phrase is substi-

tuted for a proper name ; as Poenus tulit victoriam for Hannibal ;
Romanae eloquentiae princeps for Cicero.

(e) Catachresis , when for want of a specific term we use some

word in an improper sense ; as aedificare naves for construere ; vir
gregis for dux gregis, &c.

(f) Hyperbole, when there is an exaggeration ; as Currit ocior

euro.

(g) Litotes, when we mean more than we say ; as Non equidem

laudo sed neque sperno tua munera for vitupero quidem ea sed
accipio.

(h) Metalepsis combines several tropes in one ; as Hinc movet

Euphrates, illinc Germania bellum for Mesopotamiae et Germaniae
incolae bellum capessunt.

(i) Allegoria, when there is a continuation of tropes ; as Sine

Cerere et Baccho friget Venus for amor alget sine pane et vino.

(k) Ironia says one thing and means another ; as Egregiam

laudem when we mean culpam; bone custos when we mean perfide
pastor, &c.

(1) Sarcasmus , when there is a bitter and sneering jest ; as

Satia te sanguine, Cyre ! addressed to the head of Cyrus by
Tomyris.

(m) Onomatopoeia, when we coin words to imitate a particular

sound ; as Torva Mimalloneis implebant cornua bombis.

(n) Antiphrasis, when we signify something by its contrary ;

as Auri sacra fames when sacra means accursed ; ' Euxinus, ' the
hospitable,' applied to a sea where strangers were murdered ; &c.

(2) Figures, specially so called, are as follows ;

(a) Figures of words of the same sound.
426 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES .

(aa) Epizeuxis is a repetition of the same word ; as Litterae,

litterae, inquam, solae me delectant.

(bb) Epanaphora, where several members of the proposition

begin with the same word ; as Litterae me puerum aluerunt, litterae
me juvenem ab infamia libidinum servarunt, litterae virum in rep.
administranda adjuverunt, litterae senectutis imbecillitatem consola-
buntur.

(cc) Antistrophe, where several members end with the same

word; as Nascimur dolore, degimus vitam dolore, finimus dolore.

(dd) Symploce combines the last two figures ; as Quam bene,

Caune, tuo poteram nurus esse parenti: quam bene, Caune, meo pote-
ras gener esse parenti.
(ee) Anadiplosis begins a clause with the last word of the
preceding ; as Pierides, vos haec facietis maxima, Gallo, Gallo,
cujus amor tantum mihi crescit in horas.

(ff ) Epanalepsis begins and ends with the same word ; as

Pauper amet caute, timeat maledicere pauper.
(gg) Epanodos changes the place of the same word in suc-
cessive clauses ; as Crudelis tu quoque mater : crudelis mater
magis, an puer improbus ille: improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quo-
que mater,

(hh) Antanaclasis varies the sense of a repeated word ; as Hic

(i. e. Orestes) sustulit (i . e. interfecit) matrem ; ille (i . e. Æneas)
sustulit (i. e. portavit humeris) patrem.

(ii) Ploce repeats a proper name in a general or attributive

sense ; as Ex illo Corydon Corydon est tempore nobis, ' Corydon is
truly what his character would lead me to expect ; ' In hac victoria
Caesar erat Caesar, i. e. ' a most clement conqueror.'

(kk) Climax is continual gradation with a repetition of the

preceding word; as Studia mihi litterarum doctrinam , doctrina
gloriam, gloria invidiam et obtrectationem comparavit.

(b) Figures of words of a similar sound.

(aa) Paregmenon consists in the introduction of words derived
from the preceding ; as Servitium lepidum! tecum servio servus!
(bb) Paronomasia consists in a slight change of the preceding
word ; as Inceptio est amentium haud amantium.
 SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 427

(cc) Homoeoteleuton , when the clauses end similarly ; as Num

putas fieri posse, ut, qui litterarum studiis teneatur, libidinum vin-
culis obstringatur.

(dd) Parechesis is a play on repeated syllables ; as O fortuna-

tam natam me consule Romam .

(c) Figures of words for explanation.

(aa) Hypotyposis draws a vivid picture ; as Videbar videre alios

intrantes, alios exeuntes, &c.

(bb) Paradiastole explains by adding an opposition ; as Fortuna

obumbrat virtutem, tamen non obruit eam.

(cc) Antimetabole or Metathesis opposes by repeating the same

words in a contrary order ; as Poema est pictura loquens, pictura est
mutum poema.

(dd) Enantiosis or Antithesis places opposites in a sort of

symmetry or equilibrium ; as Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra
leguntur.

(ee) Synoeceiosis combines two contraries with the same sub-

ject ; as Tam quod adest desit, quam quod non adsit avaro.

(ff) Oxymoron contrasts a noun with its epithet ; as Ars iners ;

concordia discors ; &c.
 PART III.

PROSODY, OR QUANTITY AND METRE.

CHAPTER I.

QUANTITY .

§ 1. General rules of Quantity.

213 PROSODY, which, in its original meaning as a Greek word

(Tроowdía) , denotes accentuation , is used in Latin Grammar to
signify that part of the subject which teaches the quantity of
syllables and the laws of metre.

214 By ' quantity ' we understand the condition of a syllable

in regard to the time occupied by its pronunciation. We say that
it is a short syllable (syllaba brevis, syllaba correpta) if it occupies
only one mora or time, and a long syllable (syllaba longa, syllaba
producta) if it occupies two such morae or times (below, 232) .
When a syllable is sometimes long and sometimes short it is called
common or doubtful (syllaba anceps) . A short syllable is marked
with a semicircle open above, as in brěvìbus ; a long syllable is
marked by a horizontal line, as in cēlārūnt ; and both marks are
placed over a common or doubtful syllable, as in tenebrae.

215 The quantity of a syllable is supposed to reside in its

vowel, which may be either long or short by nature ; and in the
latter case it may be lengthened by position.

216 A syllable is long by nature, when it is represented by

a diphthong or two vowels pronounced as one, when its original
form was a diphthong, and when it involves the absorption of one
or more syllables or of a consonant. Thus the penultima or last
 QUANTITY. 429

syllable but one is long in Caesar, coēna, aurum ; similarly we

have il-lido from laedo, punio from poena, explōdo from plaudo,
obedio from audio, Samaria from Σαμαρεία , Ilithgia from Ειλείθυια,
musēum from povσeîov, cōgo from co- igo (ago) , ōtium from opitium,
māvolo and mālo for măgis volo, jūnior for jūvěnior, sumo for -su-imo
(emo), tibicen for tibi -cen, bōbus for bovibus, suspitio for suspicitio,
sētius for secitius, novītius for novi-itius, pōno for po-sino, and the
like.

Exceptions :
(1 ) The diphthong ae is sometimes shortened before a vowel,
especially in the preposition prae and in Greek words ; as Ver
praěĭt aestatem. Longior antiquis visa Maeōtis hiemps. Insulaĕ
Ionio in magno. But this quantity of ae is not always observed
even in the same word , and we have Regna Thoas habuit Maeotide
clarus in ora.

(2) The Greek diphthong e is generally represented by i orë

(above, 3, (3) , Obs . 5) ; but we have sometimes ĕ for this diphthong,
as in platea, chorea by the side of platea, chorea.

217 A syllable is short by nature when it consists in a single

vowel, which does not represent any absorption either of a conso-
nant or of another vowel. And this may generally be inferred
when the following syllable begins with a vowel or h, as in me-us,
pi-us, delici-ae, tu-us, cor-ruet, reboat, traho, věho, prohibeo. The
fact that a vowel is short by nature before a single consonant may
be learned from experience guided by etymology.
The exceptions to the general rule that a vowel before another
vowel or h is short, are as follows :

(1 ) The former vowel is long in the old genitives of the first

declension, as aulāī, pictāī. Also in the genitives and datives in
ē from nouns in es, as diēt, specie ; but if a consonant precedes
the e this vowel may be short, as in fidei, rěi, spei, the two former
of which, however, sometimes follow the general rule for the
lengthening of the penultima.
(2) The is long in fio for fuio, unless -er- follows ; thus we
have fiem, fiet, fiunt, but fierem, fieri, as in the line Omnia nunc
fiunt, fieri quae posse negabam.
(3) Genitives in -ius have the i long, but this is often shortened
by the poets, who write e. g. both illius and illius ; except in alius;
430 QUANTITY,

which being contracted from ali- ius is always long. In alterius

the penultima is generally short, though it is occasionally length-
ened by the poets . In ējus, hūjus, the i is hardened into j, and the
previous syllable lengthened accordingly.
(4). We have a long before the termination -ius in Gaius ; as
Pervigil in pluma Gātus, ecce, jacet. Also in the vocative Gai ; as
Quod debes, Gai, redde, inquit Phoebus. Similarly we have Pompēr
from Pompeius ; but the poets also write Pompei as a dissyllable ;
thus, Pompei meorum prime sodalium.

(5) The interjection O! is common before a vowel ; and the

penultima of ohe may be either long or short. But e in eheu is
always long.
(6) In Greek words the e or i of the penultima generally repre-
sents the diphthong et, and is therefore long ; as in panacea, elegia,
Eneas, Alexandria, and āēr, eos , hērōus, Menelaus, Brisēis, retain
their Greek quantity. But in some Greek words the e or i or y is
common ; thus we have both Academia and Academia, both Diana
and Diana, both Geryon and Geryon, both Orion and in later poets
Orion.

Obs. Some considerations, which belong rather to comparative

philology than to Latin Grammar, may assist the student in determin-
ing whether a vowel is in its nature short or long. He will recognize
an originally single or unaffected vowel of articulation, in the change
from a to i and e, as in că-no, ce-ci-ni, con-centus, făcio, con-fi-cio, con-
fec-tus (Varron. p. 309), also in the change from a or e or i to o, as pars,
portio; fero, fors; mens, memini, moneo; disco (= dic-sco), di-dici, doceo;
terra, extorris &c. (Ibid. p. 311 ). And with regard to o in particular he
will notice that when this letter is secondary or derivative, it is generally,
short, even though the primitive form may give a long i or u; thus we
have hodie for hīdie (cf. pridie, postrīdie) homo by the side of hūmanus
(where the comparison of other languages shows that u is the original
letter), and probably modo for mi dato, ' give ' or ' grant me.' Some
such consideration as this justifies the later poets (e. g. Prudentius,
Apotheos. 194 ; Cathem. 1. 33) in making the first syllable of socors and
socordia short, although the original form of the prefix was se; and we
accept this quantity without any direct authority from poets of the
classical age.

218 A vowel which is short by nature becomes long by posi-

tion, when it stands before two or more consonants or before the
double letters j = di, x = cs or gs, and z = ds ; as in mēns, exemplum,
vūlt, mājor, lēx, gāza.
 QUANTITY. 431

The following special cases require to be noticed :

(1 ) When a word ends with a short vowel, and the next word
begins with two consonants, this is not generally regarded as a
position affecting the quantity of the final vowel ; but the final
vowel very rarely remains short before sc, sp, sq, st, x, z, at the begin-
ning of the word following ; thus we have Ferte citi ferrum, date
telā, scandite muros. Occultă spolia, et plures de pace triumphos.
But on the other hand we have Ponitě spem. Praemia scribae.
Nemorosă Zacynthus .
(2) The letter h is not counted as a consonant, and therefore
makes no position ; thus we have Serpit humi tutus.
(3) The combination qu is regarded as a single letter, which
does not affect the quantity of the preceding short vowel ; thus we
have Gratius ex ipso fonte bibuntur ăquae.
(4) Compounds with jugum, e. g. bijugus, quadrijugus, leave a
short vowel before j ; as Quadrijugum currum. Hence we have the
contraction bīgae, quadrigae.
Obs. The comic poets neglect the rule of position.

219 When a short vowel stands before a mute and liquid,

this combination of consonants does not necessarily constitute a
position, and the vowel may remain short. In Latin, however,
this exception to the rule of position is practically confined to those
cases in which the consonant is followed by r, and to some few
instances where it is followed by 1 ; as pătris, tenebrae, mediocris,
vēpres, volucris, põples, assecla. That the vowel in these cases
may be either long or short appears from lines in which both
quantities are exhibited by the same word ; as Natum ante ora
pătris, pātrem qui obtruncat ad aras. Et primo similis volucri, mox
vera volūcris. In Greek words the Greek quantity is observed ,
and we may have a short vowel in Atlas, Procne, Cygnus, Tec-
messa, &c.
The following remarks must be noticed :
(1 ) The weak position created by the mute followed by a
liquid does not affect the quantity of a vowel naturally long ; thus
we have only matris from māter, arātrum from arāre, and salūbris
from salūs.
(2) The position is not weak, when there are two liquids, as
in ōmnes ; or a liquid before a mute, as in pārtem ; or when the
mute and liquid belong to different syllables, as in āb-luo.
 432 QUANTITY.

220 Derived words retain the quantity of their primitives ;

thus we have amicus, amicitia, inimicitiae, by the side of amo and
ǎmor ; we have scriba, conscribere from scribo ; valētudo from valère;
proficiscor from facio ; invideo from video, &c.

Obs. Some words, which seem to deviate from this rule, are either
falsely derived from the assumed primitive, as molestus, which does not
come from moles but from mălus, and coma, which has nothing to do with
como = co-imo (emo) ; or there has been strengthening of the root in one
of the forms, which has lengthened the syllable naturally short ; this must
be the explanation of lex, legis, rex, rēgis by the side of lego, rěgo ; pāx,
pācis by the side of păco ; dux, ducis by the side of duco ; voco from vox,
vōcis ; dico (-are) and dicax by the side of dico ; lucerna bythe side of lūceo ;
labor (-oris) and labo (-are) by the side of labor (-i) ; notus by the side of
nota; sopor by the side of sōpio ; statio, stabilis by the side of stāre and
staturus, &c. Thus too fido, fidus, infidus, fiducia have a long ; but
the i is short in fides, fidelis, perfidus, perfidia.

221 Compounds retain the quantity of the simple words which

they involve ; as caedo, oc-cido ; cădo, occido (above, 216) . But
there are some few exceptions, as juro, pejero ; nōtum, agnitum,
cognitum ; nūbo, pronŭbus ; sõpitus, semisõpitus, sī, quandō, sìqui-
dem, quandoquidem.

§ 2. Quantity of the Middle Syllables.

(a) Middle Syllables of Nouns and Pronouns.

222 (aa) A vowel is always long before the termination -rum

of the gen. pl .; thus we have musārum, diērum, dominōrum, illā-
rum, istōrum.

(bb) If the vowel before -bus or -bis in the dat. abl. is a, e, or o,

it is always long ; thus we have duabus, deabus, diebus, duobus,
nōbis, vōbis ; if the vowel is i or u it is short ; thus we have artibus,
artubus, partibus, partubus ; except in the case of būbus, bōbus for
bovibus.

(B) Middle Syllables of Verbs.

223 (aa) Dissyllabic perfects and supines have the penultima

long, except when one vowel stands before another ; thus we have
vīdi, ēgi, ēmi ; visum, actum, emptum, from video, ăgo, ĕmo ; but rũi,
ruitum from ruo, are exceptions .
(1 ) Seven dissyllabic perfects and eight dissyllabic supines
have the penultima short ; these are remembered by the following
rhymes :
 QUANTITY. 433

Short are: bibi, dědi, fidi,

Tuli, stěti, stiti, scidi;
Dătum, itum, litum, quitum,
Rutum, rătum, sătum, situm.

(2) The supine stātum from sto has the penultima long, and
stătum from sisto has the penultima short. We have both citum
i/
and ctum from cio and cieo (above, pp. 103, 130) .
(bb) Reduplicated perfects have the penultima short, as in
cecini, cecidi, tetigi, didici.

Exceptions :
We have cecidi from caedo, and in some cases, as in cucurri,
fefelli, pependi, spopondi, the penultima is long by position.
(cc) Polysyllabic perfects in -vi or -si, and polysyllabic su-
pines in -tum or -sum, have the penultima long ; as in amāvi,
divisi, solutum, divisum.

(dd) Perfects in -ui of the first, second, and fourth conjuga-

tions, and the corresponding supines in -itum, have both the penul-
tima and the antepenultima short ; as domo, dõmũi, dămĭtum ;
mõneo, mõnũi, mõnĭtum ; võmo, võmũi, võmĭtum ; gigno (for gigeno) ,
gěnŭi, gěnitum; pōno (for po-sino) , păsăi, põsĭtum.

Obs. Praebeo, praebui, praebitum is not an exception to this rule,

for the full form is praehibeo, which is merely a compound of habeo.
The same may be said of debeo, debui, debitum, which in one sense
at least is a contraction of dehibeo.

(ee) Supines in -itum which are not formed from perfects in

-ivi, have the penultima short, as fugitum, cognitum.

Obs. The later poets make an exception to this in recensītus, which

has its penultima long in Claudian, Eutrop. II. 60 : Prisca recensitis
evolvite saecula fastis ; and Prudentius has recensētus, Apoth. 1069 :
stirpe recensēta numerandus sanguinis haeres. But it is clear that
censitor is only another form of censor, and as we have censtor, censtom,
and ancensto in Oscan, for censor, censum, and non censitus ( Varron. pp.
149, 150), we may conclude that this participle originally and properly
followed the rule, and that the lengthening of the i is a misconception
on the part of these later writers. Accordingly the other quantity is
given above, 103, 130.

224 The quantity of the penultima is fixed in many of the

inflexions of the verb. Thus the student has seen that a vowel is
always long before the endings -bam, -bas, -bat, &c. , -bo, -bis,
D. L. G. 28
434 QUANTITY.

-bit, &c., and before runt or -re in the perfect ; that the penul-
tima is always long in -amus, atis, -emus, -etis ; and in the infi-
nitives of the first three conjugations. The following cases must
be noticed :

(1) The a is short in all inflexions of do except das and da;

thus we have circumdămus, circumdăbam, circumdăbo, and it is
even represented by a short u in the occasional forms duim (cre-
duim, perduim).

(2) The penultima of the third person plural of the perfect

indicative is occasionally shortened by the poets ; as Longa decem
menses tulerunt fastidia matres. Di tibi divitias dederunt artem-
que fruendi. Obstupui, stetĕruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit.

(3) The terminations -imus, -itis, have the penultima short

in the first, second, and fourth conjugations ; but the is long
in the present tense of the third conjugation, and in all present
subjunctives ; thus we have audīmus, audītis, sīmus, sītis, velīmus,
velītis.

(4) Although we have always erimus, eritis in the future indi-

cative, we have no authority for a short penultima in fuerimus,
fueritis, or in the first and second persons plural of the perfect sub-
junctive of ordinary verbs ; on the contrary we have several in-
stances of the being long ; as fecerimus (Catull . v. 10) , transieritis
(Ovid, Epist. Pont. IV. 5, 6) , contigerītis (Id. ibid. IV. 5, 16) , &c.

§ 3. Quantity of the final Syllable.

225 (a) Monosyllabic Words.

(aa) Monosyllabic words, which end in a vowel or h are long ;
as ā, dē, mē, sē, sẽ, āh, prō and prōh.
Except the enclitics ; as -ce, -ně, -quě, -tě, -vě, -ptě, -psě.
(bb) Monosyllabic words, which end in a single consonant
and are not nouns, are short ; as ăd, sed, ut, věl, ăb, õb.
Except cur, quin, sīn, ēn, nōn, crās, and the adverbs in c, as
hic, hūc, sic.

(cc) Monosyllabic nouns are long ; as sōl, vēr, mōs, ās, fūr,
jūs, rōs, plūs, pār, vās , lār, pēs, bōs, ōs (ōris) .
But měl, fel, vìr, căr, lăc, ŏs (ossis) are short.
(dd) Hic in the nom. is either long or short ; hōc, whether
nominative or ablative, is long.
 QUANTITY . 435

(ee) The imperatives dic from dico , duc from duco, fac from
facio, fer from fero, which are the usual forms¹ , retain the quantity
of their verbs ; es from sum is short ; és for ĕdis from edo, is long.
Fis, vis, and sis are long.

(B) Polysyllabic Words ending in a Vowel.

226 (aa) The final a is regularly short ; as in musă, regnă,
lampada. The following are the only exceptions :
(1) In the ablative sing. of the first declension ; as musā.
(2) In the voc. of nouns in -as ; as in Æneā, Pallā, from
Eneas, -eae, Pallas, -antis.

(3) In the imperative of the first conjugation ; as in amā.

(4) In undeclinable words ; as in contrā, extrā, intrā, frustrā,
ergā, anteā, posteā, intereā, quadraginta. But of these ită, quiă,
ejă, and pută, ' for example,' have short ă.

(bb) The final e is short ; as in patrě, currě, nempě, propě,

facile, legere, amavērě. The following are the only exceptions :
(1) The ablatives of the e declension ; as die (hodiē, pridie,
postridie, &c.), rē (quārē, quādērē), fidē, speciē. Together with
fame from fames.
(2) The imperatives of the second conjugation ; as monē. But
of these some dissyllables are made short by the poets, as căvě, hăbě,
vălě, vidě, tăcě.

(3) The adverbs in ē from adjectives of the second declension,

as doctē, miserē, altē, together with ferē, fermē, and the interjection
ohe. But beně, male, inferně and superně are short.
The Greek words, in which e represents 7, either in the
(4)
nom . singular feminine, in the voc. masc., or in the nom. plur.
neut.; as crambē, Atridē, Tempē.

(cc) The final i is long ; as in puerī, patrī, fructuī, misī, legī,

rideri. The following are the only exceptions :
(1) Greek datives and vocatives ; as Paridi, Alexi, and cur
when it is used as a dissyllable.

1 In ordinary Latin the apocope of the final e in these imperatives is invariable in

the simple forms, and in those compounds, as educ, effer, calefac, which do not change
the root-vowel ; but we have confice, perfice, &c., where there is the usual change from
a to i, andface, duce, dice are found in the poets. From scio we have only the fuller
form scito and generally scitote.
28-2
436 QUANTITY.

(2) The particles nisi and quasi.

(3) The following, in which the final i is common ; mihi, tibi,
sìbi, îbi, ubi, and the compounds of uti, which generally follow the
exigencies of the verse ; thus we have vělutī, but sīcuti. In utinam
and utique, necubì, sicubì, ubīvis, ubinam, the i is always short ; it
is long in ibidem , ubique, utrobique; and common in ubicunque.

(dd) The final o is invariably long in the dat. abl. of the

second declension, as domino, regno, bonō ; and in Greek nouns
in o (w), as Iō, Echō ; it is generally long in adverbs and other par-
ticles in o, as adeō, ergō, porro, quando, idcirco, omnino. It is
common in the nom . of the third declension and in the first person

of verbs ; as virgo, cano. The following special cases deserve

notice.

(1) The adverbs cito, modo (with its compounds tantummodo,

dummodo), quomodo (when written as one word), immo, illică ; the
pronoun ego; the numerals duo, octo ; the imperative cedo ; and
the obsolete preposition endo for in, have a short o.
(2) The poets of the silver age shorten the o in the adverbs
ergo, quando, porro, postremo, sero, and the ablative of the gerund, as
vigilando. But adverbs which can be referred to an inflected form
are always long ; as quo, eo, paullo, multo, tanto, quanto, falso,
merito, subito, profecto, &c.

(ee) The final u is always long, as in cornu, diū ; and y,

which occurs in a very few Greek words, is always short, as in
moly.

(y) Polysyllabic Words ending in a Consonant.

227 (aa) The endings d, t, l, n, r are short, as apŭd, caput,

seměl, carmen, amor. This rule holds without exception in Latin
words ; the only deviations are the following Greek nouns :

(1 ) Masculine and feminine nouns in n ; as Titan, Salamin,

Actaeōn.

(2) Nouns in -er increasing in the genitive ; as aethēr, character.

(3) Accusatives in -an or -en for -av, -nv ; as Aeneān, crambēn.

Obs. Greek nouns in or are short, as Hector, Nestor, rhetor, though

the original forms have -wp.
 QUANTITY. 437

(bb) The ending -as is long, as in mensās, aetās , amās ; except

in anǎs, gen. anătis ; in the Greek nouns in -as, gen. -ădis, as ilias,
and the Greek accusatives, as lampadas, heroăs .

(cc) The ending -es is long, as in nubēs, dūcēs, dūcēs, amēs,

quoties.
The following are the exceptions to the general rule :
(1) The compounds of es from sum, as adès, aběs, potès.
(2) The preposition penes.
(3) Nominatives in -es which have a gen. in -ětis, -itis, -idis,
as segěs, miles, obses ; but of these Cerēs, aries, abies, paries, have
the termination long ; as also the compounds of pes, as bipēs, tripēs,
quadrupēs .

(4) Greek nominatives plural, as crateres, Arcades.

(5) Greek neuters in -es, as Cynosarges, hippomanes.

(dd) The ending -is is short, as in ignis, ducis, dūcīs, tristīs,

sanguis. The following are the exceptions :
(1 ) Datives and ablatives plural in -is, as musīs, puerīs , nobīs,
vobis.

(2) Accusatives plural of the third declension (above, 29) , as

omnis, civis.

(3) The adverbs gratis, foris.

(4) The second person singular of the present indicative of -i
verbs, as audis, venis; of the forms adsīs, possis , &c. mavis, malis,
&c.; and often in the second person singular of the perfect sub-
junctive, as amaveris.
(5) The nominatives Quiris, Samnis , Salamis, Eleusis, Simois.
(ee) The ending -os is long, as in honōs, multōs, illōs. The
exceptions are only os, gen. ossis, exos, compos, impos, and Greek
words in -os , as Delos nom. , Erinnyŏs gen.

(ff) The ending us is short, as in dominus, senatus, tempus,

vetus, fontibus, scribimus , tenus , funditus.
The following are exceptions :
(1) The nom. sing. in -us, when the genitive has a long u in
the penultima, as virtūs, virtutis ; palūs, palūdis ; tellus, telluris.
(2) The gen. sing. and nom. acc. voc. pl. of the -u nouns ; as
gen. sing. fructus for fructuis ; nom. acc. voc. pl. fructus for fructues.
438 QUANTITY.

(3) Greek nom. in -us for -ous, as Panthus, Melampus (but we

have Edipus, Edipi) , and genitives of nouns in -o for -w, as
Sapphus.
(gg) The ending -ys occurs only in Greek words, and is short,
as in Cotys.

§ 4. Quantity ofthe connecting Vowel in Compounds.

228 The following are the rules for the quantity of the con-
necting vowel, i. e . of the termination of the preceding word, in
compounds .

(a) If the first part of the compound is a complete word, its

final syllable retains its proper quantity, thus we have republicâ,
jurejurando, usūcapio, quantīvis, &c. The exceptional cases of
nisi, siquidem, quandoquidem, and other particles , have been already
mentioned.

(B) If the first part of the compound is abbreviated by the

omission of a syllable, the vowel of connexion retains the quantity
of the original word ; thus from venenum facio we have venēficus.

Obs. In compounds of facio with verbs, the connecting e is gene-

rally short, but it is long in arefacio, patefacio.

(7) If the first part of the compound drops its final consonant,
the preceding vowel is short, unless the final consonant is i, and
then the vowel is long ; thus we have quasi for quam-si, ăperio for
ad-perio, operio for ob-perio, ă-moenus for ad-moenus, omitto for
ob-mitto, &c.; but di-ripio for dis-rapio, tra-do for trans-do. In
accordance with this the masculine idem has the long because it
stands for is-dem ; but i-dem has the i short, because it represents
id-dem, as the following line shows :

Per quod quis peccat, per idem punitur et idem.

(8) If the first part of the compound is an uninflected form,

the vowel of connexion is a short i, o, or u, as in causidicus, viõlen-
tus, Trojugena. The quantity of the o in sacrosanctus is doubtful.

Obs. In Greek nouns we have Ŏ or ō according as the original letter

was o or w ; thus we have Minotaurus, but Argonauta.

(e) Prepositional prefixes ending in a consonant are short

before a vowel ; as in ădigo , ăbigo, subigo, praetereo ; but mono-
syllables ending in a vowel, and dissyllables in a and o, are long
 QUANTITY. 439

before a consonant ; as in avoco, detraho, sejungo, vēcors, vēsanus,

contradico, contrōversus, intrōduco, retrōcedo.

Obs. We must except so- in socors, socordia, for the reasons given
above (217, (5), Obs.) . And long vowels are shortened before other
vowels, as in deorsum, seorsum, proavus, retroago, or sometimes they
coalesce and form one syllable with a following e or i, as deeram for
děěram, deinde for deinde, proinde for proinde, demo for děimo, cōgo for
coago, &c. We must also except dirimo and disertus from the above
rule.

(3) The following cases of prefixes require special notice.

(1) Pro is short in Greek words , but generally long in Latin ;
thus we have prōdi, prōgenies, prōlabor by the side of Prometheus,
&c. But the Greek words prologus and propola have the first
syllable long, and pro is short in the Latin words procella, pro-
fanus, profecto, profestus, proficiscor, profiteor, profugus, profundus,
prohibeo, pronepos; and common in procumbo, procuro, profugio,
profundo, propago, propello, propino.
(2) Re- before a single consonant or a mute and liquid and red-
before a vowel are short, as in refero, redimo, retineo, recludo ; and
re- is long before sc, sp, st, as in rescribo, respicio, rēstinguo, &c.
But red- is retained before 1, to which it is assimilated, in relligio,
relliquiae; and we have either an assimilated d or the first letter of
a reduplicated perfect in reccidi, repperi, rettuli.

Obs. The first syllable of the impersonal refert is the dative rei
(above, 152, (c)).

(3) If the first word is a numeral it is generally shortened, as

in duodecim, ducenti, quadripes, bipes, triceps, trivium; but we have
sedecim, biduum, triduum.

§ 5. Quantity of Syllables as affected by Metre.

229 The measurement or quantity of vowels is affected also

by the following rules applicable to contiguous or final syllables in
a metrical line. The first five of these rules are known by the
names of certain figures .
I. Synaloepha, or the elision of a final vowel or diphthong
before a vowel or h at the beginning of the following word ; as
Seră nimis vit' ēst crastină, viv' hodie,
for vită, vivě.
440 QUANTITY.

This rule does not apply to the interjections heu and o, and
is sometimes neglected by the poets ; as
Ter sunt cōnāti impōněrě Pelio Ossam .

From this line we see that the hiatus shortens the final long
vowel of Pelio, because it stands in the thesis of the metre (231 ) ,
but the final long vowel of conati retains its quantity because it
stands in the ictus or arsis of the foot.

II. Ecthlipsis , or the elision of a final m with its vowel before

a vowel or h ; as

monstr horrend inform ingens , cũi lùměn ademptim ,

for monstrum horrendum, informe.

The older poets used sometimes to omit a final s before a conso-

nant, so that -us became u' ; as võlītī vīvŭ' pēr ōrā vīrûm for
vivus : see the examples in 245.

III. Synaeresis , or the contraction of two syllables into one ; as

Seu lento fuerint ālvēariă vimině texta,
as if it were written alvyaria,
Sectâqu' intexunt ābiete costas,
as if it were written abyete.

Obs. Less usual examples of synizesis are the following : connubia =

connubja (Lucret. III. 741 ), connubio = connubjo (Virg. En. 1. 73) ; ebul-
liat = ebulljat (Pers . II . 10) ; principium = principjum (Hor. 3 Carm. VI. 5) ;
tenuistenwis ( Lucret. 1. 875) ; duarum = dwarum (Ter. Heaut. II. 3.
85) ; duellica = dwellica (Lucret. II. 661) ; tuae = twae (Ter. Andr. 1. 5.61 ).

IV. Dialysis, or the resolution of one syllable into two ; as

Debuĕrānt fusōs ēvõluisse suōs ,
for evolvisse.

V. Caesura (237) , when, in consequence of the last syllable

belonging to a fresh foot or metre of which it receives the ictus
(231), a single consonant is allowed to make it long by position ;
Pectori| būs inhiāns spīrăntiă cōnsulit ēxtă.
VI. The last syllable of every verse is common.
 CHAPTER II.

METRE

§ 1. Metrical Feet.

230 RHYTHM (numerus) is the harmonious proportion, which

results from the methodical arrangement of words according to their
long and short syllables ; and from a recurrence of an emphasis or
stress at intervals. If the rhythm is not regulated by fixed laws it
is called prosaic (solutae orationis numerus) . If the emphasis recurs
according to a definite measure, the rhythm becomes metre (metrum).
Every recurrence of the emphasis is termed a metre, and those
collections of metres, which recur as distinct wholes, are called
verses or lines ( versus).

231 The emphasis, on which the metre depends, is called the

ictus, because the time was marked by a stamp of the foot ; hence
the old Latin metre, or Saturnian verse, was termed tripudiatio-
triplex pedis pulsatio ; and Horace says (3 Carm. XVIII. 15) , gaudet
invisam pepulisse fossor ter pede terram, ' the labourer delights to
have beaten the hated earth with the three blows of his foot, ' i. e. to
dance in the old fashion . When the emphatic and unemphatic
parts of the metre are contradistinguished , they are called the arsis
(apois) and thesis (Oéois) respectively, i. e. the raising and sinking
of the voice.

232 Every short syllable, which is the unit of metre or mea-

surement, is considered as one mora or ' time ; ' and every long
syllable consists of two such morae. According to this principle,
long syllables are resolved , short syllables combined, and rhythms
calculated .

233 When a rhythm is considered as the element of a verse,

it is called a ' foot ' (pes) , and the division of verses into feet is
442 METRE.

called scanning or scansion (scansio , i. e. ascending or climbing

up by steps, whence a scale in music, from scāla, ‘ a ladder ') .

The following are all the combinations of long and short syl-
lables, which are called feet, and which have distinctive names :

Of two Syllables :

Pyrrhichius two morae.

Iambus three
Trochaeus
or do.
Choreus
Spondaeus four morae.

Of three Syllables :

Tribrachys three morae.

Dactylus four
Anapaestus do.
Amphibrachys do .
Creticus
or five morae.
C

Amphimacer
Bacchius do.
Antibacchius do.
Molossus six morae.

Of four Syllables :
Proceleusmaticus four morae.
Paeon primus 5331 five
secundus 3512 do.
tertius do.
quartus do.
Ionicus a minore six morae.
a majore do.
Diiambus do.
Ditrochaeus do .
Choriambus (i. e.
Choreus or do.
C
>

Trochaeus + iambus)
Antispastus do .
Epitritus primus seven morae.
1
)
 METRE . 443

Epitritus secundus - seven morae.

tertius do.
quartus do.
Dispondaeus eight morae.
Although it is necessary that the student should know this
nomenclature, he must be assured from the first that it points to an
erroneous classification, and that it will not help him to understand
the first principles of Greek or Latin metre.

234 There are only two kinds of proper feet or distinct and
primitive rhythms.

(a) The equal rhythms, consisting of four morae, in which one

long syllable is opposed to two short, so that the ratio is ; these
are
(
Dactylus, the dactyl,' - ; as mūnĕră;
Anapaestus, the anapæst, ' - ; as lāpīdēs.

(b) The double rhythms, consisting of three morae, in which a

long and a short syllable are opposed, so that the ratio is ; these
are
Trochaeus, the trochee,' - ; as mūsă;
Iambus, the iambus,' ~ ; as ămās.

To these may be added the representative feet ; i.

i. e.
e. the spon-
daeus or ' spondee,' which represents (232) the equal rhythm by
two long syllables , as dicunt, and the tribrachys or ' tribrach,'
which represents the double rhythm by three short syllables, as
brevibus.

235 If in any verse the regular course of the rhythm is pre-

ceded by an unemphatic syllable, whether long or short, this is
called an anacrusis, or ' back stroke,' and if the anacrusis extends
to three or four morae, it is called a basis or pedestal. ' It
is customary to mark the onward course of the ictus by the acute
accent, the anacrusis by the grave, and the basis by the two accents
crossing one another. The divisions of the feet are marked by
vertical lines, and the change of rhythm in the middle of the verse
by two vertical lines.

236 All verses, except the dactylic and the old Saturnian
trochaics, reckon the metre by a double foot or dipodia, as it is
called, and have only one ictus to the pair of feet.
444 METRE.

237 It is essential to the harmony of a line that some one or

more of its feet should be divided between two different words.
This division is called caesura or ' cutting.' There are two kinds
of caesura —the masculine, strong, or monosyllabic caesura, when
only the first syllable of the foot is in the preceding word ; and the
feminine, weak, or trochaic caesura, where the first two syllables of a
dactyl are in the preceding word, and the remaining short syllable
in the word which follows. Thus in the following line we have
strong caesuras in the third and fourth feet, and weak caesuras in
the first and second places :

Arma vir- lumque | cano Tro- jae qui | primus ab oris.

If a word is so placed in a verse as to coincide with a metrical

foot, we have a diaeresis , which is the opposite of the caesura ; thus
there is a diaeresis in the first and fifth feet of the following line of
Virgil :
Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum.

238 Half a foot is technically called a hemimer (nµiµepés) ,

and caesuras , which take place in the middle of the second, third ,
fourth and fifth feet respectively, are called trihemimeral, penthe-
mimeral, hephthemimeral and ennehemimeral caesuras.

239 If a metre terminates in a hemimer, it is called catalectic

or ' interrupted ; ' if it is completed, it is called acatalectic or ' unin-
terrupted.'
If the supposed or prescribed metre is redundant by a hemimer,
the term hypercatalectic is applied. Two catalectic forms are so
common that they are often called feet ; these are the choriambus or
dactylic trihemimer ; as extule|rās|| , which may be termed the
dactylic dimeter catalectic ; and the creticus or trochaic trihemimer ;
as efferunt , which may be termed the trochaic monometer
catalectic.

§ 2. Equal Rhythms.

A. Dactylic Verse.
240 (a) Hexameter or Heroic Verse. The only dactylic
rhythm, which appears in long systems of single lines, is called the
Hexameter, because it contains six metres or repetitions of the ictus.
The first four metres may be either dactyls or spondees , but the
fifth must generally be a dactyl, and the sixth must always be
 METRE . 445

a spondee, or, according to 229, VI., a trochee. The following are

examples :
Pástōrés õviļum těně rós de pellitě foetus||.

Tú nihil | invi | tâ di | cás fáci | ásvě Mi | nérvā ||.

Obs. 1 In these verses there is generally, as in the examples,_a
penthemimeral cæsura, and often a hephthemimeral cæsura also. In
fact, the former must occur, unless there is a cæsura in the fourth foot.
And even then the absence of the penthemimeral cæsura is compara-
tively rare, e. g. in such lines as the following verse of Catullus :
Eumenides quibus | anguinelo redimita capillo.
Obs. 2 If there is a strong hephthemimeral but a weak penthe-
mimeral cæsura, there is generally also a strong trihemimeral caesura;
as
Non unquam gravis | aere domum mihi dextra redibat.
Funere a super exuvijas ensemque relictum.
and we have rarely a weak penthemimeral without a strong trihemi-
meral cæsura, or vice versa ; as
Degeneremque Neoptolemum narrare_memento
Armentarius | Afer agit tectumque laremque.
Weak cæsuras very seldom follow in succession ; but we have
occasionally such lines as
Daphnin ad astra feremus amavit nos quoque Daphnin.
Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque procellis.
Antiqua e cedro Italusque paterque Sabinus
Saturnusque senex Jalnique bifrontis imago.

Obs. 3 The third foot rarely makes a diaeresis ; as

Montibus audiri fragor | et resonantia longe;
for this divides the hexameter into two trimeters : and it must not
consist of a single word ; for the exception in the line of Virgil,
Summa leves hinc | nescio | qua dulcedine laetae,
is only apparent, since nescio qua is regarded as constituting one word
equivalent to an indefinite pronoun (above, 175, (b)).
Obs. 4 The second foot is very rarely comprised in a single word, as
in the line of Virgil,
Scilicet omnibus | est labor impendendus et omnes;
except when inter or intra is followed by a monosyllabic pronoun ; as
Talibus inter se dictis ad tecta subibant,
for then the connexion of the words produces a quasi-caesura.

Obs. 5 The fourth foot is not comprised in a single word, unless it

is preceded by a word of two short syllables, as in the line
Excisum Euboicae latus | ingens | rupis in antrum,
446 METRE.

or by a monosyllable connected in syntax or sense with the words which

follow; as in the lines
Et sine lite loquax cum | Palladis | alite cornix.
Et graviter frendens sic fatis | ora resolvit.
Obs. 6 The word preceding the dactyl of the fifth foot must not be
a bacchius, as it is called, that is, a trisyllable consisting of one short and
two long syllables, such as dederunt, unless a monosyllable precedes ; as in
the line
Pallentes hederas et ămăntēs | littora myrtos.

Obs. 7 If the fifth foot is a spondee, which is rarely the case, the
fourth must be a dactyl ; as

Cónstitit | átque òcù| lís Phrygi| a ágmină | cīrcūms|pēxīt||.

Cláră dě úm sõbõ |lés māg |núm Jovis | incrē|méntūm||.

Obs. 8 Words of more than three syllables and monosyllables are

rarely found at the end of hexameter lines ; and the strong ennehemimeral
cæsura is not often found in the last dactyl, unless the concluding word
is a quadrisyllable, when it is of course inevitable ; thus we rarely find
such lines as
Per connubia nostra per inceptos hymenaeos.
Sternitur exanimisque tremens procumbit humi bos.
Nec saturare fimo pingui pudeat sola | neve.
But the older writers, as Ennius, very often have lines resembling
the cadence of the first two ; there are at least twenty-six lines in Lu-
cretius which end in a monosyllable ; in Horace's Satires there are fifty-
five lines with monosyllabic endings, and at least nine with a strong
ennehemimeral cæsura ; but these poets are not to be imitated in all
respects by the modern writer of hexameters. Words of five and six
syllables at the end of the line are also very rare ; as in Virgil's
Quarum quae forma pulcherrima | Deiopeia,
and Horace's
Quisquis luxuria tristive superstitione .
With regard to the final monosyllable, it is not so objectionable,
if another monosyllable precedes ; as in Horace's line
Principibus placuisse viris non ultima | laus est .
Obs. 9 It is desirable to avoid hexameters, which rhyme at the
middle and end. These verses are called Leonine, from Leonius a monk
of Paris, who first regularly introduced them. But solitary instances
have been noticed in the best classical poets ; thus we have in Virgil :
Ora cita- torum | dextra contorsit e\quorum] .
in Ovid :
Si Trojae | fatis | aliquid restare putatis .

Obs. 10 In consecutive lines, the sense must be carried on from one

verse to another, and the pauses and cæsuras must be varied. If the
 METRE. 447

pause falls after the first word in a line, the word thus separated is
generally a dactyl, a trochee or a choriambus. A spondaic word is rarely
found by itself, but this may be allowed, if there is a special emphasis,
as in the lines of Virgil :
Exstinctum Nymphae crudeli funere Daphnin
Flebant: vos coryli testes et flumina Nymphis.
The following description of the horse from the third Georgic will
exemplify the manner in which Virgil varies the cæsuras and pauses in
his hexameters :
Sin ad bella magis studium tur masque feroces,
Aut Alphea rotis prae | labi flumina Pisae,
Et Jovis in lulco currus agitare volantis ;
Primus equi labor | est animos atque arma videre
Bellan tum, litulosque palti, tractuque gementem
Ferre roltam, et stabullo frenos audire sonantis;
Tum magis atque magis blandis gaudere magistri
Laudibus, et plausae sonitum cervicis amare.
Atque haec jam primo de pulsus ab ubere matris
Audeat, inque vicem det | mollibus ora capistris
Invalidus, etiamque tre mens, etiam inscius aevi.
At, tribus exacltis, ubi | quarta accesserit aestas,
Carpere mox gyrum incipiat, gradibusque sonare
Compositis; sinu etque alterna volumina crurum;
Sitque laboranti similis ; || tum cursibus auras,
Tum vocet, ac, per aperta volans, ceu liber habenis,
Equora, vix summa vestigia ponat arena.

241 (b) Elegiac Verse. Not only does custom require that
the dactyl should be represented by a spondee at the end of an
hexameter verse, but the ictus alone may suffice for the close of a
set of dactyls .
This is regularly the case with the dactylic trimeter catalectic
or penthemimer ; and a class of poems , called Elegiac, is written in
complete hexameter lines followed alternately by pairs of these
interrupted trimeters, which are erroneously called Pentameters.
Example :
Gratulor | Echăli | ām tītu līs āc | cēdĕrě | vēstrīs ||
Victorēm victae || sūccubu¦issẽ que| rōr|| .

Obs. 1 The penthemimers of the elegiac must be kept distinct, and

we must not imitate Catullus, who frequently has an elision at the end
of the first penthemimer.

Obs. 2 The last word of the line should be an iambus, and either a
verb, a substantive, or pronoun ; it should not be preceded by an elision ;
and the word preceding it should not be a monosyllable. There are
448 METRE.

exceptions to these rules, but they are not to be imitated. For example,
a word of four or five syllables is more frequently found at the end than
a trisyllable, and a very emphatic adjective may terminate the penta-
meter.

Obs. 3 The first penthemimer seldom ends with an iambic word,

but when this is the case the first foot is generally a spondee, as in the
line
Pascebatque suas || ipse senator oves.
But there are not unfrequent exceptions to this ; thus we have in
the same narrative (Ovid, Fasti, II. 98—108) the following instances in
close succession :
At tibi nave tua || tutius aequor erat.
Reddidit icta suos || pollice chorda sonos.

Obs. 4 The first penthemimer more frequently begins with a dactyl

than a spondee, and a spondaic word at the beginning of the line is to be
avoided.
The two spondees in the example above are not to be imitated ; they
are required in the special case by the antithesis.

Obs. 5 The first penthemimer should not end in a monosyllable,

unless it is preceded by a word of one long or two short syllables ; as in
the lines
A pecoris lux est || ista notata metu.
Saepe tibi pater est || saepe legendus avus.

Obs. 6 The first penthemimer should not begin with a spondee

which has a real pause after it ; but this objection does not apply to the
case when the first word, though followed by a vocative or other paren-
thetical member, belongs in sense to the end of the line ; as
Vellem, Maeonide, || pectus inesse tuum.
Obs. 7 The final syllables of the penthemimers may rhyme ; as
Comat virgine as || hasta recurva comas .
But Leonine Verses are to be avoided, and perhaps the difference of
quantity prevented the perception of a true rhyme in Ovid's line
Querebant | flavos | per nemus omne | favos .

242 (c) Glyconic Verse. The dactyl and spondee, which

terminate the hexameter verse, appear as a separate dipodia, which
is called the Adonius, and always, as we shall see, terminates the
Sapphic stanza ; as
Térruit | ūrbēm || .

If the second dactyl is retained, and a basis prefixed, the line is

called a Glyconeus ; as
X
Sic tē || divă pō tēns Cypri||.
 METRE. 449

If the Adonius has a basis prefixed it is called a Pherecrateus ; as

X
Grātō || Pýrrhă sub | āntrō ||.

The Glyconic verse is used by Catullus with a Pherecrateus

after every third (34 [32]) or fifth line (61 [ 59]) .

243 (d) Choriambic Verse. The dactyl and long syllable,

which form the end of the pentameter, appear as a catalectic
dipodia by the side of complete pairs of feet. Thus , in the lesser
Asclepiadean verse, we have two dipodia with the basis prefixed,
the former dipodia appearing as a trihemimer or choriambus ; and in
the great Asclepiadean verse the complete dipodia is preceded by
two choriambi, or catalectic dimeters. Examples :
X
Mâecē | nás ătă | vis || éditě | rēgībūs || .
X
Tû në | quaesiĕ| rīs || scirě ně | fās || quém mìhĩ | quēm tìbì || .

The shorter Asclepiadean is used by itself, or alternately with

Glyconei (Hor. 1 Carm. III .) , or with a Glyconeus after every third
line (Hor. 4 Carm. XII . ) , or in couplets followed by a Pherecrateus
(245, Obs.) and Glyconeus (Hor. 1 Carm. v.) , between which hiatus
is not allowable.

244 There are other kinds of dactylic verse, which are less
common ; thus, we have the Tetrameter ; as

Aut Epheson bimă | risvě Că | rinthi || .

Mēnsō|rēm cõhi | bēnt Ār|chÿtā|| .

And the penthemimer occurs as a separate verse ;

Púlvis ět | úmbră să| mūs || .

B. Anapaestic Verse.

245 (a) Anapaestic Dimeter. The commonest anapæstic

system is the dimeter, which consists of successive pairs of feet,
the whole system being counted as one line until it is broken by a
basis, or by a catalectic dimeter, which is termed a paroemiac.
The dactyl and spondee may take the place of the anapæst, except
in the last foot of the dimeter, where the dactyl is not used by
Seneca . Example :
D. L. G. 29
450 METRE.

Unde ig|ni ' cluēt || mōrtá| lībŭ' clām||

Divilsus : čūm || dictu' Pro| mētheūs ||

Clepsi||sse dolō ||, põenās |qué Jõvi||

Fāto expendi ||sse suprē |mō|| .

Obs. The Pherecrateus was formed by omitting two morae at the

beginning of the parœmiac (see Theatre of the Greeks, Ed. VII. 170).

246 (b) Ionic a minore. If the thesis in the anapæstic dipodia

is represented by a single long syllable, it is usual to term this
metre Ionicus a minore, in contradistinction to a certain form of the
choriambic rhythm cum anacrusi, which was called the Ionicus a
majore. Four of these imperfect anapastic dipodiæ form a verse
in Horace ; thus,

Misĕrā|rum ēst || něc ămó | ri || dărě lú|dūm || nèqué dú|lci|| .

§ 3. Double Rhythms.

A. Trochaic Verse.

247 (a) Ithyphallic Metre. The trochee is a dactyl with

the last mora omitted. The simplest and oldest form of the trochaic
metre is the ithyphallicus, or tripudiatio, generally called the Satur-
nian verse, in which the ictus occurred thrice. This metre always
appears in two sets of three feet with an anacrusis . It was very
rude, and the substitutions for the trochee were extremely arbi-
trary, as the following examples will show :

Dà|būnt mă| lúm Mě| télli || Náeviſō põ|ētāe|| .

Fùn |dīt fù \gāt prō|stérnit || máxi |más légi|ōnēs|| .

Novém Jovis concordēs || fili¦ãe sõ | rōrēs|| .

248 (b) Hipponactean Verse. The trochaic metre is gene-

rally counted by pairs of feet, each having but one ictus, i.e. on
the first syllable. If a long syllable is added to a trochee, the
trihemimer which results is called dimeter catalectic, and is also

designated as a creticus ; as crédi|di | l . When the last syllable is

resolved, it is termed paeon primus , as divitibus ; if the first
syllable is resolved, it is called paeon quartus, as mārīti| mōs |]. The
 METRE. 451

paeon secundus, as ămābimus, and the paeon tertius, as stīmuļātūs,

correspond in the number of morae, but not in rhythm, to the true
cretic measure. The Greeks considered the Cretic and Paeonic
metres as constituting a special class of rhythms, which they desig-
nated as hemiolian, i.e. ' one and half,' because the ratio of the arsis
to the thesis was & : and the Cretic, and, by implication, the trochaic
dipodia, were reckoned as equivalent rhythmically to the dactyl,
because, at the end of a line, uu. The trochaic dipodia,
which plays an important part in metrical systems, is generally
regarded as = trochee + spondee by the Augustan poets . If the
ithyphallic is increased by a long syllable, the verse is called
dimeter catalectic ; as

Truditur diés difēll .

And if an ithyphallic, added to a trochaic dipodia cum anacrusi,

follows this dimeter, the metre is termed Hipponactean ; as

Non ĕbūr nè que aúrĕ| ūm||

Mè|á rè |nidět || în dõ|mō lă |cūnār ||.

249 (c) Tetrameter Catalectic. If the dimeter catalectic is

added to a complete dimeter, the verse becomes tetrameter catalectic,
-a form which was much used by the dramatists. A tribrach
may stand everywhere for the trochee, and in the even places a
spondee ; the older poets , who follow the colloquial pronunciation ,
put a spondee, a dactyl, or an anapæst in any place ; as

Émõ |ri nõ||lõ sed | éssẽ ||| mõrtŭ| ūm nīl || áesti | mō||| .

Égō quūm | génũi || tūm mōri| tūrūm ||| scīvī et | ei rei || sūstŭ| li |||-

Nām sāpīlēns virtute ho | nōrēm ||| praemijum haud prāt||dām

pětit|||.

Écquid | viděò ? || férrō | sēptūs ||| pōssì |dēt sē | dēs săcrās |||.

B. Iambic Verse.

250 The iambus always appears in dipodiae, the second mem

ber of which received the ictus. A tribrach may be substituted
29-2
 METRE.
452
for the iambus in any place of the longer verses , or a spondee in

the odd places .

251 (a) Dimeter Acatalectic . This verse consists of four
feet ; the first and third may be spondees ; the first a dactyl , and
the second a tribrach ; as in the following examples :

Inār|sit áes||tūō|siūs||.

Vēl hae |dūs ē|| rēptūs | lūpō||.

Imbrēs | nives||que cōm|părāt ||.

Fōrti | séquá|| mūr pēc| tòrē|| .

Vidē|rě propĕ||rāntēs | dõmūm|| .

Ast ĕgo | vicissim ri|sèrō||.

252 (b) Trimeter Acatalectic. This verse, which is also

called the Senarius, may consist of six iambi, which is the case in
Horace's XVIth Epode , and admits tribrachs any where but in the
last foot, spondees in the odd places, dactyls in the first and third,
and an anapæst in the first foot ; as

Suis | et ip||să Rō| mă vi||rībus rūít|| .

Alitibus át||que căni|bus homi|| cīdam Hēc| tōrēm||.

Cănidi| ă brevi||būs im|plīcā|| tă vi|pērīs|| .

Põsitōs |que vēr|| nās diftis éx||āmēn | dõműs ||.

Optāt | quie|| tēm Pelõ|pis in||fidi pătēr||.

If the last word in the line is a trisyllable , the fifth foot ought to
be an iambus or a tribrachys . The second of the above examples
is one of some twenty exceptions to the rule. There ought to be a
penthemimeral or hephthemimeral cæsura ; if possible , the former,
as in the above examples .
Obs. If trimeters follow a dactylic hexameter, or dimeters follow
trimeters, the poem is called an Epōdos. Horace has a book of such
poems.
253 (c) The Scazon. If the last foot of the senarius is a
The second,
spondee , the line is called a scazon , or ' halting line.'
fourth, and fifth feet must then be iambi ; as

Nic fonte laora protic || cabino || .

 METRE . 453

254 (d) Tetrameter Catalectic . If we add a catalectic metre

to the senarius, we have a tetrameter catalectic ; as
Sed in | diem is || tūc Pār | měno ēst || fōrtās |se quōd || minār |e||.
Ĕt în¦sõlēn|| tēr āes | tūās || vēlūt | minū|| tă māg|nō||.

§ 4. Asynartete Rhythms.
255 If rhythms of different kinds are put together, the verse
6
is called asynartete (dovváρтnтos) , or unconnected.' The most
common of these combinations are dactyls mixed with trochaic
dipodiæ ; and if the trochees follow the dactyls, the verse is termed
logaoedic.

256 (a) Sapphic Verse. The ordinary Sapphic stanza consists

of three asynartete lines followed by an Adonius (242) . The first
three lines are made up of a dactyl flanked by two trochaic dipodiæ,
in each of which the second foot is a spondee ; the metre therefore
stands thus :

20 | -- || 200 || - ~ | -- ||| (ter)

20012-11

Šām sā |tīs tēr ||rīs nivis || átque | dīrāe|||

Grándi |nis mi||sit pătĕr || ét ru |bēntē|||

Dexte |rā sā| crās jācū|| lātūs | ārcēs |||

Terruit | úrbēm
|||.

Obs. 1 We must always have either a strong cæsura after the fifth
syllable, as in the specimen just given, or at least a weak cæsura after
the sixth syllable, as in the line
Quem virum aut he rod lyra vel acri.
The former is much the most usual.
Obs. 2 The last word of the third line sometimes makes a false
cæsura with the Adonius, as in the following examples from Horace :
Labitur ripa Jove non probante u-
xorius amnis.
Thracio bacchante magis sub inter-
lunia vento.
Grosphe nec gemmis neque purpura ve-
nale nec auro.

Obs. 3 There may be an hypermeter at the end of a Sapphic

line ; as
Dissidens plebi numero beator-um
Eximit virtus.
454 METRE .

Obs . 4 The later poets, such as Seneca and Boethius, introduce the
Adonius after any number of Sapphic lines, or omit it altogether. For
example, in Seneca's Medea, 652-669, there are 17 Sapphic lines fol-
lowed by an Adonius ; and in the Hippolytus, 274-329, fifty-one Sap-
phic verses are followed at once by a system of Anapastic dimeters.

257 There is a longer form of the Sapphic line, in which the

first trochaic dipodia is followed by a choriambus, or incomplete
dactylic dimeter, which precedes the usual dactyl ; and there is also
a shorter form in which the first trochaic dipodia is omitted. The
two appear together in an ode of Horace ; thus,

Lýdia || dic per | ōmnēs|| ,

Té dēļōs ōrō Sÿbă|rīn || cúr pròpērļās ă | māndō|||.

258 If the dactyl in the former of these lines is preceded by

a basis and followed by an ithyphallicus instead of a dipodia, the
verse is called the Phalaecian hendecasyllable ; as

Passer || deliciae měļάe pŭfellae||| .

259 (b) Alcaic Verse. If we call the trochaic dipodia A, the

dactylic B, and the anacrusis x, the Alcaic stanza of four lines will
consist of two lines containing x + A + B, followed by x + 2A and
B + A; thus,
X A. B.

Vides ut | āltā || stet nivě | candidum||.

X A. B.

Sò|rāctě | nēc jām || sústíně |ánt õnŭs || .

X 2 A.

Sil|vae lă|bōrān |tēs gē | lūquè||.

B. A.
Flumină constitĕ|| rint ăcutō.

Obs. 1 There can be no cæsura between A and B in the first two

lines, unless there is an elision ; as

Quès | devi|ūm scōr||tum élicì|ét dómŏ||.

There are very few examples of such lines as
Hostile aratrum exercitus insolens.
Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico.
 METRE. 455

Obs. 2 The anacrusis is rarely a short syllable, but this occurs

sometimes, as in the first line above ; and there are only fifteen instances
in Horace in which a monosyllable terminates the trochaic dipodia ; and
then the anacrusis is also a monosyllabic word ; as in the line
Nil | Claúdi|aë nōn || përficient mănus||-
Still more rare is a monosyllable at the end of the dactylio di-
podia ; as
Ne | forte | crēdās || interi| tūra quae||.
But et with an elision preceding is not uncommon ; as
Fortuna saevo laeta negotio et.

Obs. 3 The anacrusis of the third line is most frequently a long

syllable ; but Horace has ten instances to the contrary.

Obs. 4 The third line does not begin with a word of four syllables
unless an elision follows ; as
Funalia et vectes et arcus.

Two dissyllables at the beginning of the third line must be avoided

altogether. And Horace has only the following instance of a mono-
syllable followed by a cretic :
Hunc Lesbio sacrare plectro.

Obs. 5 The third line must not end with a monosyllable, except
it be et or in with an elision ; nor with two dissyllables, or a word
of four syllables, though Horace has three instances of a quadrisyllable
and eight of two dissyllables in the first and second books of his Odes,
which are not so exact as the third and fourth books.

Obs. 6 As a general rule the trochaic dimeter contained in the

third line ought to have a penthemimeral cæsura. Hence the best
rhythm is three words of three syllables each, or equivalent substitu-
tions ; as
Descendě | Cōrvinojù|bēntè||.
Nār|rātúr | ēt prîs|ci Că|tōnis ||.
De missǎ tempēstās ǎb | Eūrō||.
ō | magna | Carthā|gó prò|brõsis||.
The following may also be imitated :

Dùmét mặt đếm giờ | sivam

Sil|vaē la|bōrān|tēs gè| luque||.
Pòr|tús A | lêxān |dréd | süpplēx|| .
Non erubescendis ad| ūrīt ||.

Dèļlévit | ūsūs | néc Fălērnă||.

456 METRE.

Obs. 7 A short syllable at the end of the first three lines, with
a vowel at the beginning of the following line, must be avoided, and
there are two instances in Horace of an hypermeter and ecthlipsis at the
end of the third line :

Sōrs | éxitūra ēt | nos in aëtērn'-um

Exsilium-

Cùm | páce | dēlā|bēntis Etrusc'-um

In mare.

Obs. 8 The fourth line should not have a diæresis after both the
dactyls, and we should generally avoid a weak cæsura in the second
dactyl, though we have such lines as the following in Horace :
O Thalilarche, merum diota.
Jupiter | ipse rulens tumultu.
Stesichorlique graves camoenas.
Quae caret ora cruļore nostro.

Occasional examples are found in which the last line is made up

of only two words ; as

Divitias operosiores.
Progeniem vitiosiorem.

But these will naturally be of rare occurrence. The best rhythms

for the last line consist of three words or their natural substitutes ; as in
the following :
Dedecorum pretiosus emptor.
Missilibus melior sagittis.
Hesperiae mala luctuosae.
Gaudia luminibus remotis.
Pocula praetereunte lympha.
Tempus Amazonia securi.

Or the resolved lines corresponding to these in rhythmical cadence ; as

De tenero meditatur ungui.

Ille dies Latio tenebris.
Dura fugae mala dura belli.
Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes.
Ducit opes animumque ferro.
Proelia conjugibus loquenda.

260 (c) Archilochian Verse. This is a dactylic tetrameter fol-

lowed by an ithyphallicus ; as

Solvitur | acris hiemps grā| tā vice || vēr| is | ét Fă | vōni||| .

 METRE. 457

261 (d) Elegiambus. This is composed of a dactylic penthe-

mimer and iambic dimeter ; as

Désinǎt | impări |būs || cērtā |re sub | mōtūs | pudor.

262 (e) Iambelegus. This is the reverse of the preceding, and

consists of an iambic dimeter followed by a dactylic penthe-
mimer ; as

Tū vi|nă Tõr|quātō | mòvé || cõnsulě | préssă měļā|| .

263 (f) Galliambicus. Catullus in his Attis introduces a

measure, which is called Galliambic from its use by the Galli, or
priests of Cybele, and from the practice of scanning it as an
iambic rhythm. It is really a sort of spurious trochaic metre,
made up of a trochaic dipodia preceded and followed by a paeon
tertius, and finished off by a cretic, or paeon quartus. As the
second and fourth elements are equivalent to the first and third
only in the assumed relation of the four pacons (248) , the verse
is really asynartete. It is scanned according to the following
scheme :
I. 2. 3.
Pæon tertius. Trochaic dipodia. Pæon tertius. Pæon quartus.
ú
| པཱ ཏྠུཾ ། ト
Super alta | vectus Attis | celeri raste maria
Dea magna | dea Cybelle | dea domina Dindymi
Itaque ut dolmum Cybelles | tetigere Пlassulae
Laevumque pecoris hostem | stimulans ita loquitur.

264 The Greeks, from whom the Romans derived most of

their metres, made great use also of the Antispastic rhythm,
~ - |- ~ ( Gr. Gr. art. 672 sqq.) , which is not used by the Latin
poets. They also counted by rhythms in the ratio , which they
called, epitrites ( TiTρITоi). These were the reverse of the paeon,
and contained three long syllables and one short ; according to
the place of the short syllable, the epitrite was called first, second ,
third or fourth. The fourth epitrite, -- ~, which was also
termed the antispast of seven times (ἀντισπαστικὴ ἑπτάσημος) , οι
monogenes (μovoyevns) , is alluded to by Cic. (de Orat. 1. 59. 251 ,
according to the excellent emendation of the Baron von Bunau) , as
a rhetorical rhythm .
458 METRE.

§ 5. Comic Metres .

265 The subject of the Latin Comic Metres cannot be dis-

cussed without inquiries into the colloquial pronunciation of the
language, which are beyond the scope of a practical work like the
present.
Besides this, it has not yet been determined by the eminent
scholars, who have paid special attention to the subject, how far
the accent of the spoken language was allowed to influence the
structure of dramatic verse, And it is certain that eventually
Latin verses were constructed with a substitution of accent for
quantity. In a practical grammar, therefore, it will be sufficient to
give a few specimens of the manner in which the Latin Come-
dians constructed the lines of most frequent occurrence in their
dialogues.
The most common metres in the Latin Comedies are the
(a) Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic or Senarius ; (b) the Iambic Tetra-
meter Catalectic, called also the Septenarius or Comicus quadratus ;
(c) the Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic, called also Octonarius or
Boiscius from its inventor Boiscus ; (d) the Trochaic Tetrameter
Catalectic, called , like the corresponding iambic verse, Septenarius
and quadratus; (e) the Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo-
narius ; and (f) the Bacchiac verse.

(a) Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic.

266 The following is an average specimen of the Iambic

Senarius, as employed by the Comedians (Ter. Andr . Iv. 1. 31) :

PA. Immo etiam, quó | tu minus scis aerumnas meás, |

Haec nuptiae | non adpard|bantur mihí : |
Nec postulabat nunc quisquam úxorem daré. [
CH. Scio: tu coáctus tua volúntate es. PA. mané. |
Nondum etiam scis. | CH. Scio equidem dúcturum esse té. |
PA. Cur me enicás ? | hoc audi. Númquam destitit |
Instare, ut dicerem me dúcturum patrí ; |
Suadere, ordre, usque adeo donec perpulít. [
CH. Quis homo istuc ? PA. Dávos. CH. Davos ? quamobrem ?
PA. Nesció: 1
Nisi [ni] mihi [ mi ] deos [ dyos] fuís se iratos, qui aús|culta-
verím . I
 METRE . 459

(b) Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic.

267 The following is a specimen of the Iambic Septenarius
(Ter. Hecyr. v. 2. 24) :
L. At haec amí|cae erunt, ubi quámob|rem adveneris | resciscent.
PH. At easdem amilcas fore tibi | promitto, rem úbi | cognorint:
Num illas errófre et te simúl | suspitióne exsolves.
B. Perii, pudét | Philumenaé : | vos sequimini intro huc ambae.
L. Quid'st mihi quod máɣlim quam quod hinc | intelligo é\venire?
Ut gratiam inelam sine meó | dispendio ét | mihi prosim.
Nam sist ut haec | nunc Pamphilúm | vere ab se segregarit,
Scit se nobilitatem ex eá | re nactam et glóriam esse:
Refert gratiam eiļi unaque nós | sibi opera amí|cos jungit.

(c) Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic.

268 The following is a specimen of the Iambic Octonarius
(Ter. Andr. 1. 3. 1) :
Enimvero, Dálve, nil locist | segnitiae neque | socordiáe, |
Quantum intellexi modo senís | sententiám | de nuptiis : |
Quae si non ás tu providén\ tur, me aut erúm | pessum dabúnt: |
Nec quid agăm cér |tumst: Pamphilúmne adjutem, an aús cultem
sení.
Si illum relínquo, ejus vitae tímeļo ; sin opítu| lor, hujus minás ; |
Cui verba dáre difficilest: primum jam de amore hoc comperit ; |
Me infensus sérvat, ne quam fáciam | in nuptiis | fallaciám, |
Si senserít, | perii, aut quam lúbitum fuerit caúlsam ceperit, |
Qua jure quá | me injuriá | praecipitem in pístrinum dabít. |

(d) Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic.

269 The following is a specimen of the Trochaic Septenarius
(Plautus, Captivi, v. 3. 1) :

PH. Hégio, assum | sí quid me vis impera. HE. Hic gnatúm

meum
Tuo patri ait se | véndidisse | séx minis in | ' Alide. |
PH. Quam diu id factum'st ? ST. Hic annus | incipit vicési-
mus.
PH. Fálso memorat. | ST. Aút ego, aut tu. | Nám tibi quad\-
rímulum |
Túus pater peculiarem | párvolum pue|ró dedit. |
PH. Quíd erat ei nomén ? Si vera | dicis, memora | dúm mihi.
460 METRE.

ST. Paégnium voci|tátu'st ; post vos | índidistis | Týndaro.

PH. Cúr ego te non | nóvi ? ST. Quia mos | ést oblivisci
hóminibus.

Néque novisse | cújus nihili | sít faciunda | grátia.

(e) Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic.

270 The following is a specimen of the Trochaic Octonarius

(Plautus, Bacchides, IV. 3. 1) :

Pétulans, protervlo, iracundo | ánimo, indomito, incógitato

Sine modo et modéstia sum, | síne bono jure átque honore,
'Incredibilis | imposque animi, | ínamabilis, inflépidus vivo,
Malevolente ingénio natus. | póstremo id mist | quód volo aliis.

(f) Bacchiac Verse.

271 The following is a specimen of the Bacchiac Verse, mixed
as it often is with Cretics (Plautus, Menaechmi, IV. 2. 1) :
Ut hóc ultimúr maxfumé more | móro | molésto que múltum : (Bac-
chiac) :
'Atque utí | quíque sunt | óptumi, | máxumi: | mórem habent |
húncce | (Cretic)
Clientis | sibi ómnes | volúnt es\se múltos ; | (Bacch. with Iambus) ;
Bonine an | malí sint, | id haúd quae ritánt: (Bacch. with Iambus) :
Rés magis quaéritur, | quám clientúm fides | quójusmodi |
clúeat. | (Cretic).
Si quis est | paúper atque haúd malus, | néquam habetur;
Sin malus | dives est, | ís cliens | frúgi Ihabetur. | 1}
(Cretics with Trochaic dipodia) .

§ 6. Accentual and rhyming Verses.

272 (a) The substitution of accent for quantity, which took
place in the middle of the third century, will be sufficiently exem-
plified by the following verses on the martyrdom of Marcellinus and
Petrus in the reign of Diocletian (Fleetwood , Syll. Inscr. Monum.
Christ. p. 449) :
Dúae quaedam réferuntur Rómae nataé féminae ;
' Una dicta ést Lucilla , Firmininaque áltera ;
Véram puris rétinentes Christi fidem córdibus.
Quaé propinqui tér beati Mártyris Tibúrtii,
'Ad illius ássidentes sacrosanctum túmulum ,
Déi gratas vigilando dúcebant excúbias.
 METRE. 461

Quibus ipse cúm beatis sémet comitantibus,

Márcellino átque Petro mánifeste rétulit
Pér soporem, úbi sacra jácuissent córpora
'Eorundem électorum, átque simul ádmonet,
'Ut euntes ábsque mora illa statim aúferant,
'Et in crypta súum prope cúrent corpus ponere.

In these imitations of the trochaic Septenarius it will be observed

that the ictus always corresponds to the accent (above, 3, (6)) ,
except in the word ducebant. An approximation to this kind of
versification is cited as early as the time of Julius Cæsar, whose
soldiers, according to Suetonius (Jul. Caesar, 51 ) , sang thus at his
triumph over the Gauls :
' Urbani serváte uxores moéchum calvum addúcimus.
Aúrum in Gallia effútuisti : at híc sumpsisti mútuum.
Here also the accent corresponds to the ictus except in the first
word.

273 (b) The tendency to homoeoteleuton or rhyme, which was

common enough in the oldest Latin verse (see Ennius , apud Cic.
Tusc. 1. 35, 44 ; de Offic. 1. 12 ; Anonym. ap. Cic. Tusc. 1. 28 ;
Orat. III . 38 ; Plaut. Capt. I. 1. 17 ; Cas. II . 7. 1 ; Cistell. II . 1 .
48 ; Mil. Glor. II. 1. 1 ) , and which the classical poets generally,
but not always, avoided, was allowed to prevail, when accent had
superseded quantity, and Christian poets in the middle ages used
this substitute for the resources of the old metrical system with no
inconsiderable success. The following stanzas from the celebrated

hymn de Novissimo judicio, by Thomas of Celano, a Minorite of the

13th century, furnish one of the most pleasing specimens :
Júdex ergo quúm sedebit
Quidquid latet, apparebit
Nil inultum rémanebit.
Quid sum miser túm dicturus?
Quém patronum rógaturus ?
Quúm vix justus sít securus ?
Occasional practice in writing these rhyming trochaics will con-
tribute to extend the student's command over the Latin language,
if he is careful to observe the classical usages of quantity and
metre, which are signally neglected in most of these sacred Latin
poems.
462 METRE.

§ 7. Poetic Style as connected with Metre.

274 Elaborate treatises have been written on the style, diction ,

and idiom of Latin poetry. The most important of these works is
Jani's (Artis Poeticae Latinae Libri IV. Hala, 1774), which has
also appeared in an English adaptation (Art of Latin Poetry. Cam-
bridge, 1828) . And the student, who wishes to pursue the subject,
may have recourse to one of these books. Most of the grammatical
forms peculiar to poetry, have been noticed in their proper places.
Here it will be sufficient to adduce a few particulars respecting
those forms and constructions, which are adopted to obviate some
difficulty of metre.

(a) Obsolete forms are sometimes used to help the scansion ; thus
we have genitives in a for ae ; imperf. in -ibam for -iebam, and even in
-ibo for -iam, and infinitives in -ier for i; olli for illi; and indu- for in-
in compounds, as induperator for imperator. These and other archaisms
are generally confined to epic verse.
(b) Syllables are contracted when the metre requires it ; thus we
have always for ii in dî for dii, and in the gen. sing. of substantives in
Virgil and Horace ; and um is written for either -orum or for -ium in
the gen. plur.; u is written for ui and 'e for ei, as in constantis juvenem
fide; parce metu; we have -asse, -assem, -esse, -essem for -avisse, -evisse,
-avissem, -evissem ; also -aro, -oro for -avero, -overo ; and in particular
words we have contractions of contiguous short syllables, as reice for
rejice, compostus for compositus, puertia for pueritia, and even when the
second syllable is long, as aspris for asperis (Virg. En. II, 379). On
the contrary, we have resolutions, as navita for nauta, silua for silva,
alituum for alitum.

(c) Prepositions are separated from their cases ; as argutos inter

strepere anser olores (Virg. Ecl. IX. 36) ; and prepositions and other se-
parable words are divided by what is called tmesis from the rest of the
compound, as inque salutatum linquo (Virg. Æn. Ix, 288) ; argento post
omnia ponas (Hor. 1 Serm. 1. 86) ; septem subjecta trioni (Virg. Georg. III.
381) ; quae me cunque vocant terræ (Virg. Æn. 1. 614).

(d) Græcisms are occasionally introduced ; thus the gen. is used as

an ablative (above, 153, Obs. 4), and the participle is used as an infin.
in an objective sentence, e. g. sensit medios delapsus in hostes, Virg.
En. II. 377 (cf. above, 177, Obs. 1) .
(e) The order of the words, in Latin as in other poetry, is often
affected by the exigencies of the metre, but a study of the best authors
will correct the natural tendency to take undue liberties in this respect.
 APPENDIX I.

CLASSIC AUTHORS.

THE best writers of Latin are called auctores classici, i. e. ' authors of
the first class,' a phrase derived from the comitia centuriata, which
divided the Roman people into classes according to their wealth (Aul.
Gel. XIX. 8). They are also subdivided, according to the old mytholo-
gical arrangement, into authors of the golden and silver age respectively.
The period during which the Latin language flourished in full perfection
was little more than three hundred years, that is, from about 200 B.C. to
about 100 A.D. The Christian era indicates the line of demarcation
between the golden and silver ages of Latinity.

A. Golden Age.

T. Maccius Plautus (254-184 B. C. ) ; b. at Sarsina in Umbria : 20

Comedies.
P. Terentius Afer (195-159 B.C. ) ; b. at Carthage : 6 Comedies.
M. Terentius Varro (116-28 B.C. ) ; b. at Rome : 3 books on Agriculture ;
6 books on the Latin Language.
M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.c. ) ; b. at Arpinum, in the Volscian terri-
tory : Rhetorical and Philosophical Works ; Orations ; Epistles.
C. Julius Cæsar (100-44 B.c.) ; b. at Rome : History.
T. Lucretius Carus (95-52 B.C.) ; b. at Rome : Philosophical Poetry.
C. Valerius Catullus (87-47 B.C. ) ; b. at Verona : Lyric and Elegiac
Poetry.
Cornelius Nepos ( -30 B.C.) ; b. at Verona : Lives of Cato and Atti-
cus. The other biographies ascribed to him were written by
Æmilius Probus in the reign of Theodosius.
C. Sallustius Crispus (86-34 B.C. ) ; b. at Amiternum, in the Sabine
territory : histories of the rebellion of Catiline and the war with
Jugurtha .
P. Virgilius (or rather Vergilius) Maro (70-19 B.C. ) ; b. at Andes near
Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul : 10 books of Bucolics, 4 of Georgics, and
12 of the Eneid.
Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B.C. ) ; b. at Venusia in Apulia : 4 books of
Odes, 1 book of Epodes, 2 of Satires, and 2 of Epistles in verse.
464 APPENDIX I.

Albius Tibullus (54-18 B.C.) ; b. at Pedum near Tibur in Latium : Ele-

giac Poetry.
Sex. Aurelius Propertius (51 ?-19 RC. ) ; b. in Umbria : Elegiac Poetry.
Titus Livius (59-19 B.C.) ; b. at Padua in Cisalpine Gaul : History.
P. Ovidius Naso (43 B. C. - 18 A.D. ) ; b. at Sulmo, in the territory of the
Peligni : Elegiac Poetry, and Mythology in verse.
M. Vitruvius Pollio (?) ; Architecture.
M. Manilius (also Manlius or Mallius) (?) : Astronomy in verse.

B. Silver Age.
T. Phædrus (?) : Fables.
M. Annæus Seneca, father of L. Seneca, and grandfather of Lucan (60
B.C. -30 A.D. ) : Rhetoric.
Velleius Paterculus (killed A.D. 31) : History.
L. Julius Moderatus Columella (?) : Agriculture.
A. Persius Flaccus (A.D. 38-65) : 6 Satires.
C. Silius Italicus (A.D. 25-100) : Epic Poetry.
L. Annæus Seneca (killed A.D. 65) : Philosophy.
M. Annæus Lucanus (A.D. 38-65) : Epic Poetry.
C. Plinius Secundus (A.D. 23-79) : Natural History.
Valerius Maximus (?) : Anecdotes.
C. Valerius Flaccus (ob. A.D. 88) : Epic Poetry.
Q. Curtius Rufus (?) : Life of Alexander the Great.
M. Fabius Quintilianus (ob. A.D. 88) : Rhetoric.
P. Papinius Statius (ob. A.D. 95) : Poetry of various kinds.
M. Valerius Martialis (?) : Epigrams.
D. Junius Juvenalis (about A.D. 95) : 16 Satires.
L. Annæus Florus (do. ) : History.
C. Cornelius Tacitus (cos. A.D. 97) : History, Biography, and Rhetoric .
C. Plinius Cæcilius Secundus, nephew of the older Pliny (about A.D. 95) :
Epistles and Oratory.
C. Suetonius Tranquillus (do. ) : Biographies.
Pomponius Mela (?) : Geography.
The nature of the ancient Roman language, before the classical
age, may be seen from the subjoined short specimens of old Latinity.

(a) Royal Laws.

Romulus; about 750 B.C.
Sei parentem puer verbesit, ast ole plorasit, puer diveis parentom
sacer estod.
(Si parentem puer verberarit, ast ille ploraverit, puer Divis paren-
tum sacer esto.)
 APPENDIX I. 465

Numa; about 700 B.C.

Sei qui hemonem læbesum dolo sciens mortei duit, pariceidas estod.
(Si quis hominem liberum dolo sciens morti det, parricida esto.)

(b) Tribunitian Law ; 493 B.C.

Sei qui aliuta faxit, ipsos Jovei sacer estod ; et sei qui im, quei eo
plebei scito sacer siet, ocisit, pariceidas ne estod.
(Si quis aliter fecerit, ipse Jovi sacer esto ; et si quis eum, qui eo
plebis scito sacer sit, occiderit, parricida ne sit. )

(c) XII. Tables ; 450 B.C.

Sei qui in jous vocatus nec it, antestamino ; igitur im capito ; si
calvitur pedemve struit, manum endo jacito.
(Si quis in jus vocatus non it, antestare ; inde eum capito ; si mora-
tur fugitve, manum injicito. )

(d) Tiburtine Inscription; about 320 B.C.

Nos animum nostrum non indoucebamus ita facta esse, propter ea
quod scibamus ea vos merito nostro facere non potuisse : neque vos
dignos esse quei ea faceretis, neque id vobeis neque rei poplicæ vestræ
oitile esse facere.
(Nos animum nostrum non inducebamus ita facta esse, propterea
quod sciebamus ea vos merito nostro facere non potuisse : neque vos
dignos esse qui ea faceretis, neque id vobis neque reipublicæ vestræ utile
esse facere.)

(e) Epitaph on L. Cornelius Scipio ; about 260 B.C.

L. Cornelio' L. F. Scipio. Aidiles. Cosol. Cesor.

Honc oíno' ploírumé conséntiúnt Románi
Duonóro' óptimo' | fúíse víro'
Lúciom Scípiónem. | Fíliós Barbáti
Cósol Cénsor Aidíles | híc fúet apúd vos.
Hec cépit Córsica' Alériá'que úrbe' .
Dédet témpestátebus | aídé' meréto.

(L. Cornelius L. F. Scipio Edilis, Consul, Censor.

Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romani
Bonorum optimum fuisse virum
L. Scipionem. Filius Barbati
Consul, Censor, Edilis hic fuit apud vos.
Hic cepit Corsicam, Aleriamque urbem.
Dedit tempestatibus ædem merito.)
D. L. G. 30
466 APPENDIX I.

(f) The Columna Rostratą ; about 260 B.C.

En eodem macistratod bene rem navebos marid consol primus ceset,
socios claseisque navales primus ornavet paravetque, cumque eis navebos
claseis Pœnicas omneis et maxsumas copias Cartaciniensis, præsented
sumod dictatored olorom, in altod marid pucnad vicet.
(In eodem magistratu bene rem navibus mari consul primus gessit,
socios classesque navales primus ornavit paravitque, cumque iis navibus
classes Punicas omnes et maximas copias Carthaginienses, præsente
summo Dictatore illorum, in alto mari pugnâ vicit. )

(g) Silian Law; 244 B.C.

Si quis magistratus adversus hac d. m. pondera modiosque vasaque
publica modica, majora minorave faxit jusseritve fieri, dolumve adduit
quo ea fiant, eum quis volet magistratus multare, dum minore parti
familias taxat, liceto.
(Si quis magistratus adversus hæc, dolo malo, pondera modiosque
vasaque publica modica, majora minorave fecerit jusseritve fieri, dolumve
addat, quo ea fiant, eum quicunque volet magistratus multare, dum
minore parte familiæ æstimet, liceto. )

(h) Livius Andronicus ; about 240 B.C.

Tum autem lascívom Nereí simum pecús
Ludens ad cántum classim lústrat naviúm.

(i) Cn. Naevius; about 230 B.C.

Mortáles ímmortáles-flére sí forét fas
Flerént divaé Caménæ-Næéviúm poétam.
Itaque póstquam ést Orcíno-tráditús thesauro
Oblíti súnt Románi - loquiér Latína língua.

(k) Q. Ennius; about 200 B.C.

Pellitur e medio sapientia, vei geritur res,
Spernitur orator bonus, horridu' miles amatur;
Haut docteis dicteis certanteis, sed male dicteis,
Miscent inter sese inimicitias agitanteis
Non ex joure manu' consertum, sed magi' ferro
Rem repetunt, regnumque petunt, vadunt solidâ vei.

(Tollitur e medio sapientia, vi geritur res,

Spernitur orator bonus, horridus miles amatur ;
Haud doctis dictis certantes, sed maledictis,
Miscent inter sese inimicitias agitanteis
Non ex jure manum consertum, sed magis ferro
Rem repetunt, regnumque petunt, vadunt solidâ vi.)
 APPENDIX I. 467

(1) M. Pacuvius ; about 190 B.C.

Jám profectióne læti píscium lascíviam
'
Intuentur, néc tuendi cápere satietás potest.
'Interea prope jam óccidente sóle inhorrescít mare,
Ténebræ conduplicántur, noctisque ét nimbum occæcát nigror,
Flámma inter nubés coruscat, caélum tonitru cóntremit,
Grándo mixta imbrí largifico súbita præcipitáns cadit,
'Undique omnes vénti erumpunt, sævi exsistunt túrbines.

(m) Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus ; 186 B.C.

Haice utei in coventionid exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum,
Senatuosque sententiam utei scienteis esetis, eorum sententia ita fuit.
Sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead fecisent, quam suprad scriptum est,
eeis rem caputalem faciendam censuere, atque utei hoce in tabolam
ahenam inceideretis.
(Hæc uti in contione edicatis, intra trinundinum, Senatus sententiam
uti scientes essetis, eorum sententia ita fuit. Si qui essent, qui adver-
sus ea fecissent, quam supra scriptum est, iis rem capitalem faciendam
censuerunt, atque uti hoc in tabulam æneam incideretis. )

(n) L. Attius; about 140 B.C.

Adde huc quod mihi portento cælestum patér

Prodigium mísit, regni stábilimen meí,
Agnum inter pécudes aureá clarum comá
Quondam Thyéstes clepere esse aúsum e regiá,
Qua in re adjutrícem conjugém cepit sibí.

(0) C. Lucilius ; about 120 B.C.

(1 ) Virtus, Albine, est pretium persolvere verum,

Queis in versamur, queis vivimu' rebu', potesse :
Virtus est homini, scire id, quod quæque habeat res ;
Virtus scire homini rectum, utile, quid sit honestum ;
Virtus, quærendæ rei finem scire modumque.
(2) O lapathe, ut jactare necessest, cognitu' cui sis!
In quo Læliu' clamores σopós ille solebat
Edere, compellans gumias ex ordine nostros !
O Publi ! O gurges Galloni ! es homo miser, inquit :
Cœnâsti in vitâ nunquam bene, quum omnia in istâ
Consumis squillâ atque acipensere cum decumano.
Læliu' præclare, et recte σopós, illaque vere.

30-2
 APPENDIX II.

ABBREVIATIONS .

(a) Praenomens.
A. Aulus. P. Publius.
C. or G. Caius or Gaius. Q. Quintus.
Cn. Cneius or Gnæus. SER. Servius.
D. Decimus. SEX. Sextus.
K. Kæso . SP. Spurius.
L. Lucius. T. Titus .
M. Marcus. TI. Tiberius.
M'. Manius .
Women's names are expressed by inverted characters ; as , Caia.

(b) Titles.
ED. CUR. Edilis Curulis.
Cos. Consul. -Coss. Consules v. Consulibus.
Cos. DES. Consul designatus.
D. Divus .
III VIRI A. A. A. F. F. Tresviri auro, argento, ære, flando, feriundo.
III VIR R.C. Triumvir reipublicæ constituendæ .
IMP. Imperator.
P.C. Patres, Conscripti.
P.M. Pontifex Maximus.
PRC. Proconsul.
S.P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Romanus.
TR. PL. Tribunus Plebis.
X.V. Decemvir.
XV.V.S.F. Quindecimviri sacris faciundis.

(c) Sepulcral.
F. C. Faciundum curavit.
H.C.E. Hic conditus est.
 APPENDIX II, 469

H.S. E. Hic situs est.

OB. Obiit.
P.C. Ponendum curavit.
V. Vixit.

(d) Miscellaneous.
A. Absolvo.- C. Condemno .
N. L. Non liquet.
A.P. Antiquam legem probo.
V.R. Uti rogas .
(These are the forms of voting on trials, laws and elections.)
A.U.C. Anno Urbis Conditæ.
D.D. Dono dedit.
DD. Dederunt.
D.D.D. Dat, dicat, dedicat.
D.M. Dis manibus.
D.O. M. Deo Optimo Maximo.
F. Filius.
F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortunatum .
L. Libertas.
M.P. Mille Passuum.
N. Nepos .
S. C. Senatus Consultum .
S. P.D. Salutem plurimam dicit.
S. T.E.Q.V.B. E. E. Q. V. Si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est,
ego quoque valeo.
TR. POT. Tribuniciâ Potestate.

(e) Modern Latin.

A.C. or A. D. Anno Christi or Anno Domini.
ante
a. C. n. p. C. n. Christum natum.
post
C. P. P.C. Collatis pecuniis ponendum curaverunt.
Cet. Cetera.
Cf. Confer or Conferatur.
Coll. Collato or Collatis.
Cod. Codd. Codex, Codices.
Del. Dele or Deleatur.
Ed. Edd. Editio, Editiones.
e.g. exempli gratiâ.
etc. or &c. Et cetera.
h. e. hoc est.
J.C. Jesus Christus.
470 APPENDIX II.

Ictus. Juris consultus .

ibid. ibidem.- id . idem.
i.e. id est.-i.q. idem quod.
L. or Lib. Liber.
L.B. Lectori benevolo .
1.c. loco citato .- 1.1. loco laudato.

leg. lege.
L.S. locus sigilli.
MSS. Manuscripti.
N.B. nota bene.
N.T. Novum Testamentum .
Obs. Observa.
P.S. Postscriptum.
SC. scilicet.
sq. and sqq. sequenti and sequentibus.
vid. vide.
viz. videlicet .
V. cel. Vir celeberrimus.
V. cl. Vir clarissimus .
V.D. M. Verbi divini Minister.
V.T. Vetus Testamentum.

(f) Academical or Scholastic.

A. B. or AA.B. Artium Baccalaureus.

A. M. or AA. M. Artium Magister.
D. Doctor.
J.U.D. Juris utriusque Doctor.
LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus .
LL.D. Legum Doctor.
M.B. Medicinæ Baccalaureus.
M.D. Medicinæ Doctor.
Mus. D. Musica Doctor.
S. T. B. Sanctæ Theologiæ Baccalaureus.
S. T.P. Sanctæ Theologiæ Professor ; which is the same as
S.T.D. Sanctæ Theologiæ Doctor.

Max. ma. mi. min. are affixed to the names of boys in Classical
Schools to denote maximus natu, major natu, &c.

The University titles require a few words of explanation. It was

always supposed that the University gave two kinds of Degrees or certi-
ficates of proficiency-in Arts and in the Faculties. The inferior or
 APPENDIX II. 471

preparatory degree in each department was that of Bachelor, bacca-

laureus, a barbarous title derived from the French bas Chevalier, which
primarily denoted a Knight Bachelor, one who sat at the same table
with the Bannerets, but, being of inferior rank, was mis arrière et plus
bas assis ; hence, it came to denote the unfinished apprentice, the un-
married man, and the demi-graduate. The complete degree in Arts was
that of Magister or ' Master ; ' in the Faculties, that of Doctor or
' Teacher;' two titles equivalent to one another, and to the common
designation of Professor or claimant of complete knowledge. The Arts,
which were supposed to require seven years' study, and which were
seven in number, are enumerated in the following lines :

Gram. [grammatica] loquitur ; Dia. [ dialectica] vera docet ; Rhet. [rheto-

rica] verba colorat ;
Mus. [musica] canit ; Ar. [arithmetica] numerat ; G. [geometria] pon-
derat ; As. [astronomia] colit astra.

The arts, enumerated in the first line, were called the Trivium;
those in the second the Quadrivium; it is remarkable, however, that the
first of the latter four, Music, is a kind of faculty, which has Bachelors
and Doctors of its own. The regular faculties are three : Divinity, Law,
and Medicine, the first and highest of which is supposed to include all
the arts.
 APPENDIX III.

GENERAL INFORMATION.

(a) Names of Persons.

THE Roman names of men were generally three, ( 1 ) the Praenomen

or designation of the individual, which was one of those mentioned
above, Appendix II. (a) ; ( 2) the Nomen or name of the gens or clan,
which properly was an adjective in -ius, as Cornelius, Tullius ; (3) the
Cognomen or name of the familia or branch of the clan, to which the
individual belonged, as Scipio, Cicero, and this was generally the charac-
teristic designation of the person, quality, or pursuits of some ancestor,
so that it corresponded to our surname. In common intercourse, the
nomen or gentile name was taken for granted, and C. Caesar would be a
sufficient designation of Gārus Jūlius Caesar. The Praenomen alone was
used in familiar addresses. And women were known by a feminine
form of the gentile name ; thus Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi,
was called by the gentile name of her father P. Scipio. Besides the
three regular names, two others are occasionally found, -the Agnomen
or surname of distinction, and the adoptive Agnomen, which referred to
the family left by the party adopted ; thus P. Cornelius Scipio was
called Africanus, from his conquest of Carthage, and the Emperor
Augustus, who was originally C. Octavius, when adopted by C. Julius
Caesar, was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, to which the Agnomen
of Augustus was subsequently added.

(b) Epistolary Forms.

A Latin epistle always begins with the address and greeting, and, if
it has a date, this is appended, together with any supplementary expres-
sions of friendship, at the end of the letter. Thus, Cic. ad div. IV. 12,
begins, Ser. Sulpicius M. Ciceroni S. D., and ends, Vale. D. pr. Kal.
Jun. Athenis, i. e. datum pridie Kalendas Junias : and sometimes the
year is added, as (ad Attic. 1. 18) : Vale. XI. Kal. Febr. Q. Metello, L.
Afranio coss. Common endings are, cura ut valeas ; and, me velim, ut
facis, diligas; and the like.
Obs. In epistolary style the imperfect and pluperfect are used for
the present and perfect, because a reference is presumed to the time
when the letter would be received. Thus, Nihil habebam quod scri-
berem. Neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad tuas omnes rescrip-
seram pridie (Cic. ad Att. 1x . 10, init. ).
 APPENDIX III. 473

(c) The Seven Hills of Rome, the Tribes, and the Kings.

(1) The three hills nearest to the river, and the four more inland,
will be remembered by the following lines, which enumerate the two
sets of hills by their directions up the river :

Collis Aventini, dein celsa Palatia fulgent,

Transque Forum surgit Capitoli immobile saxum ;
Caelius, Esquiliae, dictusque a Vimine collis,
Ultimaque ad Campum tendunt juga longa Quirini.
(2) The three original tribes, the Tities or Sabines, who occupied
the Quirinalis and Capitolium, the Ramnes or Romans, who were
settled on the Palatinus, and the Luceres or Latins, who held the
Caelius, may be remembered by a line of Propertius :
Hinc Tities, Ramnesque viri, Luceresque coloni .
(3) The seven kings of Rome were
Romulus ante omnes : post hunc Numa, Tullus et Ancus;
Tarquinius Priscus, dein Servius atque Superbus.

(d) Mythology.
(1 ) The twelve principal gods were, according to Ennius,
Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Juno, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercurius, Jovi', Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
(2) The nine Pierides or Muses were
Calliope, Urania, Euterpe, Polyhymnia, Clio,
Terpsichore, atque Erato, cum Melpomeneque Thalia.
(3) Thalia was also counted one of the Graces ; the other two being
Aglaia and Euphrosýně.
(4) The three Parcae or Fates were Clōthō, ' who spins the thread
of life,' Lachesis, who rules our lot,' and Atropos, the unchanging
destiny.' The Etruscans substituted Nursia = ne-vertia, the unturn-
ing,' for the last of the three, and considered her as the goddess of
Fortune.
Net Clotho, Lachesis sortitur, et Atropos occat.
(5) The six rivers of Tartarus were
Styx, Acheron, Lethe, Phlegethon, Cocytus, Avernus.

(e) The Roman Winds.

North, Aquilo or Boreas; North-East, Caecias ; East, Eurus or
Subsolanus; South- East, Vulturnus ; South, Auster or Notus ; South-
West, Africus or Libs (Libis) ; West, Favonius or Zephyrus; North-
West, Corus (or Caurus), Argestes, and, in Gallia Narbonensis, Circius.
474 APPENDIX III.

The general directions of the winds are given in the following

memorial lines :
Asper ab axe ruit Boreas, furit Eurus ab ortu.
Auster amat medium solem, Zephyrusque cadentem.
Flant Subsolanus, Vulturnus, et Eurus ab ortu.
Circius occasum Zephyrusque Favonius adflant.
E solis medio surgunt Notus, Africus, Auster;
Conveniunt Aquilo, Boreas et Caurus ab ursa.

(f) Days ofthe Week.

The seven days of the week were called from the planet which
ruled the first hour of each ; the Latin names are preserved in French :

1. Sunday, Dies Solis, also Dies Dominicus, or the ' Lord's day'
(Dimanche).
2. Monday, Dies Lunae (Lundi).
3. Tuesday, Dies Martis (Mardi).
4. Wednesday, Dies Mercurii (Mercredi).
5. Thursday, Dies Jovis (Jeudi).
6. Friday , Dies Veneris (Vendredi).
7. Saturday, Dies Saturni or Dies Sabbati (Samedi).

(g) The twelve Signs ofthe Zodiac.

Sunt Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,
Libraque, Scorpius, Arcitenens, Caper, Amphora, Pisces.

(h) The four Seasons ofthe Year.

Ver, Estas, Auctumnus, Hiemps dominantur in anno.
Estas a Geminis, Auctumnus Virgine surgit ;
Bruma Sagittifero, Ver Piscibus incipit esse.

(i) Names of Relationship and Affinity.

Agnati patris, cognati matris habentur.
Dic patruos patris fratres, amitasque sorores ;
Frater avunculus est, soror est matertera matris.
Quos generant fratres natos, dices patrueles;
Sed consobrinos dic, quos peperere sorores .
Quos soror et frater gignunt, dices amitinos.
Vir natæ gener est, nurus est pro conjuge nati.
Uxoris genitor socer est, socrusque genitrix.
Vitricus haud verus pater est, materque noverca.
Ipse viri frater levir, sed fratria fratris
Uxor ; glos uxor fratris, soror atque mariti.
 APPENDIX IV.

DISTINCTIONS OF WORDS IN MEMORIAL VERSES .

(a) Differences ofQuantity.

1. Sternitur arbor acer, fueris si viribus ācer.

' The maple tree is cut down, if you shall have been vigorous in
strength. '

2. Anus pars hominis, sed femina fit ănus annis.

' The ānus is a part of a man, but a woman becomes ănus, " old,"
by years.'

3. Mel vaga condit apis; deus est Egyptius Apis.

' The roving bee stores honey ; Apis is an Egyptian god.'
4. Est håra porcorum brevis, at non āra deorum.
' The hăra or stye of pigs has short a; not so the ara or altar of
gods .'
5. Dum sinet hora cănes; effeto corpore cānes;
Grandaevique cănis candescunt tergora cānis.
'While time permits, you will sing; your body being exhausted you
are grey; and the skin of the aged dog is white with grey hairs.'

6. Silva vetus cecidit, ferro quam nemo cecidit.

' An old woodfell, which no one felled with an axe.'
7. Fert ancilla colum, penetrat res humida colum.
A maid-servant carries a distaff, liquid matter penetrates a strainer.'
8. Cōmas virgineas, hasta recurva, còmas.
'Mayest thou, O bent spear, part (i. e. put in order) the virgin's hair'
(referring to the hasta caelibāris. Ovid, Fasti, 11. 560). Como is con-
tracted from co-emo (90, ( 1 ) , p . 117).
476 APPENDIX IV.

9. Si vis esse comes mihi, mores indue comes.

' If you would be a companion to me, put on affable manners.'

10. Lucrandi cupido damno est sua saepe cupido.

'His own desire is often detrimental to one desirous of gain. '

11. Oblitus decoris violat praecepta decōris.

He who is forgetful of honour violates the laws of beauty.'

12. Děděre cor divis par est qui tanta dědere.

'It is right to give up our heart to the gods who have given us so much. '

13. Carmina dicantur, Domino dum templa dicantur.

'Let poems be recited, while temples are dedicated to the Lord. '

14. Solvere diffidit, nodum qui diffidit ense.

'He has no confidence in untying the knot, who has cut it with his
sword.'

15. Sanus ědit carnem ; carmen doctissimus ēdit.

' A healthy man eats meat ; a most learned man gives out, i. e. pub-
lishes, a poem.'
16. Educat hic catulos, ut eos educat in apros.
' This man trains whelps, that he may lead them out against wild
boars.'

17. Si tibi non est aes, és inops, et pinguia non ēs.

'If you have not money, you are poor, and do not eat dainties.'

18. Nos precor excūsā, male sit si excusă moneta.

' Prithee excuse us, if the money is badly coined.
19. Fabula sermonis, făbăla est faba parvula dicta.
' A fable belongs to language, but a little bean is called făbula.'
20. Fidě sed ante vidē; qui fidit, nec bene vidit,
Fallitur. Ergo vidē, ne capiare fide.
' Trust, but look first ; he who trusts and has not well considered, is
deceived. Therefore consider, lest you be inveigled by confidence.'
21. Fallit saepe frětum placido nimis aequore frētum.
' The sea often deceives one who relies too much on its smooth surface.'

22. Fugere hi; fugère est melius, ne fuste fugere.

' These have run away; it is better to run away, lest you be driven
away with a stick .'
 APPENDIX IV . 477

23 .
Per quod quis peccat, per idem mox plectitur idem.
' By what a man sins, by the same thing the same man is soon
punished' (above, p. 438).
24, Difficilis labor est, cujus sub pondere labor.
' It is a difficult labour, under the weight of which I am sinking.'
25. Laevus erit, cui dextra manus non praebeat usum ;
Levis adhuc puer est; levis autem lingua puellae.
' A man is left-handed, if his right hand is unserviceable ; the boy is
still smooth; but the tongue of the girl is light.'
26. Ut lepores canibus, sunt omnia capta lepōre.
' As hares are caught by dogs, so all things are captivated by beauty.'
(See Lucret. 1. 14, v. 1258.)
27. Tange lyram digitis, dum liram vomere duco.
' Touch the lyre with your fingers, while I draw a furrow with the
plough. '
28. Cernis triste mălum, fractum jam turbine mālum ?
Mala măli mālo meruit măla maxima mundo.
Mālo ego māla meâ bona quam måla frangere mālā.
' Do you see this sad disaster, -the mast (mālus) already broken by
the whirlwind ?'

' The jaw-bone of a bad man with an apple (mālum) earned the greatest
evils for the world.'

' I would rather break with my jaw good apples than bad.'
29. Māně domi, mi Fusce, mănē, visure sodales.
' Remain at home in the morning, my dear Fuscus, being about to see
friends.'

30. Matrona augusta est mulier, sed Matrona flumen.

'A Matron is a dignified lady, but the Marne is a river.'
31 . Es praeclarus homo, měsĕris si mīsĕris aurum.
' You are a noble man, if you shall have sent gold to the poor.'

32. Nitěre, parve puer, cupies quicunque nitère.

Strive, little boy, whoever you are that desire to shine.'
33. Sit nota nōta : nõtus ventus, sed nõtus amicus.
' Let the mark be known ; the south is a wind, but a friend is known.'
34. Oblita quae fuco rubet, est oblita decoris.
'She who is red from being daubed with paint is forgetful of beauty.'
478 APPENDIX IV.

35. Occidit latro, verum sol occidit almus.

' The robber murders, but the balmy sun sets.'
36. Oppěrior Fabium, qui longo operitur amictu.
'I am waiting for Fabius, who is clad in a long robe.'

37. Os (ōris) mandat, sed os (ossis) manditur ōre.

'The mouth commands, but a bone is eaten with the mouth.'

38. Quaeque palus stagnat; fixus stat palus acutus.

" Every marsh is stagnant ; the sharp stake stands firm.'

39. Uxoris părere et pārēre, părāre mariti est.

'It is the part of the wife to bear children and obey; of the husband to
provide.'
40. Gaudet uterque părens, si filius est bene pārens.
'Both parents rejoice, if the boy is properly obedient.'
41. Pendere vult justus, sed non pendere malignus.
' The honest man wishes to pay, but the scoundrel wishes not to be
hanged.'
42. Perfidus absque fide est ; contra est perfidus amicus.
"The perfidious is without faith ; on the contrary the friend is thoroughly
trusty.'
43. Lude pilă: pīlum torquetur : pila columna est.
Play at ball : the javelin is hurled : the pillar is a column.'
44. Pro reti et regione plaga est, pro verbere plāga.
' Plaga means a net or a region : plāga is a blow.'

45. Sunt cives urbis populus, est põpulus arbor.

'The inhabitants of a city are a people : the poplar is a tree.'
46. Si vitare potes, ne plurima pocula pōtes.
' If you can avoid it, drink not very many cups.'
47. Haud mihi profecta est bene res ex urbe profecto.
'The business did not turn out well for me having departed from the
city.'
48. Quae probus ille refert, nostrâ cognoscere refert.
' It is for our interest to know what that good man is telling us.'
49. Decretum relegat, qui sontem ex urbe relegat.
'Let him, who is banishing the guilty from the city, read again his
decree.'
 APPENDIX IV. 479

50. Si qua sēdě sēdēs, atque est tibi commoda sēdes,

Illa sēdě sēdē, nec sīdě ubi sīdere non est.
' If you are sitting on any seat, and your seat is convenient, remain
sitting on that seat, and do not settle, where it is not possible to
settle.'
51. Est in veste sinus, sīnus vas lactis habetur.
' The bosom -
folds are in the dress ; the sīnus is a bowl of milk.'
52. Tam cito suffocat laqueus, quam suffocat ignis.
' The halter strangles as quickly as the fire suffocates.'
53. Tribula grana terunt; tribuli nascuntur in agris.

"Threshing machines bruise grain ; caltrops grow in the fields.'

54. Ne sit uti censes ; opus est melioribus ūti.
'Let it not be as you determine ; it is necessary to use better plans .'
55. Si transire vělis maris undas, utere vēlis.
' If you wish to cross the waves of the sea, make use of sails.'
56. Merx nummis vēnit ; věnit huc aliunde profectus.
' Merchandise is sold for money ; he comes hither, having started from
some other place.'
57. Vēnimus hesternâ, ast hodiernâ luce věnīmus.
'We came yesterday, but we are coming to-day.'
58. Nil prosunt vires, ni probitate vires.
'Strength is of no avail, unless you are strong in honesty.'

(b) Differences of Form, Construction, or Gender.

59. Cantat acanthis avis, sed floret acanthus in agris.

The goldfinch is a bird which sings ; but the acanthus blooms in the
fields.'

60. Qui fert arma humeris, armo dux fertur equino.

' The general, who carries arms on his shoulders, is carried on the
horse's back.'

61. Vexat asilus equos ; miseros excepit asylum.

The gad-fly torments horses ; the sanctuary is wont to receive the
wretched.'

62. Qui sculpit caelat ; qui servat condita celat.

'He who engraves, carves ; he who keeps secrets, conceals.'
480 APPENDIX IV.

63. Haec cassis galea est; hi casses retia signant.

This cassis (f) is a helmet ; these casses (m.) mean nets.'
64. Cedo facit cessi ; cecidi, cădo ; caedo, cecidi.
(
Cedo, I yield, makes cessi ; cădo, I fall, cecidi; caedo, I cut, cecidi.'

65. Clava ferit, clavus firmat, clavis que recludit.

'The club strikes, the nail fastens, and the key opens. '

66. Consule doctores, si tu tibi consulis ipsi.

'Consult your teachers, if you provide for your interests.' This is only
a difference of construction (above, p. 308).

67. Fuste dělat furem, doluit qui dōlia perdens.

He beats the thief with a stick, who grieved at losing his wine-jars.'

68. Haec ficus (ficús vel fici) est fructus et arbor ;

Hic ficus (fici) malus est in corpore morbus.
' This fig (f) is a fruit and a tree ; this ficus (m. ) or tumour is a bad
disease in the body.'

69. Frontem dic capitis, frondem dic arboris esse.

' Say that frons, frontis, "a brow," belongs to the head ; but frons,
frondis, "a bough," to a tree.'

70. Non licet asse mihi, qui me non asse licetur.

' He is not valued by me at a penny, who does not value me at a
penny.'

71. Merx venit; mercesque venit, quaesita labore.

'Merchandise is sold; and wages come being gained by labour.'

72. Prunus habet prunum, prunam ignis, et arva pruinam.

"The plum-tree has the plum, the fire a hot-coal, and the fields the hoar-
frost.'

73. Spondet vas (vădis), at vas (vāsis) continet escam.

' The surety (m.) promises, but the vessel (n.) contains food.'

(c) Synonyms, or different Words with similar Meanings.

74. Est cutis in carne, est detracta e corpore pellis.

' Cutis is the skin attached to the flesh, pellis is the hide stript off the
body.'
 APPENDIX IV. 481

75. Sanguis inest venis, cruor est e corpore fusus.

' Blood is in the veins ; gore is shed from the body.' This distinction
is clearly seen in the following passage of Tacitus, Ann. XII. 47 : mox
ubi sanguis in artus extremos suffuderit, levi ictu cruorem eli-
ciunt atque invicem lambunt.
76. Armus brutorum est, humerus ratione fruentum;
Tergum est amborum ; belua tergus habet.
' The armus is the shoulder of brutes, the humerus, that of rational
beings the tergum is the hinder part of anything ; a beast has
tergus (tergõris), a hide.' The first statement is proved by Ovid,
Metam. x. 699, where it is said of Hippomenes turned into a lion,
ex humeris armi fiunt. But the distinction is not always observed.
In the case of a horse, the armi were not only the withers, but the
flanks (Virg. En. vi. 882. Hor. 1 Sat. vI. 106) . Tergum is only
the hinder part, or the part turned away ; whence such phrases as
terga vertere, dare, ' to turn one's back to the enemy, to run away;'
and a tergo, post tergum, ' behind.' The back, considered as part
of the body, is dorsum.
77. Ungula conculcat ; lacerat, tenet, arripit unguis.
The hoof tramples ; the nail, claw, or talon tears, holds, seizes .'
78. Pistor habet furnum, fornace hypocausta calescunt.
' The baker has an oven, the stove-rooms of baths are warmed by
furnaces.'
79. Fructus arboribus, fruges nascuntur in agris.
Fruits grow on trees, corn in the fields.' This is only true offructus
as opposed to fruges, for both of them may be used as general
designations of produce- id quo fruimur.
80. Ales hirundo canit ; nat hirudo ; vernat arundo.
<
The swallow is a bird which twitters ; the leech swims ; the reed grows
green.'
81.
Alga venit pelago, sed nascitur ulva palude.
' The sea-weed comes from the sea, but the sedge grows in the marsh.'
82. Prora prior, puppis pars ultima, at ima carīna.
' The prow is the front part of a ship, the stern the hind part, and the
keel the lowest part .'

83. Cominus ense feris, jactâ cadis ēminus hastā.

'You strike close at hand (cum manu) with a sword ; you fall by a spear
thrown from a distance (e manu).'
D. L. G. 31
482 APPENDIX IV.

84. Forfice sartores; tonsores forpice gaudent;

At faber ignitum forcipe prendit opus.
' Tailors delight in scissors, barbers in curling-irons; but the smith
takes the ignited iron with a pair oftongs.'
85.
Vallamus proprie castrum, sepimus ovile.
"We properly intrench a camp, but hedge-in a sheep-fold.'
86. Consortes fortuna eadem; socios labor idem;
Sed caros faciunt schola, ludus, mensa sodales.
' The same fortune makes partners ; the same toil, comrades ; but the
school, the game, the table, make dear associates.'
87. Vir comis multos comites sibi jungit eundo;
Unum collegas efficit officium.
' A courteous man joins to himself many companions (comes from cum
eo) in his journey; a common occupation makes colleagues.'
88. Dele quod scriptum est, sedflammam exstingue lucernae.
' Blot out what is written, but quench the flame of the lamp.'
89 . Quod non est simulo, dissimuloque quod est.
' I feign what is not, and conceal falsely what is.'
90. Vas caput, at nummos tantum praes praestat amicè.
' A bail kindly makes good the person, but a surety money only.' The
word vas is included in praes, as is proved bythe old form praevides
for praedes (Varron. p. 146). The distinction between these words
may also be recollected by the lines of Ausonius (Idyll. XII. 100) :
Quis subit in poenam capitali judicio ? Vas,
Quod si lis fuerit nummaria, quis dabitur ? Praes.
If we do not speak of a surety in a strictly legal sense, we use the
general term sponsor, e. g. Cic. ad div. vI. 18.
91. Hasta teres dici, sphaera rotunda potest.

A spear may be called rounded, but a sphere round.' The proper

meaning of rotundus is ' circular,' like a wheel (rota), and thus it is
opposed to quadratus, in Hor. 1 Epist. 1. 100 : mutat quadrata
rotundis. But it is constantly used to denote that which is globu-
lar or spherical, as in Cic. Somn. Scip. 3 : stellae globosae et rotun-
dae. The proper meaning of teres is ' cylindrical,' i. e. prolonged
rotundity (ter-it, ' going rounded') . Hence it is properly applied to
the trunk of a tree (Virg. Æn. vI. 207 ; Ecl. VIII. 16), or to a
rounded stick, such as a spear-shaft (Liv. XXI. 8. Virg. Æn. VII.
65), a wand (Ovid, Met. II. 735) , or a spindle (Ovid, Met. vI. 22).
 APPENDIX IV . 483

It is also applied in its proper sense to cords, which are approxi-

mate cylinders (teres strophium, Catull. LXIII. 65 ; teres zona, Ovid,
Fast. II. 320 ; teres habena fundae, Virg. Æn. XI. 579 ; teretes
laquei, Sen. Hippol. 45 ; teretes plagae, Hor. 1 Carm. 1. 28). With
less precision teres is applied to the long tapering neck (Virg. Æn.
VIII. 633), or the slender well-turned leg (Hor. 2 Carm. IV. fin.) .
From the idea of elongation implied in the word teres is used to
denote a smaller as opposed to a larger circle or opening. Hence
as the phrase os rotundum (Hor. Ars poet. 323) is applied to the
large round opening in the Greek tragic mask, which is also called
hiatus (Juv. III. 175 , cf. Pers. v. 3 : fabula seu maesto ponatur
hianda tragoedo), Persius calls the man who cultivated a refined
and unpretending style, ore teres modico (v. 15). We have the
same reference to the smalleropening in Cicero's phrase : Attico-
rum aures teretes, ' the delicately susceptible ears of the Athenians'
(Orat. 9), and in his opposition of teres to plenus in speaking of
style (de Orat. III. 52, § 199). When teres is applied to a sphere,
along with rotundus (Hor. 2 Serm. VII. 86 : in se ipso totus, teres
atque rotundus, externi ne quid valeat per leve morari. Cf. Auson.
Idyll. XVI. 4), it seems to imply smoothness as an attribute of com-
plete and polished roundness .

92. Lingua cibum gustat, qui bene cunque sapit.

' The tongue tastes any food, which has a good savour.'

93. Sunt aetate senes, veteres vixere priores.

' Men are old in age ; the ancients lived before us. Senex properly
denotes a man of advanced longevity, who, however, is still living ;
and vetus refers to the length of time during which a person or thing
has lasted. There is nothing therefore to hinder the application
of vetus to senex, and we find such passages as Tibull. 1. 8. 50 :
In veteres esto dura puella senes.
Ter. Eun. IV. 4. 21 : Hic est vetus, vietus, veternosus senex. But
although vetus may be applied to senex, it is only in later writers
that we have senex in that sense of vetus, in which it denotes a
lapse of time not limited to the life of a single man, and the stu-
dent must remark as special exceptions the passage in Persius, in
which Aristophanes is designated as praegrandis senex (1. 124),
because he was the most illustrious representative of the old
Comedy (comoedia prisca, Hor. 1 Serm. IV. 2 ; comoedia vetus, Id .
Ars poet. 281 ), and the use of senium by Statius (Silv. 1. 3. 38,
venerabile locorum senium) to denote antiquity in general. With a
31-2
484 APPENDIX IV.

6
genitive vetus may signify experienced' (gnarus), as in Silius, IV.
33) gnaros belli veteresque laborum (cf. Tac. Ann. VI. 44) ; and
though antiquus is a stronger word in reference to time which has
long ago passed away (e. g. Cic. Phil . v. 17) , we very often find
vetus and antiquus side by side in writers of the silver age as
nearly synonymous words (see Juv. vi. 21 ; xv. 53. Tac. Dial. 15.
Plin. Ep. III. 6 ; Paneg. XI. 4).
94. Ne sit securus, qui non est tutus ab hoste.
' Let him not be secure (i. e. free from care ; se-curus = sine curâ), who
is not safe from the enemy.'
95.
Tarquinius Patribus Conscriptos addere jussit.
' Tarquin directed the addition of Conscripti or Plebeian knights to the
Patres or Patricians,' i. e. the heads of the original burgesses of
Rome. Accordingly the address Patres, Conscripti, must be ren-
6
dered not, Conscript Fathers,' but, Fathers and Conscripts,' or
' Patricians and elected Senators : the et being omitted as in
Populus Romanus, Quirites, Burgesses of Ramnian and Sabine
origin;' and such phrases as sarta, tecta, sound in wall and roof,'
&c. (above, 112, Obs. 1).
96. Poplicolam populus non plebs agrestis amabat.
' Poplicola was a favourite with the populus or old burgesses of Rome,
and not with the plebs or citizens of inferior franchise, who were
imported from the country' (Niebuhr, 1. p. 530, n. 1172).
97. Deliciae procerum, procēro corpore, Kaeso
Militiae atque domi clarus et amplus erat.
Kæso, the delight of the nobles, a man of tall stature, was illustrious
and distinguished both in foreign service and at home. ' The oldest
names of the patricians or patres seem to have been celěres or
' horsemen' (ióßoτai), and procères or ' wooers. ' The latter word,
formed, like celeres, from the original designation proci patricii,
' patrician suiters' (Fest. p. 249 , ed. Müller), denotes that they had
the right of intermarriage (jus connubii), which was denied to all
but peers of the original burgesses. Procerus comes from procello,
as obs-cūrus from oc-culo, and denotes remarkable growth. Clarus
and amplus are the most usual terms for personal distinction in
the old Roman state : the former, which is connected with the same
root as κλé-os, kλów, in-clytus, gloria (compare such phrases as
clare dixit, he spoke aloud,' Hor. 1 Epist. XVI. 59), signifies ' much
spoken about ; ' and vir clarissimus amounts to our phrase ' most
illustrious ;' amplus from amb- (above, 111 ), as circulus from circum,
 APPENDIX IV. 485

denotes size or circumference- that which fills the eyes-but is used

as all but a synonym for clarus ; thus we have such phrases as
maximâ cum gratiâ et gloriâ ad summam amplitudinem pervenit (Cic.
Brut. 81 , 281 ) ; is mihi videtur amplissimus, qui suâ virtute in
altiorem locum pervenit (Cic. Rosc. Am. 30) ; majestas est amplitudo ac
dignitas civitatis (Cic. de Orat. II. 39, 164) ; auctoritas et amplitudo
hominum (Cic. Rosc. Am. 1 ) ; domus clari hominis is described as
ampla domus (Cic. de Offic. 1. 39, 139) ; and amplus and gloriosus are
used as parallel predicates (Liv. XXVIII. 42). On the use of amplus
as a synonym of magnus, see below, 111 .
98. Activè perdo, passivè amittere possum.
Although both perdo and amitto signify ' I lose, ' the former may also
mean ' I destroy.' According to the etymology, a- mitto is ' I send
away,' I part with ;' but per-do is 'I cause to go through and out
of,' in which sense it is the active of per-eo, ' I go through and out
of,' just as inter-
ficio and inter-imo, I make or take from the midst
of,' are opposed to inter-eo, ' I go from between or away.'
99. Ultro polliceor, promitto saepe rogatus.
Polliceor isI make a free offer,' generally of good things ; promitto, 'I
promise what may be asked or expected from me,' whether good or
evil.

100. Quid, nisi mens infensa, infestam torqueat hastam ?

'What except an angry mind could hurl the hostile spear ?' These
words are constantly confused by modern Latinists. If we compare
in-fensus with offensus, from ob-fendo, we shall see that the former
is connected with in-fendo, and implies an unfriendly or angry dis-
position of the mind ; so that it corresponds to inimicus, iratus.
If, on the other hand, we compare in-festus with mani - festus and
fest-ino, we shall see that it comes from in-fero, and implies some
outward opposition and attack ; so that it is a synonym of adversus,
hostilis. This will be seen in a passage of Livy, where the two
words occur together (II. 6) : concitat calcaribus equum atque in
ipsum INFESTUS consulem dirigit... Adeoque INFENSIS animis concur-
rerunt, ut...duabus haerentes hastis moribundi ex equis lapsi sint,
'he spurs his horse and urges him straight against (full tilt against)
the consul himself ; and they met with such angry minds that they
fell dying from their horses, sticking to the two spears fixed in
them.'
101. Collige mater-iam ; patriam tu, dilige, civis.
'Collect materials ; do you, O citizen, love your native land.' Although
486 APPENDIX IV.

mater-ia (of which materia-is = materies is an extension ; above, 28,

Obs.) is derived from mater, a mother,' just in the same way as
patr-ia comes from pater, the above line shows that their meaning is
absolutely different ; for while materia denotes the ' mother-stuff'
or ' materials' of which any thing is composed, so that the work
seems to proceed or be born from it, patr-ia is the country to which
we belong by inheritance, and which is our common parent. The
same example shows the difference of two compounds of lego, I
cull, pick up or gather. ' Col-ligo expresses the result of gathering,
namely, collection ; di-ligo selection in gathering, choice, preference,
love. Similarly, emo, ' I take for myself,' I buy,' becomes in a
secondary form amo, ' I love.' The compound intel-ligo, I discri-
minate,' i. e. I understand,' is very different from inter-imo, ' I
take from the midst,' i . e. ' I destroy.' The next example gives
another use of lego . The student will also notice the widely dif-
ferent significations of the similarly formed words patri-monium,
'patrimony,' ' inheritance, ' and matri-monium, ' matrimony,' ' mar-
riage.'

102. Sit pietas coluisse Deum, coluisse parentes;

Relligio populum obstringit formidine caeli.

' Let piety or duty be defined as an affectionate reverence for God and
our parents ; religious scruples bind the popular mind with a fear
of heaven.' The ancients placed our duty to God and to our pa-
rents on the same or a similar footing (see Pindar, Pyth. vi. 19,
and the note) ; and piare is to perform any act of duty or worship ;
hence the epithet pius is constantly applied to Æneas, because he
carried his father out of danger on his shoulders (senior parens pia
sarcina nati, Ovid, Heroid. VII. 107). But relligio involves a much
more complicated notion. It is not derived from re-ligare, ' to bind
back,' according to the usual notion, but from re-ligere, ' to make
careful gathering,' so that re-ligens might be a synonym of di-ligens,
and an opposite of neg-ligens. Similarly, op-tio comes, not from
op-tare, but from op-tum, as lec-tio from lec-tum; and rebellio comes,
not from rebell-are, but from rebellis. Thus relligio, according to
its primary meaning, is ' perpetually thoughtful care ; dwelling
upon a subject, and continually recurring to it ; ' and in its applica-
tion it is (1) ' religious worship ;' (2) ' religious scruple,' especially
in the plural ; (3) by substituting the cause for the effect, it is
' guilt causing religious scruple or fear,' or ' the divine curse and
consequent remorse or oppression of the conscience caused by a
sense of violated religious scruples ' in the second and third sense
 APPENDIX IV. 487

it is used in a curious connexion with the words violare and expiare

in three passages of Cicero which have never been compared by any
lexicographer or commentator. Cic. Philipp. 1. 6. 13 : ' an me cen-
setis, P. C., decreturum fuisse, ut parentalia cum supplicationibus
miscerentur, ut inexpiabiles relligiones (curses) in rempublicam indu-
cerentur?;' Tuscul. Disput. 1. 12. 27 : cærimoniis sepulcrorum,
quas nec tantâ curâ coluissent, nec violatas tam inexpiabili relligione
6
(curse) sanxissent;' ad Atticum, 1. 17. 16 : quare et illa, quæ vio-
lata, expiabuntur ; et hæc nostra, quæ sunt sanctissime conservata,
suam relligionem (scrupulous observance) obtinebunt.'

103. Nôsse potes populum, sed scis quid agatur in urbe;

Sontibus ignoscis ; notos agnoscis amicos ;
Et cognoscis eum, qui non tibi cognitus esset.
Novi means, I know,' or ' am acquainted with ' a person or thing : but
scio means, ' I know ' or ' have knowledge of' a reality or fact ; thus
we have in the same passage of Livy, 1. 54 : quod utriusque populi
vires nôsset, sciretque invisam profecto superbiam regiam civibus
esse, ' because he was acquainted with the strength of both the Ro-
mans and the Gabinians, and knew for a fact that the royal tyranny
was hateful to the citizens.' Ignosco is, ' I take no knowledge,
overlook, pardon ;' agnosco is, ' I recognize or acknowledge' what I
knew before ; and cognosco, ' I learn, or become acquainted with
the unknown.'

104. Credulus exspectas : fidos praestolor amicos.

'You, being credulous, are expecting, or looking out, in hope and desire ;
I am waiting for friends on whom I can rely.' Exspecto merely
denotes definite or indefinite hope or expectation ; as in the rusticus
exspectat of Horace ; but praestolor presumes an appointment.
105. Dulcia delectant gustantem ; suavia odore ;
Jucunda exhilarant animum ; sed grata probantur
A gratis ; quae visa placent loca, amoena vocamus.
Although both dulcis and suavis are used generally to signify ' sweet,'
the former more properly denotes that which is agreeable to the
palate (yukús) ; the latter that which is pleasant to the smell
( dus) ; thus we have matura dulcior uva, péλiтos yλvкíwν ; but
suave olens, novooμos. In general, dulcis denotes a more lasting,
and suavis a more transient gratification ; and while suavis means
that which is agreeable at a particular time, dulcis is used to
express whatever is permanently dear and charming in love and
friendship. Jucundus is properly a participle for juviscundus, and
-488 APPENDIX IV .

is applied to that, quod juvat et cordi est, that which causes men-
tal pleasure and satisfaction. Gratus is that which is welcome or
acceptable, although it may not be productive of any pleasure at
the moment ; as Forcellini says : grata, sunt quæ habere nos præ-
stat, licet jucunda non sint ; e. g. in Cic. Att. III. 24 : haec veritas
etsi JUCUNDA non est, mihi tamen GRATA est. Ad Div. v. 15 : amor
tuus GRATUS et optatus ; dicerem JUCUNDUM nisi hoc verbum in
tempus perdidissem. Hence gratus is used as a synonym for ac-
ceptus. Cic. Tusc. v. 15 : id GRATUM ACCEPTUMque habendum.
Amoenus is that which charms the sight with a sense of cheerful-
ness and beauty. That it is properly applied to denote the beau-
ties of nature may be inferred from its use in this sense by En-
nius (Vahlen, p. 10) :
Nam me visus homo pulcher per amoena salicta
Et rupes raptare locosque novos.
Similarly, Cic. Leg. II. 3 : hac insula nihil est amoenius. That in this
sense it denotes a really inherent natural beauty, as distinguished
from the pleasure which the landscape is calculated to afford to an
individual, is clear from its opposition to dulcis in the passage of
Horace (1 Epist. XVI. 5) :
Hae latebrae dulces, etiam, si credis, amoenae,
'these retreats pleasant to me, still more, if you believe me, charm-
ing in themselves.' At the same time amoenus signifies that which
is ornamental rather than useful ; Livy says (XXII. 15) : consita
omnia magis amoenis quam necessariis fructibus ; and Tacitus op-
poses amoenitas to usus; Ann. xiv. 31 : dum amoenitati prius
quam usui consulitur.
106. Dividimus muros et moenia pandimus urbis.
'We make a breach in the walls, and disclose the collective buildings of
the city' (see Niebuhr, H. R. II. note 80).
107. Omnibus in rebus remur ratione sagaci;
Rem petit unusquisque ; reos res-publica punit;
Irrita ne facias, rationem ponere par est.
' In all things we think by means of sagacious reason. Every one seeks
for wealth ; the re- public or common-wealth punishes the culprits.
That you may not make things of no avail, it is proper to send in
an account.' There are no words in the Latin which are so much
or so vaguely used as res and ratio, which are connected by the
verb re-or, (' I think,' i. e. propose a res to my mind,) derived from
res, and furnishing a derivation for ratio from its participle ră-tus.
 APPENDIX IV. 489

The memorial lines give some of the principal distinctions of mean-

ing ; but the following definition extends to every use of the two
words : res = ra-is is probably for hra-is, from hir the old Latin for
'a hand' (Varro, L. L. IV. 26) ; and is therefore equivalent to the
Greek χρέος, χρεία, χρῆμα, from χείρ ; compare laena with χλαίνα,
luridus with xλwpós, &c. Consequently res is that which is han-
dled, and means whatever is or may be an object of thought or
action. But ratio is a derivative in -tio from the verb reor, and
therefore, like other derivatives of the same kind, implies the action
of the verb, and may be defined as the mode or act of thinking.
Thus, whereas res or res familiaris is ' property,' ratio is the
account kept ; whereas res or respublica is the state objectively,
ratio is the mode of governing ; and in general if res is the outer
world (as in natura rerum, &c.) , ratio is the inner reason, which
deals with its theory. The participle ratus means ' determined ; '
whence irritus means ' made of no effect.' And reus means a per-
son accused or impeached, because res, in a legal sense, means the
object of controversy, the thing or matter under dispute. In Cicero
(de Orat. II. 15), rerum ratio or ' history,' as the arrangement of
facts (§ 63), is opposed to verborum ratio or ' style,' as the arrange-
ment of words (§ 64).
108. Planitiem dicas regionis et aequora campi;
Equora pontus habet; ponto licet esse profundo ;
Et mare proruptum pelago premit arva sonanti.
'You may speak of the level surface of a region and of the wide expanse ·
of a field ; the main sea has an expanse ; it may also be deep ; and
the flood rushing forth covers the lands with a roaring sheet of
water. Planities means the absence of hills, and therefore is ap-
plicable only to the land ; aequor implies horizontal expansion, and
is therefore applicable either to land or sea ; pontus properly refers
to the depth of the sea ; mare to the mass of water, as opposed to
dry land ; and pelagus to the extended sheet of water as opposed to
the surface of the land.

109. Praesentes timeo casus, metuoque futuros.

Formidare licet fures, regesque vereri.
Attonitus trepido, tremulos pavor occupat artus.
Metus means a cautious fear of future and even distant objects ; timor
means a vehement fear of near or approaching dangers, which takes
away or at least perturbs the senses. Thus, while metus, which is
opposed to spes, looks forward to dangers while still absent and
perhaps only possible, timor, which is opposed to fiducia and animus,
490 APPENDIX IV.

regards a peril as imminent or present. Metus therefore is a

fearful expectation, as a sort of intellectual prescience of coming
evil ; but timor is cowardly dismay or fear in its most urgent form.
These fundamental distinctions are given by Cicero, who says
(Tusc. Disp. IV. 37 , § 80) : ' si spes est exspectatio boni, mali ex-
spectationem esse necesse est metum.' And ( . . IV. 8, § 19) :
'timor est metus mali appropinquantis. ' And the opposition of the
two words is sufficiently illustrated by the following passages ;
Virg. Æn. VIII. 556 : ' vota metu duplicant matres, propiusque peri-
clo it timor, et major Martis jam apparet imago.' Liv. XLV. 26,
§ 7 : quum major a Romanis metus timorem a principibus suis
vicisset' (because the Romans were absent). Hence Horace speaks
of the reges timendi, but the tyrant says of his subjects who regard
him with constant and cautious fear to offend oderint dum me-
tuant. In this sense of constant or abiding apprehension metuo
approaches to vereor as timeo does to formido. But vereor comes
a step nearer to timeo, as the following passage will show (Liv.
XXXIX. 37) : ' veremur quidem vos, Romani, et, si ita vultis, etiam
timemus ; sed plus etiam veremur et timemus Deos immortales. '
That the object of vereor, though absent and even distant, is re-
garded as constantly present to the mind, is clear from the words
attributed to Cato (Cic. Sen. vI. 18 ) : ' de Karthagine vereri non
ante desinam, quam illam excisam esse cognovero.' For this rea-
son vereor is used to denote the abiding sense of respect, honour,
and dutiful submission ; and the relationship and opposition of
vereor and metuo is well shown by such a passage as the following ;
Cic. Sen. XI. 37 : ' Appius tenebat non modo auctoritatem sed
etiam imperium in suos ; metuebant servi, verebantur liberi.' What
vereor is to metuo, formido is to timeo, i. e. it expresses a perma-
nence of the feeling. Being derived from forma it plainly ex-
presses the sense of being haunted by a present picture of the
dreaded object ; and Shakspeare gives us the force of the term when
he says (Midsummer Night's Dream, v. 1) :

In the night imagining some fear,

How easy is a bush supposed a bear.
When Cicero tells us (Tusc. IV. 8 fin. ) : Stoici definiunt formi-
dinem metum permanentem,' he states the truth, but his definition
would have been more exact if he had substituted timor for metus.
That formidare implies being haunted by some perpetual timor is
well shown by the passage of Horace ( 1 Serm. I. 77), to which
tacit reference is made in the above lines ; namely :
 APPENDIX IV. 491

An vigilare metu exanimem, noctesque diesque

Formidare malos fures, incendia.
And that formido, like all play of the imagination, may arise from
imperfect knowledge, is distinctly alleged by Cicero, Fin. 1. 19 :
' ex ignorantia rerum ipsa horribiles exsistunt sæpe formidines.'
Any of the forms of apprehension expressed by metuo, timeo, vereor
and formido may produce an effect on the nervous system ; if this
merely quickens the pulse or produces paleness and an expression
of anxiety in the face, the verb paveo denotes the result ; if it
goes farther and makes the teeth chatter and the limbs tremble,
trepido is the statement of the effect. The latter speaks for itself.
That paveo expresses rather the effect of fear than fear itself, is
shown strikingly by the following passages ; Ovid, Metam. IX.
111 , 112 :
Pallentemque metu, fluviumque ipsumque timentem,
Tradidit Aonides pavidam Calydonida Nesso.
Id. Fast. III. 362 :
Sollicitæ mentes speque metuque pavent.
And that pavor may arise from astonishment as well as from fear
is shown by Liv. VII . 34, § 8 : admiratione paventibus cunctis.
110. Dat male salsa dicax; ludit bona dicta facetus.
This line expresses in its strongest form the distinction between dicax
and facetus. Cicero says (Orator. 26, § 87) that there are two kinds
of sales- unum facetiarum, alterum dicacitatis. The former com-
prises all kinds of harmless and good-humoured wit and raillery ;
the latter, which is sometimes termed sales in the narrower sense of
that word, includes the different varieties of the severe and
biting jest. Thus facetus implies that the witty man does not
indulge in coarseness, scurrility, caricature or personality ; he does
not lay himself out to obtain the character of a joker of jokes, and
introduces his pleasantries only on suitable occasions. On the other
hand, dicax necessarily implies that wit, which is exercised at the
expense of another, and is used as a ready means of turning an
opponent into ridicule. Cicero, who says that Demosthenes was
rather facetus than dicax, remarks at the same time that, while it
requires more art to be facetus, the dicax exhibits a more excit-
able and passionate temperament (Orator. 26, § 90 : Demosthenes
non tam dicax fuit quam facetus. Est autem illud acrioris ingenii,
hoc majoris artis ' ). The various forms of elegant and inoffensive
pleasantry which are included under the more general term face-
tiae, are lepos, ' light and gentle humour ;' festivitas, ' innocent
492 APPENDIX IV.

merriment ; and urbanitas, ' subdued and polished irony.' Sharp,

satirical, and ill-humoured wit, which is known generally as dicaci-
tas and sales, may sometimes degenerate into cavillatio, or jeering
mockery ; but while in sales we consider only the piquancy of the
saying, and while dicacitas, in disregarding the feelings of another,
does this really for the sake of the joke, cavillatio makes the
attack on another the main object, and cares nothing for the good-
ness or badness of the witticism, which is made the pretence of the
personality ; so that cavillatio may exist without any real dicacitas,
as Cicero says of Piso (Att. 1. 13), that he was ' cavillator genere
illo moroso, quod etiam sine dicacitate ridetur, facie magis quam
facetiis ridiculus. ' The sayings of the facetus may be termed dicta
or bon mots; the sarcasms of the dicax may be termed dicteria.

111. Multa dabunt numerum, sed copia larga redundat;

Bellua deformis vasta est, immanis, et ingens;
Grandia ne tenues; ne parvi magna sequantur.
In these lines the Latin words denoting magnitude are placed together
so as to show the different shades of meaning with which they are
used. Multus, which, in the plural, implies number rather than
magnitude, properly and in the singular denotes a superiority or
excess in relative size or quantity. This distinction is clearly given
in the advice to students : ne multa, sed multum, i . e. ' do not read
many books, but read a great deal -do not hastily peruse a number
of authors, but bestow much time upon your studies.' The root of
the word is contained in the comparative mel- ior, for which the
older Romans said mel-tus, i. e . mul-tus (Fest. p. 122) ; and there can
be no doubt that we have the simplest form of the word in mal-us,
which in common Latin has passed from its original signification of
excess in quantity to that of difficulty and badness, just as we
have in Greek the co-ordinate adverbs μάλα and μόλις. The pri-
mary meaning is retained in the adverb male, which is often used
as a synonym for valde or nimis in the best authors ( Varronianus,
p. 393). As multus and multi denote relative excess or superiority
in quantity or number, so largus denotes abundance or redundance
of a particular thing in regard to that which might circumscribe
or contain it. For multus is ' much,' as placed by the side of
something of the same kind ; but largus is ' plentiful ' or ' copious, '
with regard to the limits which might be imposed upon the in-
crease of the object. Hence we have such phrases as largi copia
lactis (Virg. Georg. III. 308) ; quum sol terras larga luce compleverit
(Cic. N. D. II . 19) in the same sense as largus liquidi fons luminis,
 APPENDIX IV. 493

aetherius sol (Lucret. v. 281 ) ; largus imber (Virg. Georg. 1. 23) ;

largae opes (Ovid, A. A. III. 408) ; and the like. Hence largus, as a
moral epithet, implies a man who is munificent in his gifts ; and
Cicero says (de Off. 11. 16, § 53), duo sunt genera largorum, alteri
prodigi, alteri liberales. The same sense is borne by the derived
verb largior, which means to ' give in abundance, to bestow largely,
lavishly, and liberally.' The epithets vastus, immanis, and ingens
are used to denote an excess in size which destroys our perceptions
of beauty and proportion. The primary meaning of vastus is ' wide-
spread, empty, void. ' It is a synonym of vacuus, and probably con-
tains the same root. Thus Livy says in one passage (XXIII . 30),
urbs vasta a defensoribus ; and in another (XLII. 63), moenia vacua
defensoribus; and Tacitus says of Vitellius (III. 85), in palatium
regreditur vastum desertumque (cf. Liv. xxvi . 11. Cic. Rull. 11. 26.
Curtius, IX. 10), and immediately afterwards, terret solitudo et
tacentes loci; tenta clausa ; inhorrescit vacuis. Im-manis and
in-gens are negative expressions denoting, the former that the
excessive magnitude is beyond what is good, and the latter that it
is contrary to nature. In their usual applications, vastus, immanis
and ingens are used indifferently to denote that which is huge,'
' big,' ' overgrown,' ' unshapely,' and ' enormous.' Thus Cicero says
(N. D. 1. 35), Elephanto nulla belluarum prudentior ; at figura
quæ vastior ?' Similarly (de Div. 1. 34) : bellua vasta et immanis;'
and ( Verr. v. 46) ' ingens immanisque præda.' The general word
to signify that a thing is great in itself, without any implication of
excess or enormity, is magnus, which in its positive degree may be
used to denote the attribute of greatness or distinction acquired by
an individual, as Cn. Pompeius Magnus, and which in its compara-
tive and superlative major and maximus, with natu expressed or
understood, denotes the permanent relation of the elder and eldest
of the name to their younger namesakes. That magnus is distin-
guished from ingens and immanis is shown by the following examples,
from which it may be seen that magnus does not, like these ex-
aggerative words, convey any idea of excessive magnitude. Ter.
Eun. III. 1. 1 : Magnas vero agere gratias Thais mihi. Ingentes.
Sen. Ir. 1. 16 : Non enim magnitudo est sed immanitas. The adjec-
tive amplus, which has been already noticed in another reference
(above, 97), is often used in connexion with magnus, to which it
bears much the same relation as our ' big' does to our ' great ;' thus
we have, Cic. ad Qu. Fr. 1. 1 : theatrum magnitudine amplissimum.
Cic. Inv. 1. 5, § 6 : civilis rationis magna et ampla pars et arti-
ficiosa eloquentia. The regular opposite of magnus is parvus, as
494 APPENDIX IV.

intimated in the above memorial lines. Thus Virgil says (Ecl. 1.

24) : sic parvis componere magna solebam. Sall. Jug. 10 : con-
cordia res parvae crescunt, discordia maximae dilabuntur. Similarly
we have a regular opposition between grandis (from the root gra-,
' grow,' found in gra-men, &c. ) , which denotes an increased size with
reference to the former condition of the object or to other things
of the same kind, and tenuis (of the same origin as our word ' thin'),
which implies a diminution of the original bulk, or a meagreness
when compared with other objects of the same class. Thus we find
in Horace, 1 Carm. VI. 9, conamur tenues grandia ; and Cicero in
distinguishing the three kinds of orators puts in the first class the
grandiloqui, or lofty speakers ;' in the second the tenues, or ' plain
and unadorned speakers ;' and between them the medii, or ' orators
of the mixed style ' (Orat. 6). The adjective minutus seems also to
bear the same relation to parvus that grandis does to magnus. At
least Cicero says (de Orat. III . 45, § 169) : abutimur sæpe etiam
verbo non tam eleganter quam in transferendo ; sed, etiamsi licen-
tius tamen interdum non impudenter : ut quum grandem oratio-
nem pro magna, minutum animum pro parva dicimus. Other
synonyms of tenuis are exiguus, exilis, and pusillus. Like magnus,
grandis is used to signify advanced age, but with reference rather
to the same person than to others of the same name. Thus we have
Cic. Senect. 4 : bella gerebat ut adolescens quum plane grandis erat.
Ovid, Met. VI. 321 : grandior ævo genitor. Whence the compound
grandaevus. And while natu major means older than some other
person, natu grandior (Cic. Inv. I. 24) means advanced in age as
compared with one's former self. It is curious that while our
' great' corresponds to magnus, and our grand' to grandis, we
combine the two in the word ' great grandfather. '

112 . Vir bonus est frugi ; Nequam malus. Usque reclamat

Noxa reo culpae, quem fraus et noxia produnt.
Nil sibi vir justus, nisi verum orabit et aequum ;
Sed vitium vetitumque nefas in crimina ducunt.
Peccatum opprobrio est : facinus memorabile patrat
Qui scelere obstrictus fas juraque proterit. At qui
Flagitium peperit turpatur nomine pravo.
These lines contain the principal Latin words denoting moral rectitude
and its contraries, which require to be distinguished by the student.
The commonest expression for ' good' and ' bad' are bonus and
malus. The former (anciently written duonus) signified primarily
' manly vigour' (cf. Súv-apaι and the Celtic duine a man ;' New
 APPENDIX IV. 495

Crat. § 262) ; the latter, as we have seen, contains a root denoting

excess in magnitude, and its comparative melior has actually been
attached to bonus, to which in its secondary sense malus is directly
opposed, as the derivative malignus is to benignus. To express that
a man was ' good for something,' ' good for nothing, ' the Romans
used the terms frugi and nequam. The former, however, was
understood to imply not usefulness only, but a considerable amount
of positive excellence (Cic. Tusc. III. 8), and Frugi was the cogno-
men of a branch of the Calpurnian family. When the word is used
in a special sense it denotes moderation and sobriety. Thus it is
coupled with modestus (Brutus ad Cic. vI. ), with temperans (Terent.
Heaut. III. 3. 19), and pudicus (Hor. 2 Serm. v. 77). Nequam, for
which nihili is sometimes used (Plaut. Asin. v. 2. 9), denotes not
only negative worthlessness, but positive vice, especially with re-
ference to prodigality and intemperance, and in this special sense
the substantive nequitia is also used (Cic. Cluent. 51) . Culpa,
which seems to be connected with calvor ' to frustrate,' and perhaps
with the Greek кλéπ-Tw ' to deceive,' when used to denote the
fault itself approaches in meaning to delictum, with this difference,
that culpa denotes ' blameable negligence ' and delictum ' wrongful
omission.' But culpa also denotes the blame imputed in conse-
quence of a certain act, and we have such phrases as culpa delicti
(Cic. Rabir. 1 , 2) , extra culpam causamque ponere (Cic. Univ. 13
init.). The jurists distinguish culpa from dolus, which means
' deliberate wrong- doing. ' The primary meaning of the latter word
is 6 painstaking ' (cf. dolor, rod-páw, &c.), and to give the word a bad
sense it was originally the practice to add the epithet malus (sce
"
Fest. p. 69. Cæsar, B. C. II. 14). To be sine culpa, without negli-
gence,' is diligentiam praestare in a sale ; to be sine dolo, without
intentional fraud,' is bonamfidem praestare (Proc. Dig. XVIII. 1. 68).
The primary meaning of dolus is involved in sedulitas, ' an absence
of the sense of toil,' as in Ovid, Fast. IV. 4. 34 : et non sentitur sedu-
litate labor. And we have the secondary meaning of dolus, or that
of dolus malus, when sedulo signifies truly,' as in Plaut. Capt. IV.
2. 106 , quippe quando nil mihi credis quod ego dico sedulo. In
old legal Latin sine dolo, or se dolo, without intentional wrong,'
6
and sinefraude or se fraude, without actual loss or detriment,' are
used as parallel expressions. And in this old sense sine fraude is
found in the best writers (e. g. Hor. 2 Carm. XIX. 20). But fraus
with or without mala is most frequently used to denote the guilty
cause of loss or harm, and it is often found as an exact synonym
of dolus in the sense of ' deceit.' In Hor. 1 Carm. 111. 28, ignem
496 APPENDIX IV.

fraude mala gentibus intulit, the word is used to signify the Kak
Téxη or guilty wiles of Prometheus. Latin scholars have always
found a great difficulty in distinguishing between noxa and noxia.
Gesner, in his Thesaurus, and Drakenborch, ad Liv. II. 54. 10,
maintain the identity of the two words. The memorial line gives
Fronto's distinction : noxa pœna est, noxia culpa.' And the ob-
vious relationship of the two words, as substantive and adjective,
shows that this distinction is correct, namely, that noxia, like
ob-noxius, in-noxius, is an adjective or secondary word derived
from noxa. While therefore noxa is the thing that hurts or harms,
noxia is the condition under which a person is ob-noxius. Hence
while we have both noxae tibi erit, it will bring punishment upon
you,' and noxiae tibi erit, ' you will incur blame, ' we have always in
noxia esse or teneri, not in noxa, ' to be accounted guilty ' (e. g. Ter.
Phorm. II. 1. 36), and noxae dare or dedere, ' to consign to punish-
ment,' not noxiae (e.g. Ovid, Fast. 1. 359). That Cicero regarded
noxia as the guilt distinguished from the punishment is clear from
his phrase, noxiae poena par esto (Leges, III. 4 fin. ), explained by in
suo vitio quisque plectatur (ibid. III . 20, § 46) . The adjective ob-
noxius is used by good writers to signify ' detected or conscious ofa
crime ; ' thus Sallust, Jug. 31 : obnoxiis inimicis, ' when your ene-
mies' guilt is detected ;' Cat. 48 : Crasso ex negotiis privatis obnoxii,
'under obligation to Crassus, at his mercy ;' Liv. XXIII. 12 : si reti-
ceam aut superbus aut obnoxius videar, ' conscious of guilt.' In-
noxius is predicated of habitual conduct, innocens of single acts
(Serv. ad En . x. 301 : innocens re, innoxius animo dicitur). Hence
the former is the stronger word, and we have a climax in Plaut.
Capt. III. 5. 7 decet innocentem servum atque innoxium confiden-
tem esse. The word justus implies a continual observance of the
laws of men (jura), distinguished from the divine law (fas). Al-
though aequus, ' brought to a level,' and justus, ' strictly in accord-
ance with law,' are often used as synonyms, aequitas is occasionally
employed, like our ' equity,' to denote that fair and liberal construc-
tion of the strict law, which stands between jus summum and
indulgentia, and we have even the phrase pro aequitate contra jus
dicere (Cic. de Orat. 1. 56). Verus, which is most commonly found
in the sense ' true ' of statements or professions, is used by the best
writers as a synonym for aequus, as in the passage imitated above, i. e.
Hor. 1 Epist. XII. 23 : nil Grosphus praeter verum orabit et aequum.
So also Hor. 1 Epist. 1. 11 : quod verum atque decens curo et rogo et
omnis in hoc sum. Virgil, En. XII. 693 : me verius unum pro vobis
foedus luere et decernere ferro, ' it is more equitable that I should
 APPENDIX IV. 497

expiate the treaty in your stead, and decide the strife with my
sword.' Cæsar, B. G. IV. 8 : neque verum esse, qui suos fines tueri
non potuerint, alienos occupare, nor was it right that those, who
could not protect their own territory, should occupy that of others.'
Cic. Tusc. III. 299, § 93 : rectum et verum est ut amemus, ‘ it is
right and proper that we should love.' Liv. XXXII. 33 : sociorum
audiri postulata verum esse, it was right that the demands of the
allies should be heard.' Cf. Liv. II. 48 ; 1. 40 ; XL. 16 ; Hor. 2
Serm. III. 312 ; 1 Epist. vII. 98. It seems that verus and severus
ultimately agree with jus in origin as well as signification. Vitium,
which is connected with věto and vito, as pretium is with inter-
pretor, primarily denotes that which is to be shunned and avoided.
It involves the vetitum in human, and the nefas in divine laws, and
Horace combines vetitum nefas in one expression (1 Carm. III. 26).
Practically vitium is used much in the same way as culpa; vitupero
is nearly synonymous with culpo ; and we find vitio et culpae dare
in the same passage (Cic. S. Rosc. 16 fin.). Crimen (from cerno)
means a distinct and definite accusation, a thing determined by law
as wrong, an act charged as wrongful. Thus we have in Ovid,
Trist. II. 306 :
Quacumque irrumpit quo non sinit ire sacerdos,
Protenus hæc vetiti criminis acta rea est.

Peccatum, from pecco = pecuo, ' to act like a brute, ' conveys the idea
of a stupid fault or blunder (cf. Cic. Paradox. III. 2. Plaut. Bacch.
III. 29). Practically it is used as nearly synonymous with culpa
and delictum ; thus Plaut. Epid. v. 2. 64 : ' mihi ignoscas si quid
imprudens culpa peccavi mea.' Cic. Mur. 30 : ' fatetur aliquis se
peccasse et ejus delicti veniam petit.' Facinus (for the form cf. itiner,
jecinur) is a great or bold deed, perpetrated in defiance of the laws.
Thus Ter. Heaut. II. 2. 73 : ' non fit sine periculo facinus magnum
et commemorabile .' Scelus, literally, ' a thing driven out and ex-
communicated,' means ' a horrible and atrocicus act, such as can-
not be tolerated within the limits of a respectable community.'
Hence we have such phrases as scelere contaminare nomen populi
Romani ; scelere se devincire, obstringere, alligare ; sceleribus nefariis
coopertus; scelus infestum et immane; scelus detestabile ; scelere
violare deos immortales, &c. It is a stronger word even than
facinus; for Cicero says ( Verr. VII. 66) : 'facinus est vincire civem
Romanum ; scelus verberari ; prope parricidium necari. ' A sort
of relligio or curse (above 102) was attached to the scelestus and
sceleratus ; hence both words are used to signify ' unlucky,' the
latter especially in funeral inscriptions ; as ' parentes sceleratissimi
D. L. G. 32
498 APPENDIX IV.

posuerunt Mammio suo ;' the former in the comic poets, as Plaut.
Cas. III. 5. 34 : ' scelestissimum me esse video.' Sceleratus is also an
epithet of places blasted with ill fame in consequence of some hor-
rible, nefarious, or unlucky act ; thus we have sceleratus vicus,
campus, scelerata porta, and the like. In flagitium, literally ' cause
of outcry, shameful proceeding,' the leading idea is that of the dis-
grace occasioned by the act ; thus we have (Cic. Att. XVI. 7) : ' factum
flagitii plenum et dedecoris.' The word is very often combined with
facinus, as the open audacity of a disgraceful act increases the
infamy which ensues ; thus we have Sall . Cat. 14 : omniumflagi-
tiorum atque facinorum.' 23: ' flagitiis atque facinoribus cooper-
tus.' Cic. Cat. 1. 6 : ' quod facinus a manibus unquam tuis, quod
flagitium a toto corpus abfuit ?' 1. 7 : ' nullum aliquot jam annis
facinus exstitit, nisi pro te ; nullum flagitium sine te.'
 APPENDIX V.

ANTIBARBARUS.

THE Latin scholar should not only be able to distinguish those Latin
expressions, which, though equally correct, slightly differ in meaning. He
should also discriminate between the correct and idiomatic words and
phrases, and those which are unusual or inadmissible. Most of the
classical and correct idioms of the Latin language have been noticed in
the course of the Grammar, and attention has been directed to many
faulty and objectional phrases or constructions. As, however, this work
is especially intended for the use of those who wish to write Latin, it
will be desirable to append a list of the solocisms into which English
students are most likely to fall. More than one elaborate treatise,
bearing the title of Antibarbarus, has been written on this subject. It
is to be doubted whether the perusal of one of these works would be
likely to remedy the defects which it exemplifies. And it is much
better that the young Latinist should be cautioned only against the
most usual and probable barbarisms. It is to be observed that the
cautions given below with regard to a selection of phrases do not apply
to those who use the Latin language as a medium of literary communi-
cation. For these persons modern Latin is not a dead language, but
admits of new developments within certain limits like any other form
of human speech ; and to confine the mature scholar to a Ciceronian
style is an exploded pedantry. But those, who are still acquiring the
habit of writing Latin, cannot be too particular or exact, for it is only
from those who have passed the necessary apprenticeship in an imitation
of the best models, that we can expect a good and pleasing form of
modern Latinity.

A.

Abbreviare, to abbreviate,' is not classical ; use per notas scribere for

short-hand writing, verborum compendia facere for abbreviations
of single words (as Ictus for juris consultus), and contrahere, in
breve cogere, in angustum deducere or breviare (Quintil .) for the
abridgment of a discourse.
32-2
500 APPENDIX v.

Abdicare magistratum is unclassical ; we should say abdicare se magis-

tratu. The metaphorical abdicare se humanitate, though used by
Ruhnken (Opusc. I. p. 86), has no classical authority ; it should be
humanitatem (omnem) exuere. Cic. Att. XIII. 2 ; Ligar. v. § 14.
Abhine, which properly refers to past time only (from this time, counting
backwards), is sometimes wrongly used with reference to future
time or distance in space ; in its proper use we must not add ante;
thus ante decem annos abhinc is unclassical.
Abscondere se is not classical ; write abdere se, occultare se.
Absque, though commonly used for sine by modern Latinists in such
phrases as absque vitiis, absque omni dubitatione, is barbarous,
except in the phrase absque eo esset (above, p. 331 ).
Accuratus is an unclassical substitute for diligens in the sense of our
' accurate' or ' exact.' So also the adverb accurate.
Acquisitio is very late Latin for comparatio, adeptio.
Activus does not occur as a substitute for gnavus, industrius, strenuus,
promptus.
Ad diem is false Latin for ante diem. So also ad summum, ' in the
highest degree,' for summum, ad minimum for minimum, ad instar
for instar, &c.
Adaptare for accommodare has no authority.
Adducere scriptorem, to quote an author, ' is unclassical ; of persons
we say producere, citare, laudare, proferre ; of things, afferre.
Adhibere vocabulum, ' to use a word,' is not good Latin for uti.
Adhuc is frequently confused with etiam tunc, and hactenus (above,
p. 168). Its use with comparatives, as adhuc fortior, still stronger,'
for etiam fortior, is not Ciceronian.
Adoptare, e.g. lectionem, for recipere, is not supported by any good
authority.
Advocatus in classical Latin is not the patronus or patronus causae, i. e.
' the advocate ' in our sense, but a friend and abettor.
Edes in the plur. does not signify ' a temple' without the addition of
deorum, sacrae, or divinae.
Egritudo means ' trouble of mind,' aegrotatio, or morbus, ' bodily
ailment.'
Equator is bad Latin for circulus aequinoctialis, or meridianus.
6
Era, a period of time,' is very low Latin for temporum, annorum com-
putatio.
Estimabilis is new Latin for dignus qui magni aestimetur; aestimare
must not be used in the sense of our ' to esteem' without magni, nor
must we substitute aestimatio for existimatio or observantia.
 APPENDIX V. 501

Afferre scriptorem, ' to quote an author, ' is not good, but we may say,
afferre locum scriptoris (above s. Adducere).
Agere de aliqua re cannot be said of a book, as hic liber agit de aliqua
re, but we must say hic liber est de aliqua re, in hoc libro tractatur
aliqua res, disseritur, disputatur de aliqua re. It is also barbarous
to say agere for habere orationem .
Aggressio is late Latin for impetus, petitio, incursio, incursus, oppug-
natio, &c.
Aio with non is barbarous for nego.
Alienatio mentis for dementia, amentia, furor, stupor, belongs to the
later Latinity.
Alioqui is un-Latin in the sense alio loco, aliis locis.
Aliquantus must not be used to signify ' a little,' for it means a con-
siderable amount,' and we must not say aliquanto major, but
paulo major for ' greater by a little.'
Alius a is not Latin, although used by Ernesti (Opusc. Phil. p. 23) ; we
must write diversus a, or repeat the alius.
Alloqui aliquem, ' to address a person ,' is bad Latin for adire aliquem,
petere ab aliquo.
Alludere, to allude ' (in words), is late Latin for significare, designare,
respicere with or without tecte.
Ambire magistratum is not good Latin for petere mag. We may say,
however, ambire plebem, cives, patres, amicos, in the sense ' to
canvass .'
Amittere proelium, ' to lose a battle, ' is a barbarous substitute for vinci
proelio, inferiorem discedere proelio.
Animalculum is bad Latin for bestiola.
Anne for annon or necne is barbarous.
Annuus in the sense ' returning yearly ' is bad Latin for anniversarius,
though Wyttenbach (Opusc. 1. p. 43) uses it so. It means con-
tinuing through the year, as magistratus annui.
Ante judicem (judicium) vocare aliquem is bad Latin for in judicium,
in jus vocare.
Antecedens (with liber, epistola, verbum) is bad Latin for superior; so
also anterior must not be used for prior.
Appendere, to hang up,' is bad Latin for suspendere, though used by
Heyne (ad Virg. Ecl. III. 12).
Applausus is a modern substitute for plausus.
Apprehendere, ' of mental apprehension,' is late Latin for percipere, mente
comprehendere, intelligere.
Assecla, assectator, are not classical substitutes for discipulus, alumnus,
qui ab aliquo est, alicujus sententiam sequitur.
502 APPENDIX V.

Asserere aliquid is late Latin for affirmare, dicere, censere ; and so is

assertio for sententia, dictum, effatum.
Assistere alicui, in the sense of our ' assist ' is late Latin for adesse, non
deesse alicui, &c.
Attendere ad aliquem, aliquid is incorrect ; we should say attendere
aliquid, or animum attendere ad aliquid. The same remark applies
to attentio for attentus animus.
Attinet me, ' it concerns me, ' is bad Latin for attinet ad me; and we
must not say quod ad id attinet quod for quod alone. But quod ad
librum attinet (Cic. ad div. vI. 7 fin .) is right. It is also wrong to
say : ' hac de re multi scripserunt, et, quod ad Ciceronem attinet, is
quinque libros scripsit ' for et Cicero quidem quinque, &c.
Attrahere, ' to draw to oneself,' e. g. nervum, habenas, is bad Latin for
adducere.
Auctor is not classical for scriptor in the sense of our ' author.'
Audire bene, male is bad Latin for auditu valere, acri esse auditu;
auditu non valere, surdastrum esse.
Auditus, hearing, ' is seldom used for sensus audiendi, aurium.
Auxiliatrix is late Latin for adjutrix.

B.

Bellicosus must be used with animus, gens, &c., but bellicus with virtus,
laus, gloria; and ars militaris is more common than ars bellica.
Bellum cum aliquo, is bad Latin unless there is a verb ; ' the war with
the Persians,' for instance, is not bellum cum Persis, but bellum
Persarum or Persicum.
Bene dicere, ' to bless or praise,' with the accusative, is only found in
later Latin.
Bene vivere, to live well,' i. e. luxuriously, is unclassical ; we must
write laute, molliter, jucunde, liberaliter, magnifice vivere.
Biblia Sacra is bad Latin for divinae (sanctae litterae), libri divini,
scriptura sancta, sacri Judæorum Christianorumque libri.
Bonum mihi videtur facere aliquid is bad Latin for mihi videtur, placet,
libet, &c.
Borealis is late Latin for septentrionalis, ad septentriones vergens,
spectans, &c.
Brachia in the phrase in brachiis alicujus mori, to die in a person's
arms,' is not used for in alicujus complexu or manibus.
Breve ante tempus, brevi ante tempore are not Latin for brevi ante or
nuper.
Breviter or brevi is not Latin for quid multa ? quid plura ? ne multa,
quid quaeris, &c.
 APPENDIX V. 503

C.
Caecutire, to be blind,' is later Latin for caecum esse, oculis captum
esse.
Calumniosus, calumniose are not the classical expressions ; we should
write criminosus, malignus ; criminose, per calumniam.
Calx must not be used to signify ' the end,' unless there is some re-
ference, direct or metaphorical, to the race-course. In calce, ad
calcem libri, though common in modern Latin, are unsupported by
any good authority.
Capacitas ingenii, capax ingenium are bad Latin for ingenii magnitudo,
vis percipiendi, indoles praeclara, ingenium magnum, acre, prae-
stans, &c.
Capessere opportunam occasionem or opportunitatem occasionis is not
found in the sense of occasionem opportunam arripere, capere, non
praetermittere.
Capitalis in the sense of distinguished, eminent,' though used by
Ruhnken (Opusc. 1. p. 91 ), occurs only once in Cicero and Ovid.
Carere, 'to do without,' ' not to require,' is bad Latin for non opus
esse.
Castigare must be confined to words, and must not be used of personal
chastisements ; the zeugma in Cic. Tusc. III. 27 does not justify the
modern usage.
Catalogus is not good Latin for index, enumeratio.
Causa, with the genitive, refers to the future, and we must use ob and
propter with the accusative of the past, and per or prae of present
reasons or obstacles ; thus we must not say tempestatis causa ad te
venire non potui, but per tempestatem or prae tempestate; and while
we may say injuriae inferendae causa, we must not write injurias
illatae causa, but propter injuriam illatam.
Celeber, celeberrimus are confined in the best authors to much-frequented
places, well-known days, names, or things ; accordingly we should
not write vir celeber, celeberrimus, for vir clarus, illustris, clarissimus.
Chorus should not be used for canticum to signify the song or poem.
Circumscriptio is bad Latin for circumlocutio.
Clima, the climate,' is a later expression for caelum, natura or tem-
peratio caeli.
Coaequalis, coaetaneus, coaevus for ' contemporary ' are new Latin terms
for aequalis, ejusdem aetatis, ejusdem temporis.
Coepi with an infinitive pass. (except fieri) must be avoided ; we should
say coeptus est laudari, &c.
Cognitio and cognitiones never signify acquired knowledge, which must
be expressed by disciplina, doctrina, eruditio, &c. The proper
504 APPENDIX V.

Latin for ' he has not much learning ' is non sunt in eo plurimae
litterae, litterarum admodum nihil scit, non valet plurimum a
doctrina.
Coincidere is new Latin for concurrere.
Commendatorius must not be written for commendaticius.
Commissio, a commission,' is bad Latin for mandatum, negotium.
Commodare alicui pecuniam is not an allowable phrase for ' to lend
money;' we must say, dare alicui pecuniam mutuam.
Communicare alicui is late Latin for communicare cum aliquo.
Communiter is bad Latin for vulgo, plerumque, &c.
Comparative, in comparison with,' is without authority for comparate,
ex comparato.
Compati and compassio, as also condolere and condolentia, in our sense,
are very modern words.
Compensatio meritorum is bad Latin for remuneratio, aequatio, pensatio.
Compilare librum, of one's own book, is not Latin ; for the classical
writers add in the accusative that from which the book is derived,
and always presume a dishonest or forbidden use of it (see Cic.
Mur. II.; Hor. 1 Serm. I. fin.) .
Concivis, concredere are modern Latin for civis, credere.
Condemnare mortis, morti, ad mortem are objectional phrases. We
should write capitis or capite.
Condemnatio is late Latin for damnatio.
Confidens, confulentia, confoederatus are not classical for fidens, fiducia,
foederatus.
Connatus is late Latin for ingenitus, ingeneratus, innatus.
Conscientia bona, ' with a good conscience,' is not a correct phrase for
salvo officio.
Contentum esse with an infin. following is not classical ; we must write
satis habere. Male contentus, ' ill-satisfied, ' is bad Latin for indig-
nabundus.
Contradicere alicui, ' to contradict a person,' is not so good Latin as
contra aliquem dicere, alicui obloqui, adversari. But without the
dative contradicere is a good classical word (Cic. Att. 1. 17 , § 21 .
Verr. III. 7, § 18. Rosc. Am. XXXIII . § 93).
Convenire, ' to agree,' in such phrases as nos de hac re convenimus, is bad
Latin for inter nos haec res convenit ; and convenire cum aliquo is
bad Latin for convenire aliquem .
Corporeus, in Cicero, means that which has a body; it is therefore
wrong to say voluptates corporeae for vol. corporis ; necessitates cor-
poreae for usus vitae necessarii, res ad vivendum necessariae.
 APPENDIX V. 505

Crassus in a metaphorical sense is not good Latin, e. g. crassum vitium

for magnum, insigne.
Creare mundum, creatio mundi, of God, are not Ciceronian ; we may
write procreare and procreator, and still better aedificare, aedi-
ficator; efficere, effector ; fabricari, fabricator.
Credere in aliquid, e. g. in unum Deum, is modern Latin for credere
aliquid esse, e. g. unum esse deum, or deum putare.
"
Criticus, ' critical,' dangerous,' is not Latin ; hence we do not say res
criticae, tempora critica, but discrimen rerum, tempora periculosa.
Crucifigere is late Latin for cruci affigere, suffigere, in crucem tollere,
cruce afficere.
Curare with the acc. and infin. is bad Latin for the construction with
ut and the subj . , or the gerundive ; we must write, therefore, not
curo epistolam describi, but ut epistola describatur or epistolam
describendam.
Curiosus means ' careful, ' not ' curious.'

D.

Dare is used barbarously in the following phrases : dare potestatem

alicui, ' to give a person permission, ' for facere alicui potestatem;
dare sententiam, to give one's opinion,' for ferre sententiam, ferre or
inire suffragium ; dare filiae virum, ' to give one's daughter a hus-
band, ' for collocare viro filiam, collocare filiam in matrimonio; dare
alicui aliquid mutuo or fenerato, ' to lend money,' for mutuum or
feneratum.
Dator, ' a giver,' is poetical for auctor.
De is wrongly used in the following phrases : de die in diem for in dies ;
de hora in horam for in horas; de verbo ad verbum for totidem ver-
bis, ad verbum, verbis eisdem; de novo for de integro.
Debitum, a debt,' is only used with solvere; the proper phrase is aes
alienum, pecunia debita. 'To demand a debt,' is admonere debi-
torem, aliquem de pecunia debita appellare.
Decimus tertius, &c. are not so good as tertius decimus, &c.
Declarare bellum is bad Latin for indicere bellum.
Deflectere e via, ' to turn out of the way,' is wrong ; it should be de via.
Delectabilis is an unclassical substitute for dulcis, suavis, jucundus, and
the like.
Delineatio is late Latin for adumbratio, brevis descriptio, forma, &c.
Dependere ab aliquo, ' to depend upon a person ' (figuratively), is never
used for pendere ex aliquo.
Derivare verba is not good Latin for enodare verba, originem verborum
ex aliqua re ducere, repetere, quaerere.
506 APPENDIX V.

Descriptio does not mean ' description ' in our sense, but ' order,' ' ar-
rangement ;' and descriptio civitatis in Cicero (pro Sext. 65) is the
form or constitution of a government.
Desertum is late Latin for solitudo, locus desertus, regio deserta.
Desiderare in the sense to wish, ' ' to require,' is late Latin for pos-
tulare; so desiderium when used for postulatum or cupiditas.
Despectui esse is not classical for despicatui, contemptui esse.
Dexteritas, applied to the mind, is not supported by authority.
Dicere is not used for inquam, inquit, in giving the words of a dialogue.
Dictio in good Latin is rather the act of speaking than a single word,
which should be expressed by verbum, vox, vocabulum.
Dies is wrongly used in the following phrases : ante diem for ante lucem ;
diebus nostris for nostra memoria; die secundo (e.g. ) Saturnaliorum,
for secundis Saturnalibus.
Diffamare aliquem should not be used in prose for infamare aliquem ,
alicui infamiam inferre.
Dignus with the infin. (e. g. laudari) is poetic and unclassical.
Dilabi, ་ to slip away,' of time, is not Latin.
་
Dilectus, beloved,' is poetic or belonging to the later prose for carus,
suavis.
Diligentia means ' care and exactness, ' not ' diligence ' or ' industry,'
which must be rendered by industria when painstaking is implied,
by assiduitas when perseverance is denoted, by studium when zeal
and active interest are combined with the effect ; and by opera
when bodily exertion is signified. Similarly, we must not substitute
diligens for industrius, assiduus, gnavus, studiosus, laboriosus.
Diluvies, diluvio, ' a deluge,' is a poetical and later expression for eluvio,
diluvium, inundatio, alluvies. We may also say diffundi aquas.
Dimittere, to dismiss, ' i. e. from an employment, is unclassical, for
mittere, missum facere : so also dimissio for missio.
6
Dimittere aliquid ex animo, to dismiss a thing from one's mind,' is a
mere Anglicism .
Disceptare cum aliquo is bad Latin for certare, contendere cum aliquo.
Discurrere, to discourse,' is late Latin for disserere, disceptare. The
same verbs are also wrongly represented by discutere, in the sense
' to discuss,' and its derivative, discussio.
Disertis verbis, with clear, expressive words,' is an unauthorized mo-
dernism for ipsis verbis, diserte (Liv. XXI. 19), disertissime, aperte
(Cic. Att. 1. 14), plane, liquido, omnino (Cic. Tusc. v. 9, § 24), dis-
tincte, dilucide, and, in the case of persons, nominatim (Cic. Att. IV.
1, § 9).
Dissitus, though used by the best modern Latinists in the sense of diver-
 APPENDIX V. 507

sus, remotus, longinquus, disjunctus (e. g. Muretus, Op. II. p. 888 :

regiones dissitae, Hemsterh. Orat. p. 4 : quam longe dissitos ac
sejunctos fines) belongs only to the later Latinity.
C. Ditio, which does not occur in the nom. (above, p. 59 . Serv. ad Virg.
En. I. 740) is wrongly used by good modern Latinists (e. g.
Muret. 1. 14) for terra, regio, for it means ' dominion.' It is also
wrongly used in its proper sense, but in the plur., by Hemsterh.
Orat. p. 7.
Diu before ante and post is barbarous Latin for multo.
Diutius est quam octo dies is false Latin for amplius sunt octo dies (above,
p. 297 (8) ).
Documentum, ' a document,' is modern Latin for tabula publica, diploma,
monumentum.
Dominium is unclassical for imperium, dominatus, dominatio, and bar-
barous for terra, ager, &c.
Donare alicui fidem is bad Latin for habere alicui fidem (Cic. Att. VIII. 3,
§ 3).
Drama, dramaticus are late Latin for fabula, scaenicus.
Dubitare is often used in a barbarous construction. The positive phrases
dubitare, dubium esse must not be followed by quin, but by the
accus. or infin. , or by an indirect interrogative ; the negative and
interrogative phrases non dubitare, non dubium esse ; cave dubites;
cur, quid est quod dubites ? must be followed by quin ; and when in
the former case a double interrogative follows, the first interrogative
particle may be omitted, as in dubito mihi faveat an adversetur.
Dumtaxat with a verb, and non dumtaxat for non solum are barbarous.
Duratio is modern Latin for diuturnitas, longinquitas.
Duumviri, though often used by modern Latinists, is ungrammatical
and barbarous (above, p. 62).

E.

E contra, ' on the contrary,' is late Latin for contra, e (ex) contrario ;
contra ea.
Ecquando ? ' when ?' and ecquis ? ' who ?' are barbarous for quando ? and
quis ?
Efficacia is late Latin for efficacitas, efficientia, industria, agendi ala-
critas, &c.
Elabi, ' of time,' e. g. annus elapsus, is barbarous ; we should say annus
praeteritus, peractus, superior, qui effluxit.
Elementarius must not be used of things, but is applicable to persons
(e. g. puer, tener) who are still occupied with the mere elements of
learning.
508 APPENDIX V.

Elogium, which properly denotes only an inscription on a monument, is

French-Latin (Eloge) for laudatio.
Emigratio is not classical Latin for migratio, and emigrare without ex
and an ablative should not be used for migrare, domicilium mutare.
In Cicero migrare with an accus. means ' to transgress, ' ' go beyond
the bounds of something, ' e. g. migrare jura, ' to break the laws'
(de Div. 1. 5).
Encomium for laudatio is unsupported by authority.
Encyclopaedia is not directly employed by any Latin writer (Quintil. 1.
10). We should say orbis disciplinarum; omnium artium ac dis-
ciplinarum doctrina ; brevis quaedam omnium artium ac discipli-
narum descriptio, quae vulgo encyclopaedia vocatur.
Enixe, earnestly,' is not found for etiam atque etiam with rogare,
petere, &c.
Ensis, 'sword,' is only poetical for gladius.
Epitaphium is not an authorized substitute for elogium or carmen in
sepulcro incisum.
Est with the infin . act., e. g. est videre, ' one may see, ' is not classical,
and must be avoided.
Evidenter is barbarous for plane, aperte, penitus, perspicue.
Exacte is late Latin for accurate, diligenter.
Exceptio must not be used in the phrase, ' all without exception,' which
is ad unum omnes.
Excerpere librum is bad Latin for aliquid e libro excerpere, and ' extracts'
are better called electa than excerpta.
Excudere without typis is bad Latin for typis imprimere or exprimere.
Exempli causa should be used only with verbs ; as exempli causa
paucos nominavi; if a mere example is cited, we should say ut or
velut.
Experientia, ' experience,' is late Latin for res, rerum usus, experta
virtus, tempus, &c.; and we must not use experiri for ' to learn ,'
which is accipere, audire, cognoscere.
Exponere, ' to explain, ' must not be used for explanare, explicare, enar-
rare, interpretari, nor expositio and expositor for enarratio, and
interpres. Exponere se periculo, ' to expose oneself to danger,' is
late Latin for committere, offerre, objicere se periculo, adire, obire,
subire periculum.
Exsistere, merely ' to be ' is barbarous ; for it denotes ' exhibiting oneself
in a public and active manner. '
Extrahere librum for excerpere e libro is barbarous ; so also extractus and
extractum for epitome, summarium.
Extraordinarius is bad Latin for singularis, insignis, eximius.
 APPENDIX V. 509

F.
Facere is wrongly used in the following phrases : facere damnum, detri-
mentum for inferre or afferre; facere conditiones for ferre; facere
aes alienum for contrahere, suscipere.
Factum should be written with bene not bonum in such phrases as bene
factum quod, it is well that,' &c.
Falsitas is late Latin for mendacium, vanitas, falsum, falsa.
Fama must not be used for rumor or fabulae antiquae.
Familia must not be used for one's wife and children, which should be
expressed by conjux et liberi, mei, tui, sui.
Festivus, which properly signifies ' merry,' should not be used for festus,
solemnis, in the sense ' festal, ' and festivitas is not ' festivity,' but
jocose merriment in words.
Fictio and figmentum are late Latin for commentum, fabula, res ficta,
or opinio ementita, and ficticius is barbarous for commenticius or
fictus.
Finire in Cicero is rather to define a limit' than ' to end,' which he
expresses by finem alicujus rei facere or afferre, aliquid conficere,
terminare (ad div. III. 13, § 4) . Finire vitam is not used of natural
death.
Finis denotes the end,' but e. g. in fine epistolae is not so good as in
extrema epistola.
Firmus is barbarous in terra firma, which should be terra continens.
Fratricidium is late Latin for parricidium fraternum, fratris caedes,
nex.
Fugitivi oculi is not supported by authority. Horace says veloci oculo
percurrere.
Fulcrum should not be used for firmamentum ( Cic. Att. 1. 18, § 9) or
firmum subsidium (Cic. Sext. 8. § 20).
Funditus is barbarously used for penitus with verbs like cognoscere,
perspicere, &c.
Fungi vita, ' to die,' is a juristic expression, and should be avoided in
common prose. Fungi, 'to die,' without vita, fungi dapibus, ' to
feast,' fungi lacrimis, ' to weep,' &c. are poetical.

G.
Gaudere aliqua re, in the sense of merely having it, without any sense
of pleasure or enjoyment, is not Latin.
Genius in the English sense is barbarous ; we must write ingenium when
mental endowments are intended ; ' the genius of the language' is
proprietas, natura sermonis ; ' the genius of the age ' is temporum
ratio, hi mores, natura saeculi.
510 APPENDIX V.

Genuinus in the English sense belongs to the later Latin ; we should

write germanus, probus, verus ; and for genuinitas we should say
veritas, auctoritas, fides.
Gerere se with an adjective (e. g. modestum, submissum) is not allowable ;
we must use the adverb (modeste, submisse)..
Gesta (plur.) is rarely used for res gestae.
Grandiloquentia is modern Latin for magniloquentia, granditas verbo-
rum, though grandiloquus is Ciceronian.
Gratiam agere is not so good as gratias agere, ' to return thanks ; ' on the
other L
m habere, ' to feel grateful,' gratiam referre, ' to
gratiam deferre, to owe thanks,' are the only
+ Tons .
" d for gratus animus.
ne of the senses), is unclassical for gustatus, and
od taste,' for sensus pulcritudinis, is altogether
barbarous. 'A man of taste ' is homo politus; of the greatest
taste,' vir in omni judicio elegantissimus.

H.

Habere is often used without a proper regard to the Latin idiom.

6
Haec habui dicere, this is what I had to say,' is a Græcism for haec habui
quae dicerem; nihil habeo tecum facere, ' I have nothing to do with
you,' is an Anglicism for nihil mihi tecum est ; and so are habere ali-
quid in magna copia, 'to have something in great abundance,' for
habere alicujus rei magnam copiam ; habere patientiam cum aliquo,
'to have patience with some one, ' for patienter aliquem ferre, habere
exoptatissimum comitem in aliquo, ' to have a most welcome com-
panion in some one,' for habere eum exopt. comitem, and the like.
Habitare aliquem locum is merely poetical for habitare in aliquo loco.
Hactenus for adhuc, time, is unclassical.
Haesitanter is new Latin for cunctanter, haesitans, haesitabundus.
Heroicus is not used in the modern sense for fortis.
Hodiernus, in the sense of still living,' is not good Latin for hic qui
nunc est, noster, nunc vivens.
Hospes and hospitium must not be used for caupo and caupona with
reference to places of entertainment where money is demanded and
paid.
Hostis is a public, and inimicus a private enemy ; thus Catiline was
hostis patriae, inimicus Ciceronis.
Hucusque is unclassical and of rare occurrence for usque ad hunc locum,
usque eo, usque ad id.
 APPENDIX V. 511

Humaniores litterae is bad Latin, especially on account of the compara-

tive, which is inadmissible ; we must write studia humanitatis et
litterarum, litterae antiquae, studia antiquitatis.

I, J.

Jacere aliquem lapidibus, ' to pelt a person with stones,' is bad Latin
for appetere aliquem lapidibus, jacere lapides in aliquem.
Idem est cum illo is not a good phrase for idem est qui ille, atque ille,
hic et ille iidem sunt.
Idiotismus, an idiom, ' is bad Latin for proprietas sermonis.
Illicitus is unclassical for non, minime licitus, inconcessus, non concessus,
nefas.
Imaginari is a later word for animo fingere, imaginem cogitatione fin-
gere, or depingere, sibi persuadere, conjicere, somniare, and the like.
Imbibere opinionem, ' to imbibe an opinion, ' is bad Latin, but imbibere,
absolutely, ' to resolve or determine, ' is Ciceronian (see e. g. pro
Quint. 6 sub fin.).
Immortalis as a title of praise is not applied to persons, but to things,
as gloria, memoria, &c.
Implorare aliquem aliquid is inadmissible ; but we may have implorare
aliquid ab aliquo, or aliquid alicujus, e. g. patris auxilium.
Impossibilis, is late Latin for qui, quae, quod fieri non potest.
Impostor, impostura, are later words for fraudator, fraus.
Imputare, to attribute,' is bad Latin for tribuere, attribuere, assignare,
adscribere; the proper meaning of imputare is ' to charge a person
with something,' to consider him your debtor for it, as Tacitus
says of the Germans, nec data imputant nec acceptis obligantur
(German. 21).
In Cicerone, &c . is bad Latin for apud Ciceronem, &c. in a citation of
words and expressions, but it is right when we are speaking of a
particular book, as in Gorgia Platonis, or when we are speaking
of an author's style, of his credibility, or his other peculiarities,
as Cic. Orat. 71 : in Thucydide orbem modo orationis desidero.
Quintil. IX. 4, § 18 : in Herodoto omnia leniter fluunt.
Inaestimabilis in the sense ' inestimable, ' i. e. of very great value,
though used by Liv. XXIX. 22, should be avoided as an ambiguous
term ; for in Cicero (Fin. III. 6) it means ' of no esteem or value.'
Inaudita re, without a hearing of the cause,' is new Latin for indicta
causa, re inorata (Cic. Rosc . Am. IX. § 26), causa incognita (Cic.
Verr. 1. 9). In Cic. Balb. 18, re inaudita means, ' after the matter
had been heard.'
Inauguralis, e. g. oratio in our sense is new Latin for aditialis.
512 APPENDIX V.

Includere, to include, ' e. g. in a packet, is new Latin for addere, ad-

jungere, conjicere, epistolam in fasciculum.
Incontentus is barbarous for non contentus.
Inde a principio without jam prefixed is false Latin : it is also an error,
though common in the writings of good modern Latinists, to say
ab eo inde tempore for jam inde ab eo tempore.
Indigestio, in the English sense, is late Latin for cruditas.
Indiscretus, ' indiscrete, ' is late Latin for ineptus, imprudens, &c.
Inelegantia, want of taste,' is late Latin for insulsitas, judicium com-
ptum nulla elegantia.
Infallibilis is barbarous for qui falli, errare non potest.
Informare, ' to inform or instruct,' requires some addition, as ad humani-
tatem ; otherwise we must use erudire, instituere.
Ingratitudo is late Latin for ingratus animus.
Inhabitare is a rare and late word for habitare.
Innovatio is late Latin for instauratio, renovatio.
Inquisitio in aliquem, as a legal term, is unclassical : we should write
quaestio in aliquem, de aliquo.
Inserere verba is a later expression for interponere, includere, intexere,
admiscere.
Inspiratio is late Latin for afflatus, instinctus divinus.
Institutio in the sense of an institution' (e. g. institutiones majorum)
is bad Latin for institutum.
Instructio, on the other hand, meaning ' instruction,' is bad Latin for
institutio in its proper sense of disciplina, doctrina.
"
Intellectus, understanding, intellect,' is late but not altogether bad
Latin for intelligentia, ratio, cognitio; it must not, however, be
used to denote the signification or sense of a passage .
Intentio, ' the intention,' is late Latin for consilium, propositum, vo-
luntas.
Intercedere pro aliquo, ' to intercede for a person,' is bad Latin for sup-
plicari, deprecari, petere pro aliquo, but right in the sense of giving
security in money matters.
Interlocutor is new Latin for is qui interloquitur, qui cum altero collo-
quitur.
Interludium is a late word for embolium or ludus interpositus, inter-
jectus.
Internus is unclassical for interior, intestinus, domesticus, or, in relation
to the mind, with the gen. animi, e. g. we should write dolor intes-
tinus, bellum domesticum, animi tranquillitas.
Introducere, e. g. consuetudinem, novi aliquid, is a rare and unclassical
expression for inducere,
 APPENDIX V. 513

Introductio, ' the introduction to a book,' is bad Latin for prooemium,

principium.
Invasio, ' an invasion ,' is late Latin for irruptio, incursio, incursus.
Invehere in aliquem, ' to inveigh against a person, ' is bad Latin for in-
vehi in aliquem.
Invincibilis is late Latin for invictus or is qui vinci non potest.
Invisibilis is unclassical for occultus, qui cerni non potest.
Ironice is a later expression for per ironiam, per irrisionem, or the like.
Iterare, iterum aliquid facere does not mean to repeat continually,'
but to do a thing twice, for a second time ;' continued repetition
must be expressed by repetere, rursus facere.

J.

Jubere must not be used with a neg. and the accus. c. infin. for vetare.
Judicare with the accus. in the judicial sense is barbarous ; we must not
therefore say Deus quondam bonosque malosque judicabit, but de
bonis malisque; it is, however, correct to say judicare aliquem (ali-
quid) ex or de or simply aliqua re, ' to judge a person or thing in
accordance with something.'
Juramentum, an oath, ' is late Latin for jusjurandum.
Jurisprudentia is late Latin for juris (civilis) scientia.
Jusjurandum is not the oath of allegiance (sacramentum), but the civil
oath in judicial and other matters.

L.
Labor for a work of the intellect is late Latin for opus.
Latere aliquem or alicui, ' to escape a person's notice, ' is unsupported by
classical authority and should be avoided, though commonly used
by good modern Latinists; the right word is fugere, fallere, prae-
terire.
Latinum as a neuter substantive is barbarous, though we may say Lati-
num aliquid vertere (convertere), or e Latino in Graecum.
Latium is never used for Latini, imperium Romanum.
Lavacrum is late Latin for the plur. balneae or balnea.
Lectio, ' a lecture,' is unauthorized Latin for schola. Although there is
no authority for lectio in the sense of ' a various reading,' this
expression has become technical among scholars, and cannot now
be replaced by scriptio or scriptura.
Liber must not be used to signify freedom from taxes, military service,
&c., which must be expressed by immunis.
Liberi does not mean ' young children,' which is expressed by pueri, but
a second generation of whatever age in contrast to the parents ;
D. L. G. 33
514 APPENDIX V.

accordingly liberorum educatio would not be good Latin for dis-

ciplina puerilis.
Librarius, which properly means ' a copyist,' is not good Latin for
bibliopola, librorum redemptor, or venditor.
Linea, 'the line of a book,' is not usual for versus.
Litigatio is late Latin for lis, jurgium, contentio.
Litteratura is bad Latin for litterae, e. g. Latinae (Romanae, Graecae).
Locutio, ' a word,' is late Latin for vocabulum, verbum, vox.
Longe is rarely used of time for diu, and we rarely find longe ante, longe
post for multo.
Loqui is often used barbarously. Loqui linguam Latinam is barbarous
for loqui lingua Latina or Latine; ut cum Cicerone loquar is an
unauthorized phrase for ut Ciceronis verbis utar ; loqui bene, bonum,
male, malum de aliquo is unusual for de aliquo benevole dicere,
sermones bonos habere, aliquem laudare, &c.; and similarly with
male.
Ludere, to play on a musical instrument,' is barbarous for canere, can-
tare, and so is ludere personam , ' to play a part,' for partes agere
(primas, secundas, &c .).
Luce meridiana clarius is a modernism for luce clarius, sole ipso clarius.

M.

Magnus homo of bodily stature is not usual for magni corporis homo.
Majoris aestimare is not classical for pluris aestimare.
Manere impunitum, incognitum, &c. , ' to remain unpunished, unknown,'
&c., is barbarous for impune, incognitum esse, &c.
Manuscriptum is new Latin for liber, or codex scriptus, manu scriptus,
or codex alone.
Marginalis is a modernism for in margine adscriptus, in vacua charta
additus.
Materia (-es) ought not to be used for the subject matter, which is res,
argumentum, quaestio.
Matris frater, soror is contrary to usage for avunculus, matertera, and
avunculus must not be used for ' uncle ' by the father's side.
Mediator is late Latin for conciliator, deprecator, internuntius, sequester,
interpres, pacificator.
Medius should not be used with the genitive following, but in agreement
with the noun ; thus, in mediis aedibus, in the middle of the
house, ' is better than in medio aedium, though medio aedium
occurs in Liv. v. 41.
Memorabilia with a genitive is not Latin for res memoratu dignae. For
 APPENDIX V. 515

memorabilia Socratis we should write commentarii dictorum facto-

rumque Socratis.
Mereor laudari is unclassical for mereor ut lauder.
6
Miliare, a mile-stone, ' is an unsupported form for milliarium.
Millio is new Latin for decies centena millia, or decies alone.
Modernus is not classical for novus, recens, hodie usitatus, qui nunc
est.
Modus vitae is unclassical for vivendi ratio, vita, consuetudo, genus
vitae.
Momentum is late Latin for punctum temporis.
Monarchia is a later substitute for civitas quae unius dominatu tenetur;
imperium singulare, regium imperium, regnum, tyrannis, unius
dominatio.
Multa pecunia, much money,' is bad Latin for magna pecunia.
Multoties is later Latin for saepe, crebro.

N.

Natio, which denotes the subdivision of a gens, must not be used for
**
populus to denote a particular nation ; we must say gens Graeco-
rum, natio Atticorum, populus Atheniensium.
Necnon must not be used for et in joining single words.
Negotiator, ' a merchant,' is late Latin for mercator.
Neutralis, neutral,' is bad Latin for neutrius partis, medius.
Nonnihil, ' somewhat,' must not be used for paulo with the comparative.
Nota, ' an explanatory note,' is not a good substitute for annotatio,
explicatio, explanatio, scholium (see Facciolati, Epist. Phil. VII.
p. 427).
Notitia is bad Latin for a notice,' e. g. historica, which must be ren-
dered by res historiae (e. g.) veteris ; and for ' acquaintanceship,'
"
friendship,' which must be rendered by amicitia
Nullibi is doubtful for nusquam, nullo loco.

0.

Obiter is not classical in the sense of strictim, quasi praeteriens, in trans-

itu, cursim, although it is constantly so used by modern Latinists.
Obstaculum, obstantia are not to be used for impedimentum, id quod
obstat, impedimento est.
Obtinere is not ' to obtain, ' i. e. get possession of, but ' to retain, keep up,
persevere in,' as when Cicero says (de Orat. 1. 41 ), obtinendae atque
augendae potentiae suae causa, for the sake of maintaining and
increasing the power they already possessed.' Similarly, Ter. Hec, Y.
33-2
516 APPENDIX V.

4. 20 : at tu morem antiquum atque ingenium obtines, but you

stick to the old practice and principles.'
Occupatio is not ' a pursuit, ' which must be expressed by studium.
Occurrere must not be used of books for legi, inveniri, esse; e. g. hic
locus occurrit in Cicerone is bad Latin.
Odor and olfactus, ' the smell,' as a sense, are the one barbarous and
the other unclassical for odoratus, sensus narium.
Opus habere is unclassical and of rare occurrence for opus esse.
Ore tenus is new Latin for verbis, voce, coram.
Oscitantia is new Latin for oscitatio, socordia, ignavia, negligentia.

P.

Paenitendus, ' worthy of blame,' is an adjective, and must not be used

as a gerundive.
Pagus means ' a district,' and must not be used for vicus, ' a village.'
Palatium, ' a palace, ' is not used for domus ampla, domus regia, aedes
regiae, domicilium regis.
Pars virilis in the phrase pro parte virili does not mean ' to the best of
"
one's abilities,' in a modest expression, but as far as a man can, '
'so far as is allowed to a strong man ;' and the expressions pro
virili and pro mea virili parte are not Latin.
Parum must not be used in the sense ' a little; ' it always means ' too
little.'
Parvus homo is not usual in speaking of stature ; we must say homo
humilis or brevis staturae.
Pati damnum, detrimentum is not good Latin for facere, contrahere
damnum, capere detrimentum, affici incommodo, &c. The proper
meaning of pati is ' to endure,' and it is synonymous with tolerare
and ferre .
Patrisfrater, soror is contrary to usage for patruus, amita.
Pauper must not be used for miser to signify ' poor,' in a compassionate
sense.
Peculiaris, which refers only to private or separate property, e. g. that
of a child or a slave, is often used erroneously as a synonym, for sin-
gularis, separatus, proprius, praecipuus, or the adverbs singillatim,
separatim.
Pensio, ' a pension,' is new Latin for stipendium, salarium annuum.
Perfunctorie is late Latin for leviter, celeriter.
Perpendicularis is a modernism for rectus, directus ad perpendiculum,
or ad perpendiculum alone.
Persecutor and persecutio are not good words for vexator, vexatio.
 APPENDIX V. 517

Persuasum sibi habere occurs in Cæsar, B. G. III. 2 fin., and is a favourite

phrase with modern Latinists ; but the phrase is so rare that the
young student should abstain from imitating it, and should write,
instead of this, mihi persuadeo, mihi persuasi, mihi persuasum est;
at any rate he should avoid altogether persuasus, -a, -um, and its
superlative persuasissimus. Me persuaderi patior, which occurs in
Muretus, Op. 1. 662, is doubly false Latin.
Petitio, a petition,' is late Latin for rogatio, preces, venia.
Phoenicia is an erroneous form for Phoenice.
Placitum is unclassical and of rare occurrence for sententia, decretum,
dogma, praeceptum, quod placet.
Plenipotentiarius legatus is barbarous for legatus cum (publica) auctori-
tate.
Plures, ' several ,' is not classical for complures.
Poetaster is new Latin for malus poeta, poeta nescio quis.
Pollinctura is bad Latin for unctio et curatio cadaveris.
Polus, ' the pole, ' is only poetical for axis or vertex caeli.
Pone, ponamus hoc ita esse, posito ita, are bad phrases for fac, finge,
fingamus ita esse, statue, and the like.
Populatio, ' population,' and populosus, ' populous, ' are late Latin for
populifrequentia and frequens, celeber.
Positio verborum, ' position of words,' is bad Latin for collocatio, ordo
verborum ; and positura or positus is unclassical for positio, collocatio,
situs.
Possibilis is scarcely allowable for qui fieri potest or qui potest.
Postscribere is very rarely used for subscribere, adscribere.
Potestas (verborum) is late Latin for vis, significatio.
Prae gaudio, metu, &c. must be used only in speaking of joy or fear as
a hindrance, and cannot be used when we speak of them as a cause
of what happens.
Praecisus signifies brief,' ' in few words,' and must not be used to
express our ' precise,' i. e . ' exact .'
Praeconcepta opinio is bad Latin for opinio praejudicata, opinionis
commentum, &c.
Praedictus must not be used for antea, supra dictus.
Praeire alicui exemplo (suo), ' to set a person an example,' is bad Latin
for alicui exemplo esse quod sequatur.
Praejudicium is ' an opinion previously formed about a person or thing'
(Cic. Mur. XXVIII. § 60), not a prejudice or erroneous idea.
Praeparare, praeparatus are rarely found for parare, paratus.
Praesagium, ' a presage,' is rare for praesagitio, praedictio, praesensio,
divinatio.
518 APPENDIX V.

Praesens, ' this,' ' the present,' is bad Latin ; e. g. we must not write
praesenti hieme for ' in the present (i. e. this, hac) winter.'
Praeternaturalis is new Latin for portentosus, legibus naturae repugnans.
Praetextus (-um) is unclassical for species, simulatio, titulus, causa, &c.
Pretium, ' a reward,' is unusual for praemium, insigne.
Principium, a rule or principle,' is bad Latin for ratio, praeceptum,
sententia.
Pro et contra, ' for and against,' is not Latin.
Prodigalitas, prodigalis are scarcely allowable for luxuries, prodigus.
Producere is unclassical for gignere, efferre, procreare.
Proficere alicui, ' to profit a person,' is almost barbarous for alicui pro-
desse, utile esse, conducere.
Prolixus, ' long,' ' tedious,' is late Latin for copiosus, longus, verbosus.
Promovere studia is modern Latin for adjuvare, juvare studia, litteras.
Propria manu is barbarous for mea, tua, sua manu.
Protectio and protector are late Latin for patrocinium, tutela, defensio,
praesidium; patronus, defensor, tutor.
Protestari, ' to protest against something,' is barbarous for contra dicere,
adversari, intercedere.
Publicare, ' to make known,' is unclassical, and publicatio is never used
for promulgatio.
Publice is barbarous for palam, in publico, sub divo, &c.
Pusillanimus belongs to late Latin, but we may say animi pusilli,
parvi, &c.

Q.
Quin after dubito is unclassical ; see above, under dubitare.
Quomodo stat, it are barbarisms for quid agis ? Similarly, quomodo
vocaris for qui vocaris ? quo nomine es ? quid tibi nomen est ?
Quoque is often placed wrongly before the word to which it belongs, as
erravit quoque Muretus.

R.

Ratione temporis, in respect of the time,' ratione habita Platonis,

' regard being had to Plato,' and such phrases, are barbarous.
Recensere, ' to judge,' ' to review,' and recensio, ' a judgment,' ' a review, '
are common new Latin substitutes for judicium facere or recognos-
cere, and judicium or recognitio.
Recommendare, recompensare are French-Latin for commendare, remu-
nerare.
Reconciliare secum is barbarous for reconciliare sibi aliquem, redire cum
aliquo in gratiam.
 APPENDIX V. 519

Rectus locus, rectum tempus are barbarous for opportunus locus, -um
tempus, and mihi rectum videtur, ‘ it seems right to me,' is a mere
Anglicism for mihi videtur, or the like.
Referre or rejicere culpam in aliquem is barbarous for conferre culpam.
Regula, ' a rule' (in Grammar), is common, but really inadmissible, for
praeceptum. There is no plur. regulae.
Remittere peccata, ' to forgive sins,' is poetical, and late Latin for veniam
dare, ignoscere peccatis. In classical Latin we have remittere
poenam. The same objection applies to remissio peccatorum.
Reprobare is late Latin for improbare.
Reputatio, ' honour, ' ' reputation,' is French-Latin for existimatio, dignitas.
Respectu habito with the genitive is barbarous.
Respondere is never used in a dialogue for inquam .
Resurgere in the Christian sense is late Latin for in vitam redire.
Retego signifies to cover carefully' in writers of the silver age (see
Casaubon and Ernesti on Sueton. Octav. 78) ; but in the best
authors it means ' to uncover :' see Varronianus, p. 396.
Revelare, to reveal ' is a rare word for patefacere, aperire, in lucem
proferre.
Revolutio is late Latin for conversio.
Rogatio, ' a question ,' is barbarous for interrogatio.
Romanenses libri, ' Romances,' is new Latin for Milesiae fabulae.
Rotundum numerum ponere, ' To put it down in round numbers,' is late
Latin for numerum summatim comprehendere.
Rudera, ruinae do not mean ' standing, ' but ' prostrate ruins ;' a ruin
partly standing is parietinae (Cic. Tusc. III. 22), vestigia diruti
muri: see Duker on Livy, xxvi. 11.

S.
Salvator, salvificator, and the like, are late substitutes for servator. For
our Saviour we should say sospitator (Arnobius, adv. gent. 1. 42),
or nostrae salutis auctor, Manutius, Ep. II. 1. Salutaris is also a
suitable word (see Cic. Fin. III. 20, § 66, Juppiter salutaris).
Sapere aliquid, ' to savour of something,' figuratively, is not sanctioned
by usage.
Scholaris is barbarous for discipulus.
Scientia is not ' science' (i. e. knowledge reduced to principles) without
the addition of some gen. as medicinae, juris civilis, rei militaris,
&c.; accordingly, we ought not to write artes et scientiae, arts and
sciences, academia scientiarum, studiosus scientiarum, &c., but artes
et disciplinae, academia optimarum artium, studiosus doctrinae et
litterarum, &c.
520 APPENDIX V.

Sciolus, ' half-learned,' is late Latin for semidoctus, leviter eruditus, or, in
jest, eruditulus.
Sculptorius is new Latin for statuarius, and we should not write ars
sculptoria, but ars fingendi, signa fabricandi, statuaria.
Sectio, a small division of a book, though very common in modern
writing, is bad Latin for pars.
Secundus, second,' is barbarous for alter is such phrases as Cicero
erat secundus Demosthenes ; but we might say secundus a Demos-
thene.
Secus must not be used to signify ' wrongly ' without bene or recte pre-
ceding ; thus we cannot say haec verba secus vertisti for male ; but
we may say num recte an secus verteris nescio.
Seducere, ' to lead astray,' is late Latin for corrumpere, decipere, depra-
vare; so also seductio for corruptela, and seductor for corruptor.
Sensus, the meaning of a word or passage, is unclassical for notio,
sententia or intellectus (Quintil . I. 7).
Sentire dolorem, &c. is unusual for capere dolorem &c. ex aliqua re.
Septimana, a week, ' is very late Latin for septem dierum spatium,
septem dies, or hebdomas.
Serior is not used by the classical writers as a comparative, and only
the adverb serius is followed by quam, as in Cic. ad div. xv. 1 :
serius quam decuit. Cæsar (B. C. III. 75) has serissime, and it
occurs also in Pliny ; but admodum sero is more usual.
Serius of persons in our sense is antiquated for severus, austerus, gravis.
But serio, in earnest,' is good Latin.
Sermo, for a public discourse, is rare for oratio, concio. It is not
idiomatic to say, in giving the meaning of an author, hic est sermo
de-, but hic agitur de-, hic loquitur (e. g. Cicero) de―.
Sessio, a session,' e. g. senatus, is barbarous for concessus, concilium.
Sine omni spe is bad Latin for sine ulla spe.
Singulus hardly ever occurs except in the plural ; if we wish e. g. to express
' no single sect,' we must say nulla una disciplina (Cic. Tusc. Iv. 4,
" (
§7); this single book ' is hic singularis liber, this single legion'
is haec singularis legio ; on the other hand, singularis does not occur
for singuli in the plural, and to express e. g. ' separate, single
words, ' we must say singula verba, not singularia ; each sepa-
rate legion' is singulae legiones, not singula quaeque legio ; but
' every fifth year ' is not singulis quinque annis, but quinto quo-
que anno; and Ruhnken was wrong (Opusc. 1. 83), when he wrote
e centenis vix singuli for vix centesimus quisque, and in the fol-
lowing passage from the preface to an edition of plays published
in single volumes we must substitute the plural throughout : sin-
 APPENDIX V. 521

gulae fabulae singulum (singula) complebunt volumen (volumina),

ita quidem ut singulo (singulis) qui egeant singulum (singula)
emere possint.
Societas, ' a society of men,' is barbarous for sodalitas, coetus, conventus,
circulus, congressio.
Solemnis, usual,' is almost barbarous for usitatus, and solemnitas, ‘ a
solemnity,' is late Latin for solemnia.
Solidus in such phrases as solida doctrina, or eruditio, is not a pro-
per substitute for accurata, recondita, subtilis.
Solummodo is late Latin for tantummodo, tantum, solum, modo, dum-
taxat, &c.
Somnolentus is late Latin for somniculosus, somno deditus.
Specialis, specialiter, in specie are modern Latin for singularis, praecipuus,
proprius; singillatim, separatim, proprie, nominatim.
Speculatio is late Latin for investigatio, contemplatio.
Spicilegium, if used at all, must not be combined with notarum, anno-
tationum, observationum, and we must write in aliquo Scriptore,
not in aliquem Scriptorem.
Sponte must be accompanied by mea, tua, sua, and must not be used
alone, as is the practice with the best modern Latinists.
Spurius, ' illegitimate,' is late Latin for adulterinus, subditicius, subditus,
suppositicius, non verus, non germanus, and the like.
Statim atque (ac) is barbarous for statim ut (Cic. ad div. 111. 9, § 10).
Statua means the statue of man, never that of a god, which is signum,
simulacrum.
Stilus does not denote the language in general, which is oratio, or the
particular style of an orator or writer, which is dicendi or scribendi
genus (ars) ; it refers only to the pen and to the art of writing. Conse-
quently Scheller made a mistake in the very title-page of the book
by which he promised to teach the art of writing good Latin, when
he called it Praecepta stili bene Latini, instead of Praecepta artis
Latine scribendi.
Strictura, a stricture,' or ' severe criticism .' (Heyne, Praef. Virg. Tom.
I. p. vii.) is a barbarous substitute for judicium, censura, repre-
hensio.
Studere, ' to study,' must be followed by litteris, &c.; studium must not
be used in the singular for study ;' and studio must not be sub-
stituted for consulto, dedita or data opera, de industria.
Subactum ingenium must not be used except with a distinct reference
to the metaphor involved, as in Cic. de Orat. II. 30. As a general
epithet exercitatus or cultus is better.
Subaudire, subintelligere, ' to supply a missing word in the thought,' is
522 APPENDIX v.

quite an unauthorized modernism . The simple intelligere is

sufficient.
Subjugare is late Latin for subigere.
Submittere se legibus is barbarous for legibus obtemperare, and submittere
se alicui is inadmissible for subjicere se.
Subordinare is new Latin for supponere, subjicere.
Succincte, succinctim is late Latin for breviter, strictim.
Sufficienter, ' sufficiently,' is late Latin for satis, abunde ; likewise suffi-
ciens for quod satis est.
Summa, a sum of money,' is unclassical for pecunia.
Superfluus is unclassical and doubtful for supervacaneus, supervacuus.
Superscriptio is a barbarism for titulus, inscriptio.
Supplicatio is new Latin for supplex libellus.
Suspicere aliquem is not an authorized substitute for suspectum habere.
Syllabus is a late word for index.

T.

Tellus, the earth,' as an element, is barbarous for terra.

Tempus habere, nullum tempus habere, are barbarous for otium, vacuum
tempus alicui esse ; otii, vacui temporis nihil habere, otio carere.
Tenor, 'the general purport,' is late Latin for argumentum.
Terminus, a term,' i. e. ' a word ' is barbarous for vocabulum, verbum,
vox, and a technical term ' is not terminus technicus, but artis vo-
cabulum. Nor can terminus be used to signify a prescribed period
or time, which is dies data, praefinita, constituta.
Textus, the text of an author,' is not an authorized expression for
verba, oratio, locus, but it may be used as a technical term with
qui dicitur.
Theoria is modern Latin for ratio, ars, disciplina, doctrina.
Tortura, torture,' is late Latin for tormenta.
Tractare de aliqua re for aliquam rem is barbarous ; and there is no au-
thority for the use of tractatus, tractatio, in the sense of ' a treatise
on some subject.'
Traductio, ' a translation,' is an unauthorized word for interpretatio.
The same may be said of versio ; and also of translatio, which in
classical Latin means ' a metaphor.' The best word for ' to translate'
is reddere, vertere, convertere, exhibere.
Tumultuosus of men is barbarous for turbulentus, seditiosus.

U.

Ubertim is unclassical for abunde, copiose, &c. But uberius and uberrime
are good words.
 APPENDIX V. 523

Ullibi is new Latin for usquam, uspiam; see Nullibi.

6
Ultimus must not be used to signify the last,' i. e. immediately pre-
ceding ; thus we must say, e. g. anni decem proximi or superiores,
not ultimi.
Uncinus, ' a hook,' is later Latin for uncus.
Undiquaque is barbarous for undique.
Unguiculus, in the proverbial phrase a teneris unguiculis, should not be
used without ut Graeci dicunt (Cic. ad div. 1. 6), ut aiunt, u
dicitur.
Unice must not be used for unus, solus, in the sense ' alone.'
Usque huc is barbarous for usque ad huc.
Utique, by all means,' must not stand by itself in answer to a question ;
it always requires a verb. This particle is constantly misapplied by
modern Latinists.

V.

Vanitas, ' vanity,' ' pride,' is barbarous for ambitio, jactantia, arrogantia,
insolentia, &c.
Venia sit dicto occurs in Pliny, but the better phrase is bona venia or
pace tua dixerim.
Veracitas is new Latin for veritas, veri studium.
Verbo tenus and de verbo ad verbum are barbarisms for verbum e (de)
verbo, ad verbum, totidem verbis, eisdem verbis.
Verisimiliter is late Latin for probabiliter.
Vernacula lingua, vernaculus sermo is a modern application of a classical
term. Varro, L. L. IV. 12, opposes vernacula vocabula to peregrina.
Vertere, ' to translate,' is a good word, but not with such adverbs as
Latine, Graece, Anglice for in Latinam, &c.
Vice prima, altera, tertia, &c., ' the first, second, third time, &c.' is mo-
dern Latin, and so is the common vice versa for vicissim, and vice
iterata for iterum. Some modern Latinists think they are intro-
ducing an elegance when they write plus vice simplici for ' more
than once : ' which is plus quam semel, semel atque iterum. In the
passage of Horace from which they derive this barbarism (4 Carm.
XIV. 13) plus vice simplici means ' with more than a simple requital
or retirbution,' as the old scholiast Porphyrius explains it : Volt
intelligi in vastandis his non tantam solum illis cladem intulisse,
quantam ipsi dederant, sed duplam, hoc est, eam non simplici vice
reddentem .'
Vir must not be used with juvenis, senex, like our ' young man,' ' old
man.'
Visibilis is late Latin for adspectabilis, qui sub oculos, adspectum, cadit.
524 APPENDIX V.

Visitare, to visit,' is not used for convenire, visere, intervisere.

Visus, ' the sight,' is rare by itself for sensus videndi, acies, visus
oculorum.
Vivus, in the phrase ad vivum aliquid or aliquem exprimere, is without
authority for alicujus vivam imaginem exprimere.
Vix adhuc is barbarous for vix dum, vix jam; so also vix aliquis for vix
quisquam.
Voluptuosus, ' voluptuous,' is unclassical for voluptarius, voluptatibus
afluens.
Votum, ' the vote or opinion,' is barbarous for sententia.
Vox, ' a voice,' is not used for sententia, suffragium. Although vox in
the singular may denote a single word and voces several connected
words, the singular alone is used to denote ' a sentence, ' ' a saying,'
as in Cic. Tusc. 1. 46 § 11 : Laconis illa vox.
Vulgaris is not applied to persons in the sense of our ' vulgar,' and
vulgares homines, though used by Muretus (ad Cic. Cat. 11. 13) for
vulgus, is quite inadmissible .

Z.

Zelotypia, though used by Cicero, Tusc. IV. 8, § 18, is a Greek word,

which may be replaced by the Latin obtrectatio, aemulatio.
Zodiacus may be expressed in Latin by signifer orbis (Cic. de Div. 11 42,
§ 89 ; N. D. II. 20, § 53) or duodecim signorum orbis (Cic. N. D. II .
20, § 52).
I. INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES .

A. æqualis c. gen. 287

a, ab, abs, 180, 329 æque ac, 173
abdico, 290 æqui bonique facere, &c. 285
abhinc, 158, 316, 500 æquus and verus, 494
absolvo c. gen. 282 æquus, iniquus, æstimo, existimo, &c. ,
absque, 331 8, 223
abstineo c. gen. 282 ære, dat. for æri, 292, 311
abundans, abundo c. abl. 301, 302 æs grave, 64 .
abunde, 172, c. gen. 284 æstate tota, 316
abutor c. abl . 304 æstimo , &c., magni, parvi, &c. 285, 501
ac, atque, 191, with similis, æque, idem, ætate, 315
talis, pro eo, &c. 391 affatim, 172, c. gen. 284
accedit quod, 415 affectuum verba, 361
accedo ad vel in, 306 afficio, 302
accerso, arcesso, 134, 186 affinis, 287
accestis, 83 affluo, 302
accingor c. acc. 273 age, 205
accuso, 223, c. gen. 282 aggredior, 270
acervus, &c. c. gen. 284 agnosco, cognosco, ignosco, 487
Achilles, 19 agricola as neuter adjective, 45
acquiesco, 308 aio, 152
actutum, 158, 168, 218 alias, 174
ad, 181, 319 ; written ar, 186 alienus c. abl. et gen. 301
adeps, 185 aliquando, 167
adhibeo, 290, 500 aliquanto, 298, 500
adhuc, 159, 168, 500 alioqui, 174
adjaceo, 306 aliquis, 78, 388
adjuro = adjuvero, 97 aliquispiam, 78, 388
aditus laudis, 277 aliquid boni, aliquid triste, 283
admodum, 171 aliter, 174
admoneo c. gen. 279 alius, 45, 74, 377, 386
adno c. dat. et accus. 306 alius-alium, 257, 378
adspergo, 307 allatro, 307
adsto, 306 almus, 209
adsum, desum, &c. c. dat. 290 alter, 45, 377, 386
adulor, 307 alter-alterum, 257, 378
adversus, 181, 321 alteruter c. gen. 282
advocatus, 500 alumnus, 209
æmulor, 307 amans c. gen. 278
æmulus c. gen. 287 amb-, 187
526 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES.

ambo, uterque , 79, 386 B.

ambiguus c. gen. 286
ambio, 501 balneum, 52
amicior c. accus. 273 belli, 313
bellicosus, bellicus , 502
amicus, amo, 486
bello, 315
amcenus, 185, 438, 487 benedico, 290
amor, 207, 220
bidens, its two meanings, 224
amplius, plus without quam, 297
amplus, 485, 493 biduum, triduum, &c. 62
bimus, 68
an, 163
animadverto aliquid, in aliquem, 308 bissextus, 66
blandior, 290
animi pendeo, angor, excrucior, 280
bonus, 494
anno proximo, 315
annon, 164
annuus, 501 C.
ante, 181, 321
cæcutio, 503
antecedo, antesto, præsto, 307
antefero c. dat. 280 canis, 24
antequam, 355 cantillo, 222
antiquus, 484 capitalis, 503
aperio, 185, 438 capitis, capite,
apinæ, 53 careo, 503
appellandi verba, 267 carmen, 23
appositio, 238 castigo, 503
apprime, imprimis, 172 castrum, 53, 211
aptus ad aliquid, 287 catervatim, 155
apud, 181, 321 causâ, 185, 503
arbiter, 186 caveo with diff, cases, 308
cavillor, 222, 492
arceo, 302
arefacio, 438 cedo, cette, 153
celeber, 503
arguo, 186
armentum, 209 celo with dat. and acc. 272
armus, humerus, and tergum, 481 centesimæ usuræ, 65
artifex, two meanings, 45 certe, certo, 154
as, or libra, its subdivisions, 64 certiorem aliquem facere, 271
assecta, 501 cervix, 53
at, 197 ceteroqui, 174
Atropos, 473 cimeterium, 8
atrox, 185 cinctutus, 218
attendo, 502 cio, cieo, citum, citum, 103
attinet, 502 circa, circum, circiter, 182, 321
audiens dicto, 307 circumdo c. dat. et acc. 308
audio, video, facio c. particip. 360 circumvenio, 270
auditu, 368 cis, citra, 183, 322
augeo c. abl. 302 clam, 318
ausculto c. dat. et accus. 307 clarus, 484
ausim, 89, 153 codicillus, 53
aut, vel, -ve, 194 cœpi, 153
autem, 197 cœptus sum, 359, 503
ave, 153 cognitu, 368
avidus c. gen. 278 cognitum habeo, 364
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES. 527

columna, 209 cuncti, 79

comes, 482 cunque, 77
commiseror c. acc. 280 cupio, with diff. cases, 309
commodo c. dat. 289 curiosus, 505
commodus ad aliquid, 287 cutis and pellis, 480
commonefio, 280
communico aliquid c. aliquo, 290
communis c. gen. vel dat. 287
communis alicujus cum aliquo, 287 D.
comparo c. dat. 294 damnum , 209
compleo, 302 de, 180, 185, 333
complures. 43 debeo, 433
compos c. gen. 278 decies sestertium, &c. 62
con-, 186 decumanus, 67
conceditur, 268 . defungor, 303
condemno, damno, &c. 282 delicium , 52
conduco, 271 denarius, 64
confero, 290, 294 denuo, de integro, 170
confestim, 158, 168 descriptio, 505
confido, 308 desino, desisto, c. gen. 282
conjungo me c. aliquo, 290 desitus est , 359
conscribillo, 222 despero, with diff. cases, 307
consideratus, 152 detraho, 290
consto, with diff. constructions, 308 dextans = decunx, 64
consulo, with diff. constructions, 308 dextrocherium, 228
consultus c. gen. 279 Diana, quantity, 330
contendo c. dat. 294 dic, 435
contentus, 300 dicax, dicterium, 491
contingit c. dat. 268 dicor, 267
continuo, 158, 168 dictu, 368
contra, 181, 322 dies, 30
convenienter, &c. c. dat. 288 diespiter, 30
convenio, with diff. constructions, 309, differtus, 301
504 dignor, 304
convitior, 290 dignus , 300
convitium, 6 dignus qui, 352
copia, 284 diligentia, 506
coram, 181, 318 diligo, 486
cordi est, 292 dimidio, 298
corporeus , 504 dimidium, dimidia pars, 63
creatus, cretus, 295 dis-, dir-, 187
credo c. infin . 359 direxti, 89
creduim, 434 dirimo, disertus, 4
creor, 267 discingor, 273
crimen, 209, 497 disco, 184
crimine, 282 dispar c. gen. 287
crudelis erga aliquem , 287 dissimilis c. gen. 287
cruor and sanguis, 481 distentus, 301
cui bono fuerit, 292 disto c. dat. 293
cuicuimodi, 79 ditio, 59, 507
cum, 332 ; cum quem or quen, 317 do, dedo, &c., c. dat. 281, 292
528 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES.

do pecuniam mutuam, 271 ; do litteras, evado with double nom. 266

with diff. constructions , 309 ; do, evestigio, 158, 168
wrongly used, 505 excedo, 82
doceo, 271 excello præter, 307
doleo quod, or with the infin. 361 excerpta, 508
domi, domum, domo, 313 exigo, 272
domus, 32 existimo, 8
donec, 204, 355 exitu, 368
dono, 307 exosus, 152
dubito, dubium non est, 507 expedit c. dat. 268
dubito an, 507 expers c. gen. 278
duc, 435 expugnassere, 89
duco, 292 extemplo, 158, 168
duim, 433 exstinxem, 89
dulcis, 487 exteri, 51
dum, 204, 354 extorris, 300
dummodo, 354 extra, 183, 322
dumtaxat, 177 exuor c. acc. 273
duo, 61
durus erga aliquem, 287
F.
duumvir, 62
fac, 435
facetus, 491
E. facinus, 494
E, ex, 180, 334 facio, efficio ut, 360
ecce, 306 facio, with diff. cases, 309 ; wrongly used,
eccum, eccillum, ellum, 75 509
edepol, epol, 206 factu, 368
editus c. abl. 295 facundus, 215 •
egeo, 302 familias, genitive, 16
egredi e castris, modum, 270 fari, 153
eheu, quantity, 430 favonius, favor, 207, 220
ejus and suus, 383 faxo, faxim, 89, 153
en, 306 fecundus, 215
enim , 199 feneror, with diff. cases, 309
eo, 109 fer, 435
eo audaciæ ventum est, 284 fere, ferme, 174
epiredium , 228 ferunt, 267
epulum, 52 festivus, 491, 509
erepsemus , 9 fido, diffido, c. dat. 290
erga, 322 fiducia, 218
ergo, 197, 318 fio, 142
eripio c. dat. 293 fio, with double nom. 266; quantityof, 429
est mihi habeo, 289 flagitium , 498
et, 191, 373 ; either omitted between flocci, 285
three nouns or verbs, or inserted be- Floralia, 29
tween all, 423 fluo, 302
et non neque, 193 fore ut, 359
etiain and quoque, 193 forem, 153
etiamtunc, 169, 500 formido, 489
etsi, etiamsi, 202 forte, fortasse, forsitan, 175
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES . 529

fraus, 494 igitur, 197

fretus, 301 ignarus , 278
frugi, 494 illabor, 306
fruor, 303 ille, illa, illud, 73, 385 ; hic and ille, 376
frustra, nequidquam, incassum, 175 ille et ille , 377
fungor, 303 illico, 158, 168
illudo, 307
G. immanis, 492
Gaius, 8, 18, 430 immo, 162
gaudeo, or lætor, construction of, 361 ; immunis c. gen. et abl. 301
wrongly used, 509 impatiens and patiens c. gen. 278
genitus c. abl. 295 imperitus and peritus c. gen. 278
gentium, 284 impertio, 308
Geryon, quantity, 430 impius erga aliquem , 287
glorior c. abl. 304 ; de vel in, 305 impleo c. abl. et gen. 302
grandis , 492 impono with diff. constructions, 309
gratia, 318 impotens c. gen. 278
gratulor quod, quum, 415 imprudens as secondary predicate, 259
gratus, 487 imputo, 511
gravis c. abl. 30r in- negative prefix, 224
grex c. gen. 284 in, 181 , 338
gustatu, 368 in, intra, 183
inanis c. gen. et abl. 301
H.
inceptu, 318
habeo, wrongly used, 510 incessit me, mihi, 306
habeo c. part. perf. 364 incumbo with diff. cases, 309
habeor, 267 indigeo, 302
habilis ad aliquid, 287 indignus, 300
haud, 161 induo, 308
haud scio an, 161, 175 induor c. accus. 273
hei, 205 infensus and infestus, 485
hic, hæc, hoc, 72, 384 inferi, 51
hic et hic , 377 infitias, 6
hic and ille, 376 infra, 183, 323
ingens, 492
hiemps , 22
hodie, homo, quantity, 430 ingratus erga aliquem, 287
honestus, 213 iniquus, 8 ; erg. al. 282
hornus, 68 injuriosus erg. al. 287
horreo, with diff. cases, 309 inops, 278
hortor ut, 360 inquam, inquit, 153, 253, 506
humanus, 216 in quinquennium, 317
humerus, armus, & c. , 481 insipientis est, not insipiens est, 273
insisto with diff. cases, 308
humi, humo, 313
instar, 318
insuesco re, rei, 308
I, J.
insulto, 307
jam, nunc, 165 integer c. gen. 286
id temporis, id ætatis, id genus, 272 intellectu, 368
idem, eadem, idem, 74, 380 inter, 184, 323
idoneus , 287 intercludo, interdico, construction of, 308
idus, 65 interea loci, 284
D. L. G. 34
530 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES .

intereo, interimo, interficio, 485 locus, 314

interest, 280 luce (prima), 315
interrogo aliquem de aliqua re, 272
intersum c. dat. 290 ; with diff. con- M.
structions, 309 macte, 302, 305
intra, 324 mæror funeris, 277
invado c. dat. et acc. 306 magno, parvo, &c. emo, 286
inveniuntur qui, 400, 404 magnopere, 171
inventu, 368 magnus, 494
invideo, 291 major, maximus natu, 50
invitus as second predicate, 259 maledico, 290
ipse, ipsa, ipsum, 75, 380 malluvium , 224
iracundus, 215 malus, 494
irascor c. dat. 290 maneo with double nom. 266 ; with diff.
iri, 109, 142 cases, 309
is, ea, id, 74, 379 mare, pelagus, pontus, 489
et is, isque, 379 materies, 29, 486
iste, ista, istud, 72, 385 matrimonium, 211 , 486
itaque, 198 maturus c. gen. 286
item, itidem, identidem, 193 mea, tua, &c. 280
iterum, rursus, 169 medeor, medicor, 291, 307
jubeo, 360 mehercule, medius fidius, 206
jucundus, 487 mei, tui, sui, 277
jugum, compounds of, their quantity, 431 memini, 153, 279
junior, 50, 429 memor, 278
juris peritus, prudens, consultus, 250, 279 memoratu, 368
jussim, 89 mereo, mereor, with diff. cases, 309
juvenis, 24 meridie, 30, 274
juvo, 97 -met, 71
juxta, 181, 324 metuo, with diff. cases, 310 ; with ne,
juxta atque, 391 ut, 243, 352, 401
metuo distinguished from timeo, &c. 489
K. meum est, not mei est, 276
meus, tuus, suus, 277
Kalendæ, 65
migro, 508
Karthagini, ‘ at Carthage, ' 312 mihi, dat. eth. 288
militiæ, 313
L. minime gentium, 284
minor, minitor c. dat. 290
labor, 207
minoris, 298
lætor, or gaudeo, 361 miror, mirum est, construction, 361
largus, 492 misceo c. dat. 294
latet, 140, 513
misereor, miseror, miseret, 280
lenibat, 107 moderor with diff. cases, 310
lepos, 491 modicus c. gen. 286
levo, 302 modo, 166, 430
liber ab, 301 monia and muri, 488
libero, 302 molestus, 432
licet c. dat. 268, 358 moneo, 280, 430
lis, 27 monoculus, 228
locuples c. abl. 301 morte, dat. for morti, 301
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES. 531
moveri Cyclopa, 273 Nursia, 473
multi, pauci c. gen. 282 nusquam gentium, 284
multitudo with plur. verb, 257
multo, 298
multus, 492 0.
muri and mœnia, 488 ob, 324
obedio, 223
N. obliviscor, 135, 279
nam, 198 obscurus, 484
nascor, 150 obsequor, obtempero, pareo c. dat. 290
naturalis historia, 249 obsolesco, 186
natus, 295 obtineo, 515
nauci, 285 obtrecto c. dat. et accus, 307
ne, 161 occumbo with diff. cases, 308
ne-quidem, 162 odi, 153
necessarius c. gen. 287 Edipus, 438
necesse est c. dat. 268 O, ohe, quantity of, 430
nec== ne-quidem, 162 olim, 73, 166
(nec) neque, 190 omitto, 186, 438
necne, 164 omnino, 171
necnon, 193 omnis, 79
nefrundines, 31 onero, 302
negligo, 161 , 227, 486 onustus, 301
negotium, 161 operio, 186, 438
nemo c. gen. 282 oportet, 361
nequam, 494 oportuit te dicere, 359
nequeo, nequeor, 109 opulentus, &c. 217
nescio quis, 351 opus est, 303
ni, nisi, and si non, 201 orbus, orbo c. abl. 301, 301
nihil c. gen. 283 ore, dat. for ori, 311
nihil, (non) aliud quam, atque, &c. 392 Orion, quantity of, 430
nihil gravius, &c. 283 oro ut, 360
nihilo, 298 ortus, 295
nitor, 304 O si, optat. 347
noceo c. dat. 290 osus, exosus, perosus, 152
nocte superiore, 315
nolo c. part. perf. pass. 359
nomen mihi est, 289 P.
non, 161 pæne, 175
non solum, non modo, 177, 372 pænitet c. gen. 280
nonæ, 65 palam, 318
nonne, 163 par c. gen. et dat. 287
nostri, nostrum, 71 paratus ad aliquid, 287
novi and scio, 487 parco c. dat. 290
novitius, 6, 217, 429 parcus c. gen. 279
noxa and noxia, 494 pars, 277
nubo, 288 particeps c. gen. 278
nullus, 45, 78 partim, 155
num, 163 parum c. gen. 284
nunc, 165 parvo, 298
nuntius, 217 parvus, 492
34-2
532 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES .

pascor c. abl. 304 postea, posthac, 75, 156

patefacio, 438 posteri , 51
paterfamilias, &c. 16 postliminium, 187
patiens c. gen. 278 postquam, 354
patres conscripti, 484 postridie, 30, 274, 316
patrimonium, 211 postulo, 222 ; aliquid ab aliquo, 272
patronus c. dat. 288 postumus, 51
pauci c. gen. 282 potestas, 213
paveo, pavor, 489 potior, 303
paullo, 298 potissimum, 172
peccatum, 494 potus, 152
pejero, 432 præ, 181, 336
pellis and cutis, 480 præ, præter, 184
penes, 181, 325 præbeo, 433
penitus, 170 præbeo = præhibeo, 187, 433
per, 185, 325 præditus, 301
percontor aliquid ex aliquo, 272 præs and vas, 482
perdo, 485 præsertim, 172
perendie, 316 præsto, diff. constructions of, 310
perfruor, perfungor, 303 præstolor, 307
perinde ac, 173 præsum c. dat. 290
perinde quam, 174 præter, 326
peritus, 250 precor, posco, rogo, &c. 271
perosus, 152 primo and primum, 69
perpetuo, 167 primus, as secondary predicate, 259
perquam, 171 priusquam , 355
persuadeo, 360 ; persuasum habeo, 364 pro, 337 ; after quam, 394
pertæsus, 152 probeo = prohibeo, 187
peto with diff. cases, 310 proceres, 484
pietas and relligio, 486 procerus, 484
piget c. gen. 280 procul, 318
pili, 285 prodigus c. gen. 279
pius erga aliquem, 287 proh deum fidem, 306
plane, 171 prohibeo, 302, 429
plenus, 279 prohibessis, 89
pluit, used personally, 141 prologus, propola, 439
plurimo, 298 promo, 117
pluris, 298 pronubus, 432
polibant, 107 prope, 326
polliceor c. infin. 359 prope, propemodum, 175
pomeridianus, 187 prope, propter, 184
pomærium, 187 proprius, c. gen. 287
Pompei, 430 propter, 181, 185, 327
pondo, 57 prorsus, 171
pondus, 284 protinus, 159, 168
pone, 182, 326 prospicio with diff. cases, 310
pono posino, 134, 187, 429 -pte, 71
populus and plebs, 484 prudens c. gen. 250, 259 ; as secondary
posco with double accus. 272 predicate, 259
possum, 137 ; potui facere, 359 pudet c. gen. 280
post, 182, 326 pugnare pugnam, 270
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES.
533
punior, 149
quoad, 204, 355
pătă, 435 quoad ejus fieri potest, 284
quod, ' so far as,' 416
Q. quod, quia, 200, 356, 414
qu-, 3, 431 quominus, 203, 419
quadrigati nummi, 64
quondam, 318
quæro, 134
quoniam, 76, 200, 356
quæso, 153 quoties, 354
qualiscunque, 79
quotquot, 400
quam pro, 394
quotusquisque, 80, 387
quam ut, 417
quousque, 204
quam omitted after plus, amplius, &c.
quum, 354, 356 ; ' because,' 356, 416
297, 394
quamdiu, 204
quamquam, quamvis, quantumvis, 202, R.
356, 399
quandoquidem, 200, 356, 432 ratio, 488
quanti, quanto, 298 re-, 187
reccidi, 439
quantulus, 80
recensitus, recensetus, quantity of, 433
quantumvis, 356
receptio followed by an accus. 362
quasi, 173, 359
quatridui (bidui, tridui), 315 recipio, different constructions of, 310
recordor, 279
quem or quen with cum, 317 redundo, 302
quemadmodum, quomodo, 391
refert, 280
queo , 109 refertus, 301
querimonia, 214
qui, quæ, quod, 75 relligio, pietas, 486
remedium iræ, 277
quiet is, sed is, 373, 375 ; = si quis, 395,
reminiscor, 279
403 ; talis ut, 352, 403 ; quamquam
is, 403 ; ut is, 402 renes, 31
qui tuus est erga me amor, &c., 264 renuntio, diff. construction of, 310
qui, 76; for utinam, 395 reor, 148, 488
quia, 200, 356, 414 repente, 159, 168
reperiuntur qui, 400, 404
quicunque, 79 ; with the indic. 399
quidem, 376 repetundarum, repetundis, 366
quilibet, 78 repperi, 439
quin, 203, 420 rerum potiri, 304
quintana (via), 67 res, reus, &c. 488
resisto c. dat. 289
quippe, 163
respondeo, diff. construction of, 310
quippe qui, 356
rettuli, 439
quis, quæ, quid, 76
quis, quispiam, 77, 388 rogo, 272
rotundus and teres, 482
quisquam, 78, 389 rudis ad, 279
quisque, 79, 257, 377, 386
rudo and rudo, 116
quisque, position of, 251
quisquis, quicquid, quidquid, 80 rus, rure, ruri, 313
quisquis , &c. with the indic. 400
quitus est, 89 S.
quivis, 78
quivis, quilibet, 78, 389 salto, sapio c. accus. 270
quo, 202, 418 salve, 153
534 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES.

sanguis and cruor, 481 statim, 159, 168

satis, affatim, abunde, 172 statutus, 218
sat, satis c. gen. 284 studeo c. dat. 290
satius fuit c. dat, 268 studium, 521
satus c. abl. 295 suadeo c. dat. 291
scelus, sceleratus, scelestus, 497 suavis, 487
sciens, as secondary predicate, 259 sub, 340
scilicet, 163 subeo c. dat. et accus. 306
scio and novi, 487 subito, 159, 168
sciscitor, 272 subter, 184, 340
scito, imper. 435 succenseo and suscenseo, 187 ; c. dat.
scitu, 368 290
se-, 188 sui, sibi, &c. 70, 382
se, suus, 70, 382 sultis si vultis, 205
se and eum, 382 sum, 89
secundo, iterum, 69 sumentum, 209
secundum, 182, 327 sumo, 117, 429
secundus, 214, 362 sunt qui, 353, 400
securus, 188, 484 suovetaurilia, 228
sed, 196, 375 super, 341
semper, 167 superi, 51
semisopitus, 432 supersedeo, constr. 302, 308
senex and vetus, 483 supplex c. gen. 287
senior, 50 supra, 183, 328
sequester, 218 surrexe, 83
servasso, 89 suscipio, succipio, 187
servio c. dat. 288 suscipio, 271
sestertius, 64 suspitio, 6, 429
setius, 6, 48, 429 suus, 70, 382
seu (sive), 195
si, optative, 347 ; conditional, 245 ; after
ita or sic, 395 ; after ut, velut, ac, T.
quam, 397
sicunquam, 168 tactio, followed by an accus. 362
similis c. gen. et dat. 287 tædet, 280
similis atque, 391 talis, &c. 79
simul, 318 tamen, 197
sine, 337 tametsi, tamenetsi, 202, 357
sino, 134 tamquam, 173, 354
si non, 201 tanti, tantidem æstimo, &c. 284
tantum c. gen. 284
siquidem, 201, 432
sive, 195 tantum abest ut-ut, 417
sis si vis, 205 tempero with diff. cas. 310
tenuis, 492
socors, socordia, 188, 430
sodes si audes, 205 tenus, 184, 318
solitus sum c. infin. pass. 359 teres and rotundus, 482
solus, 188 ; c. gen. 282 tergum, tergus, 481
solvo with diff. cas. 310 terrarum with ubi, 284
врего, 359 timeo, diff. construction of, 311
sponsor, 482 timeo ne, ut, 243, 352, 401
sponte, 57, 164 timeo, distinguished from metuo, 489
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES . 535

tonitru, 59 V.
trado, 271 vaco c. dat. et abl. 291 , 311
trans, 183, 328 vacuus, 301
traxe, 83 valde, 171
trepido, 489 vale, 153
tribuo, 292 valeo, diff. constructions of, 311
tricæ, 53 vapulo, 142, 305
tridui, 315 vas and præs, 482
tripudiatio, 441, 450 vastus, 492
triumvir not triumviri, 62 -ve, 194
triumvir, tres vivi reipublicæ constituen- ve-, vehe- , 188
dæ, &c. 292, 311, 367 vecors, vehemens , 188
turba c. verb. plur. 257 vectigal, ultrotributum, 165
vel, 194
vel, 6 for example,' 374
veneo, 142, 305
veneficus, 438
U. '
venit mihi in mentem c. gen. 280
ubi, ' when,' 409 verecundus, 215
ubi c. gen. 284 vereor ne, ut, 243, 352, 401
ullus, 78, 389 vereor, 489
ultra, 184, 329 versus , 328
ultro, 164 versutus , 218
ultro tributum, 165 verum, vero, verumenimvero, 197
Ulyxes, 19 verus, 494
unciarium fenus, 65 vescor c. abl. 304
universus, 79 vestibulum, 188
unus, 46 vestri, vestrum, 71
urinor, 148 veto, 494
usque, 167 vetus c. gen. 286
usque ad, 184 vetus and senex, 483
ut, ' that, ' 242, 416, 418 ; ' as,' 351, 390 ; vicinus, 287
'although,' 357 ; omitted after certain videor, 267
verbs, 361 vigilare noctem, 271
ut non for quin, 420 vigilia, abl. 315
uter, 77 vili, 298
uterque, ambo, 79 vir, 17
utilis, &c. c. dat. 287 vir, virum, 257
utinam , 346 vis with plur. verb, 257
utique, 171 visu, 368
utor c. abl. 304 vitium, 494
Jutpote qui, 356 vivere vitam, 270
utrum =an, 163 volo c. part. perf. pass. 359
 II. INDEX OF SUBJECTS .

A. with prepositions, 319, 338

Abbreviations, 468 of space or time, 311
Ablative, meaning of the term, 12 Active verbs used as deponents, 151
plur. in -abus, 16 Additions to the present tense of verbs,
in -ubus, 32 134
sing. in -i or -e, Adjectives in -is and -us, 45
of the agent with a, ab, comparison of, 46
238, 295 derived, 214
of the instrument, 294 agreement with substantive,
of the cause, 295 258
of the manner, 295 as secondary or tertiary predi-
of reference, 296 cates, 230, 259
of comparison, 296 as epithets of the same noun
of the measure of quan must be joined by a con-
tity, 297 junction, 423
of price, 298 Adonius, 448
of quality, 298 Adverbs of negation, &c. 156, 161
absolute, 299, 410 of place, 157, 164
of the object , 300 of time, 158, 165
with prepositions, 329, 338 of manner or degree, 160, 170
with potior, fungor, &c. Adversative conjunctions, 190, 197
303 sentences, 374
of the gerund, 366 Alcaic verse, 454
Acatalectic, 444 Alphabet, Latin , 2
Accents, 9 Anacrusis, 443
Accentual verse, 460 Anapæstic verse, 449
Accusative, meaning of the term, 12 Anomalous nouns, 51
in -em or -im, 27 Antibarbarus, 499
of the immediate object, 239, Antispastic rhythm, 457
269 Apposition, 232, 237, 259, 264
before the infinitive, 240 Archilochian verse, 456
in the figura etymologica, 270 Arrangement of words in a sentence,
double, 270 247
of reference, 271 Arsis and thesis, 441
Greek, 272 Arts and Faculties, 470
with verbs of putting on or Asclepiadean verse, 449
off, 272 Asynartete rhythm, 453
interjectional, 273 Attraction of the relative, 263
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS . 537
B. with compound verbs, 289
Bacchiac verse, 460 with verbs denoting an affection
Bachelor, baccalaureus, 471 of the mind, 290
Basis, 443 of destination, 292
instead of a prepositional phrase,
292
C.
of the agent with gerunds and
Cæsura, 440, 444 gerundives, 293
Calendar, Roman , 66 of the gerund, 366
Cases, their general distinctions, 12 Declensions, 12
Catalectic, 444 Defective verbs ( specially), 152
Causal sentences, 421 Definitive sentences, 397
Choriambic verse, 449 Deponent verbs, 142
Classic authors, 1, 463 used in a passive sense,
Collective nouns, their construction, 257 151
Comic metres, 43 , 457 Derivation of verb-forms, 88
Comparative sentences , 390 Derivation and composition, 207
Diæresis, 444
Comparison, degrees of, 46
Compound words, 222 Dialysis, 440
verbs with a transitive signifi- Diminutives, their formation, 212
cation, 82 Dipodia, 443
Concessive sentences, 421 Diphthongs, 7 ; their quantity, 429
Conditional sentences, 245, 395 Disjunctive conjunctions, 194, 196
Conjugations, 85 sentences, 373
Conjunctions , copulative, 189, 191 Dissyllabic perfects, their quantity, 432
adversative, 190, 196 Distinctive pronouns, 74
inferential, 190, 197 sentences, 377
causal, 190, 199 Distributive numerals, 67
conditional, 190, 201 sentences, 375
concessive, 191, 202 Double negatives, 162, 193
final, 191, 202 Doubting, verbs of, 203, 420
temporal, 191, 204 Ecthlipsis, 440
Consonantal nouns, 22 Elegiac verse, rules of, 447
verbs, 109 Ellipsis , 424
Co-ordinate sentences, 371
Copulative sentences, 371 E.
Correlative pronouns, 77, 79 Enclitics, 253
Countries, names of, treated as names of Epistolary addresses, 472
towns, 313
Epistles, imperfect and pluperfect used
Cretic, 451
in , 472
Epithets, two or more, connected by
D. copulative conjunctions, 423
Dative in -e for -i, 311 Epode, 452
of limitation with adjectives, 287
of limitation with predicative sub- F.
stantives, 288 Fates, 473
of limitation with verbs (dativus Fearing , verbs of, with ut and ne, 243,
commodi vel incommodi), 288 352
with verbs of giving, &c. 289 Feet, metrical, 442
with sum for habeo, 289 Final sentences , 418
 538 INDEX OF SUBJECTS .

Fractions, how expressed in Latin, 63 Illative sentences, 416

Frequentative verbs, formed from nouns, Imperative, 345
220 of dico, duco, facio, fero, and
Future, 345 scio, 435
Imperfect, 343
G. Impersonal verbs, 140, 142
Galliambic verse, 456 Inchoative verbs, 135
Gender of nouns, 13, 36 Indefinite pronouns, 77, 388
Genitive in -as of the first declension, 16 Indicative pronouns, 72, 384
in -i from Greek nouns in -es, mood, 343
19, 33 and subjunctive, 241, 350
in -i for -ii of the second declen- Indirect or oblique interrogation, 242,
sion, 18 401
in -es for ei of the third declen- Infinitive mood, 357
sion, 30 as neuter substantive, 13
in -um for -orum of the second as subject of the sentence,
declension, 18 358
in -um or -ium, 28 with accusative, 240, 268
of possession, 274 after verbs of command-
ofquality, 275 ing, &c. 360
of the object, 277 Interest of money, 65
(1 ) with substantives, 277 Interjections, 205
(2) with adjectives, 278 Interrogative pronouns, 76
(3) with verbs, 279 particles, 163
of partition, 282 Interrogatives (oblique), 242
of quantity , 283 Intransitive verbs with the accusative,
of number, 284 270
of price or value, 285 Ionic a minore (a majore), 450
of relation, 286 Islands, construed like the names of
position of the, 250 towns, 313
of the gerund, 366 Ithyphallic verse, 450
Gerund and gerundive, 84, 364
Glyconic verse, 448
Gods, the, 12, 473
Graces, 473 L.
Greek nouns , 18, 33 Latinity, modern,
old, specimens of, 464
Latin language, I
H.
Letters, classification of, 2
Hemimer, 444 their subdivisions, 7
Hemiolian rhythms, 451 Long syllables, 428
Hindering or refusing, verbs of, 203, 419
Hexameter, rules of, 444
Hipponactean verse, 450 M.
Hypercatalectic, 444
Hypothetical propositions, 369 Metre, 441
Millions, how expressed in Latin, 61
I. Money (Roman), 64
Months, names of, as adjectives, 43
Iambic verse, 451, 458 their divisions, 65
Ictus, 441 Mora, in metre, 441
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS: 539

Multiplication expressed by distributives

and numeral adverbs , 61
Muses, 473 Quantity, 428
of middle syllable, 432
of the final syllable, 434
of syllables as affected by metre,
N. 439
Names of persons, 468, 472 differences of, in memorial lines,
475
of relationship and affinity, 474
Questions double, what particles employed
Negative particles, 161
Neuter deponents or passives, 125, 129, in, 163
152
Nominative , 256
R.
for the vocative, 305
Numerals, 59 Reflexive pronouns, their use, 70, 382
Numeral adverbs, 69 Relative and interrogative pronouns, 75
pronoun with indicative mood,
241, 397
0. with subjunctive, 241 ,
400
Objective sentences, 414 agreement with its an-
Oblique narration, 242, 353, 405 tecedent, 262
Octonarius, 458, 459 Rhyming verses, 446, 461
Ordinal numbers, 62 Rhythm , 441
Orthography, select specimens of, 3 Rome, seven hills, tribes, and kings, 473

P. S.

Pæon primus, &c. 450, 456 Sapphic verse, 453

Participles, 362, 410 Saturnian verse, 441, 450
Patronymics, 213 Scanning or scansion, 442
Perfect, formation of, 123 Scazon, 452
indicative, 343 Seasons, 474
subjunctive, 348 Semi- consonantal nouns, 27
Pherecrateus, 450 Senarius, 452, 458
Place, case of, 311 Sentences, different kinds of, 370
Pleonasm, 423 Septenarius, 458, 459
Pluperfect indicative, 344 Short syllables ,
subjunctive, 349 Subject of the sentence, 256
Plural nouns with no singular, 52 Subjunctive and indicative, 241, 350
Poetic style, 462 Subjunctive sentences, 400
Potential tenses, of, 346 8qq. Subjunctive with ut the subject of imper-
Predicates, 230 sonal verbs, 417
Prepositions, 178, 236, 317 Subordinate sentences, 395
words used as, 318 Substantive verb, 89
Present indicative, 343 Substantives, derived, 206
subjunctive, 346 Superlative, 46
Pronouns, 70 with quam, quantus, quisque,
Propositions, their parts, 229 393
Prosody, 428 Supines, 367
 540 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
Syllables, 7
Synæresis , 440 V.
Synalœpha , 439 Verbs, their inflexions, 81
Synonyms, 78, 161 sqq. 480 sqq. their classification, 92
Syntax, main rules of, 237 conjugations of, 85
of agreement and government, construed with different cases, 306
256 derived, 219
compound, 227
Verse, 443
Vocative, 305
T. Vowels , changes of, 8, 223, 430
Vowel nouns, 14
Tartarus, rivers of, 473
verbs, 92
Temporal sentences , 409
Tenses , 342
used in epistles, 472 W.
their congruity in consecutive Week, days of, 474
sentences , 243 Winds , Roman, 473
Time, how expressed, 315 Words, arrangement of, in a sentence,
Titles, University, how expressed in 247
Latin, 470
Tmesis, 462 Z.
Trochaic verse, 450, 459
Zodiac , signs of, 474

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