Chapter 2

Nonlinear Functions

We look at different types of nonlinear functions, including quadratic functions, poly-

nomials and rational, exponential and logarithmic functions, as well as some applica-
tions such as growth and decay and financial functions.

2.1 Properties of Functions

A function is a rule which assigns to each element in one set one and only element
from another set. A non linear function is not a straight line. A function be described
in different ways, such as using a set diagram, table or by equation. The domain is
the set of all possible values of the independent variable of a function x; the range is
the set of all possible values of the dependent variable of a function y = f (x). Two
special types of functions are discussed, including:

• even function: f (−x) = f (x), a function symmetric about the y-axis,

• odd function: f (−x) = −f (x), a function symmetric about the origin.

Step functions are also discussed.

39
40 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

Exercise 2.1 (Properties of Functions)

1. Graphs of functions. Which graphs are functions? (Hint: Use vertical line test.)

5 5

-5 5 -5 5

5 5

-5 -5
(c)
(a)
-5 5 -5 5

-5 -5
(d)
(b)

Figure 2.1 (Function or not?)

(a) Figure (a) (i) function (ii) not a function

(b) Figure (b) (i) function (ii) not a function
(c) Figure (c) (i) function (ii) not a function
(d) Figure (d) (i) function (ii) not a function

2. Set diagrams and functions. Are correspondences between x and y in following

set diagrams functions or not?

X Y X Y

-6 -2 -6 -2
3 1 3
5
8 5 1
4 4
10 6 10 6
45 11 45 11

(a) function or not? (b) function or not?

Figure 2.2 (Function or not?)

(a) Figure (a) (i) function (ii) not a function

(b) Figure (b) (i) function (ii) not a function
There is more than one value of y for one value of x; in particular, when x = 3, y = −2, 1.

3. Tables and functions. Are correspondences between x and y in following tables

functions or not?
Section 1. Properties of Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3) 41

(a) (i) function (ii) not a function

domain, x -6 3 5 8 10 45
range, y -2 1 1 4 6 11
(b) (i) function (ii) not a function
domain, x -6 3 3 5 10 45
range, y -2 -2 1 4 6 11
There is more than one value of y for one value of x; in particular, when x = 3, y = −2, 1.

(c) (i) function (ii) not a function

domain, x -1 2 3.3 4
range, y 6 12 31.37 46
(d) (i) function (ii) not a function
domain, x -1 -1 3.3 4
range, y 6 12 31.37 46
There is more than one value of y for one value of x; in particular, when x = −1, y = 6, 12.

(e) (i) function (ii) not a function

domain, x 6 12 31.37 46
range, y -1 -1 3.3 4
4. Function or not?
(a) y = x2 − 3 (i) function (ii) not a function
2
(b) x = y − 3 (i) function (ii) not a function
There is more than one value of y for one value of x; for example, when x = 1, y = −2, 2.

(c) y = x3 − 3 (i) function (ii) not a function

3
(d) x = y − 3 (i) function (ii) not a function
There is only one value of y for one value of x; when x = 5, y = 2 and when x = −11, y = −2, say.
√
(e) y = x (i) function (ii) not a function
(f) y = |x| (i) function (ii) not a function
(g) |y| = x (i) function (ii) not a function
There is more than one value of y for one value of x; for example, when x = 2, y = −2, 2.

5. Range. If the domain is {−1, 0, 1, 2}, determine the range.

(a) y = 2x − 3
(i) {−5, −3, −1, 1}
(ii) {−7, −3, −1, 1}
(iii) {−5, −3, −1, 2}
Calculator: type domain into L1 (STAT ENTER), define L2 = 2L1 − 3 ENTER.
42 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

(b) y = (x + 1)(x + 3)
(i) {0, 3, 8, 15}
(ii) {−1, 3, 7, 14}
(iii) {2, 3, 4, 7}
Calculator: define L2 = (L1 + 1)(L1 + 3) ENTER.

6. Domain. Determine the domain.

(a) y = 2x − 3
(i) (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) (ii) (−1, 1) (iii) (−∞, ∞)
(b) y = (x + 1)(x + 3)
(i) (−∞, ∞) (ii) (−3, −1) (iii) (−∞, −3) ∪ (−1, ∞)
√
(c) y = x − 5
(i) [5, ∞) (ii) (−5, ∞) (iii) (−∞, −5) ∪ (5, ∞)
√
y= x − 5 defined when (x − 5) ≥ 0; that is, when x ≥ 5.
q
(d) y = (x + 1)(x + 3)
(i) (−∞, −3] ∪ [−1, ∞) (iii) [−3, ∞) (ii) (−1, ∞)
p
y= (x + 1)(x + 3) defined when (x + 1)(x + 3) ≥ 0; that is, either when x ≤ −3 or x ≥ −1.
8
(e) y = − x+1
(i) (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞) (iii) [−1, ∞) (ii) (−1, ∞)
8
Equation y = − x+1 exists when x + 1 6= 0; that is, when x 6= −1.

(f) Consider
8
(
− x+1 if x 6= −1
f (x) =
−8 if x = −1
(i) [−1, ∞) (ii) (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞) (iii) (−∞, ∞)

7. Evaluating functions. Determine f (1), f (k), f (1/k) and x such that f (x) = 1.

(a) y = 2x − 3
2−3k
i. −1, 2k − 3, k
,2
2
ii. −1, 2k − 3, k
− 3, 2
2
iii. −1, 2k − 3, k
− 3, 3
If y = 2x − 3 = 1 then 2x = 4, so x = 2.
8
(b) y = − x+1
8 8k
i. −4, k+1
, − 1+k , −9
8 8k
ii. −4, − k+1 , − 1+k , −9
8 8k
iii. −4, − k+1 , 1+k , −9
8 8 8 8k
Notice − 1 +1 =− 1+k = − 1+k = − 1+k .
k k k k
Section 1. Properties of Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3) 43

8. Evaluating functions. Determine f (x + h), f (x + h) − f (x), f (x+h)−f

h
(x)
.

(a) y = 2x − 3
i. 2x + 2h − 3, 2h, 2
ii. 2x + 2h + 3, 2h, 2
iii. 2x + 2h − 3, 2h + x, 2
f (x + h) = 2(x + h) − 3 = 2x + 2h − 3
f (x + h) − f (x) = (2x + 2h − 3) − (2x − 3) = 2h
f (x+h)−f (x) 2h
h
= h
= 2.
8
(b) y = − x+1
8 8h 8
i. − x+1 , ,
(x+h+1)(x+1) (x+h+1)(x+1)
8 8 8
ii. − x+h+1 , (x+h+1)(x+1) , (x+h+1)(x+1)
8 8h 8
iii. − x+h+1 , (x+h+1)(x+1) , (x+h+1)(x+1)
8 8
f (x + h) = − (x+h)+1 = − x+h+1
8 8 8(x+1) 8(x+h+1) 8h
f (x + h) − f (x) = − x+h+1 − − x+1 = − (x+h+1)(x+1) + (x+h+1)(x+1)
= (x+h+1)(x+1)
f (x+h)−f (x) 8h 8h 1
h
= [ (x+h+1)(x+1) ] ÷h= (x+h+1)(x+1)
× h
.

9. Even, odd or neither functions. Classify functions as even, odd or neither.

5 5

-5 5 -5 5

-5 -5

(a) even function: f(-x) = f(x) (b) odd function: f(-x) = -f(x)

Figure 2.3 (Even and odd functions)

(a) Since f (−x) = f (x), figure (a) is (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
(b) Since f (−x) = −f (x), figure (b) is (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
(c) y = x2 − 3 (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
Notice f (−x) = (−x)2 − 3 = f (x) = x2 − 3.
3
(d) y = x − 3 (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
Notice f (−x) = (−x)3 −3 = −x3 − 3 6= f (x) = x3 − 3
and also f (−x) = −x3 − 3 6= −f (x) = −(x3 − 3) = −x3 + 3.
44 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

(e) y = x3 (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither

Notice f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 6= f (x) = x3
but f (−x) = −x3 = −f (x) = −x3 .
√
(f) y = x (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
√
Notice f (−x) = −x is undefined.

(g) y = |x| (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither

Notice f (−x) = | − x| = x = f (x) = |x| = x.
q
(h) y = (x + 1)(x + 3) (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
Notice f (−x) = (−x + 1)(−x + 3) 6= f (x) = (x + 1)(x + 3)
and also f (−x) = (−x + 1)(−x + 3) 6= −f (x) = −(x + 1)(x + 3).
8
(i) y = − x+1 (i) Even (ii) Odd (iii) Neither
8 8
Notice f (−x) = − −x+1 6= f (x) = − x+1
8 8
and also f (−x) = − −x+1 6= −f (x) = x+1 .

10. Step functions: lawyer fees. Lawyer fees per hour, f (x), versus number of years
of experience, x, are given in graph below.

f(x) 1000
pay per hour

750
500

250

1 2 3 x
years of experience
Figure 2.4 (Step function: lawyer fees)

(a) After 1 year of experience, a lawyer makes f (1) =

(i) $0 (ii) $250 (iii) $750 (iv) $1000
(b) After 2 years of experience, a lawyer makes f (2) =
(i) $0 (ii) $250 (iii) $750 (iv) $1000
(c) After 1.5 years of experience, a lawyer makes f (1.5) =
(i) $0 (ii) $250 (iii) $750 (iv) $1000
(d) After 0.5 years of experience, a lawyer makes f (0.5) =
(i) $0 (ii) $250 (iii) $750 (iv) $1000
 kt
r
11. Financial formula: A = P 1 + k
Section 2. Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflection (LECTURE NOTES 3)45

(a) If $700 is invested at 11% yearly interest compounded monthly, what will
be its value after 8 years?
 kt  8(12)
A = P 1 + kr = 700 1 + 0.11
12
=
(i) 1580.88 (ii) 1680.88 (iii) 1780.88
(b) If $121 is invested at 3% annual interest compounded daily (assume 365
days per year), its value after 4 years is
 kt  4(365)
A = P 1 + kr = 121 1 + 0.03
365
=
(i) 116.43 (ii) 126.43 (iii) 136.43

2.2 Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflec-

tion
A quadratic function is defined as:

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

where a, b, c are real, a 6= 0. The graph of a quadratic is always a parabola. The

maximum/minimum point (vertex) of quadratic/parabola is given at:
!!
b b
(h, k) = − , f −
2a 2a

Increasing c moves (translates) parabola upwards; decreasing c translates parabola

downwards. Negative a flips (reflects) parabola downwards; positive a reflects parabola
upwards. Increasing magnitude of a increases steepness of parabola. Completing the
square of the quadratic, by factoring first two terms of quadratic then adding the
square of one-half of the coefficient of x in the parentheses and subtracting outside,
gives
y = a(x − h)2 + k
where (h, k) is, again, the vertex of the parabola. For any function f and positive h
and k,

• y = f (x) + k is graph of f (x) translated upwards by k

• y = f (x) − k is graph of f (x) translated downwards by k

• y = f (x − h) is graph of f (x) translated right (not left!) by h

• y = f (x + h) is graph of f (x) translated left by h

• y = −f (x) is graph of f (x) reflected upward down, vertically, across x-axis

46 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

• y = f (−x) is graph of f (x) reflected horizontally, across y-axis

Exercise 2.2 (Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflection)

1. Describing the quadratic. Consider the following graphs of quadratic functions.

5 5 5
reflection down

vertex (-1/3, 2/3) (1/3, 4/3)

-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

(-1/3, -4/3)

-5
translation down
-5 -5

2 2 2
(a) f(x) = 3x + 2x + 1 (b) f(x) = -3x + 2x + 1 (c) f(x) = 3x + 2x - 1

Figure 2.5 (Different Quadratic Functions)

Graph (a): Y=, then type Y1 = 3x2 + 2x + 1, 2nd QUIT, WINDOW -5, 5, 1, -5, 5, 1, 1, GRAPH
similar for graphs (b) and (c)

(a) Function (a). f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = 3x2 + 2x + 1.

Function f (x) reflects (i) up (ii) down because a = 3 > 0

y-intercept: when x = 0, f (0) = (i) −1 (ii) 0 (iii) 1

x-intercept(s): when y = 0,
√ q √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −2 ± 22 − 4(3)(1) −2 ± −8
x= = = =
2a 2(3) 6
√
(i) 1 (ii) does not exist (iii) − 23 since −8 is not a real number.

2
b
vertex. Since h = − 2a = − 2(3) = (i) − 31 (ii) − 16 (iii) 13 ,
     2  
b
and k = f − 2a = f − 31 = 3 − 13 + 2 − 13 + 1 = 23 ,
(Type 3x2 + 2x + 1 into Y=, 2nd QUIT, VARS Y–VARS ENTER ( − 13 ) ENTER, MATH ENTER.)
     
then (h, k) = (i) − 13 , − 31 (ii) − 31 , 23 (iii) − 31 , 43
which is a (i) minimum (ii) maximum
Section 2. Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflection (LECTURE NOTES 3)47

(b) Function (b). f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = −3x2 + 2x + 1.

Function f (x) reflects (i) up (ii) down because a = −3 < 0

y-intercept: when x = 0, f (0) = (i) −1 (ii) 0 (iii) 1

x-intercept(s): when y = 0,
√ q √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −2 ± 22 − 4(−3)(1) −2 ± 16
x= = = =
2a 2(−3) −6

(circle two!) (i) 1 (ii) − 13 (iii) 2

3

2
b
vertex. Since h = − 2a = − 2(−3) = (i) − 31 (ii) − 61 (iii) 13 ,
     2  
1
b
and k = f − 2a =f 3
= −3 31 + 2 13 + 1 = 34 ,
(Type −3x2 + 2x + 1 into Y=, 2nd QUIT, VARS Y–VARS ENTER ( 13 ) ENTER, MATH ENTER.)
     
then (h, k) = (i) 13 , 34 (ii) − 13 , 23 (iii) − 31 , 43
which is a (i) minimum (ii) maximum

(c) Function (c). f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = 3x2 + 2x − 1.

Function f (x) reflects (i) up (ii) down because a = 3 > 0

Function (c) is translated (i) up (ii) down from function (a)

because c = −1 < c = 1

y-intercept: when x = 0, f (0) = (i) −1 (ii) 0 (iii) 1

x-intercept(s): when y = 0,
√ q √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −2 ± 22 − 4(3)(−1) −2 ± 16
x= = = =
2a 2(3) 6
1 2
(circle two!) (i) −1 (ii) 3
(iii) 3

2
b
vertex. Since h = − 2a = − 2(3) = (i) − 31 (ii) − 61 (iii) 13 ,
   2  
and k = f − 13 = 3 − 13 + 2 − 13 − 1 = (i) − 43 1
3
(iii) 23 ,
(ii)
(Type 3x2 + 2x − 1 into Y=, 2nd QUIT, VARS Y–VARS ENTER ( − 13 ) ENTER, MATH ENTER.)
     
then (h, k) = (i) 13 , 34 (ii) − 13 , 23 (iii) − 31 , − 43
which is a (i) minimum (ii) maximum

2. Completing the square, a(x − h)2 + k.

48 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

a=2
a=1
5 a = 0.5 5 5
translate up 2
(h, k) = (0, 3)
(h, k) = (0, 0) (h, k) = (2, 0)
-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

translate right 2

-5 -5 -5
2 2 2
(a) f(x) = ax2 (b) f(x) = (x - 2) = (x - 2) + 0 (c) f(x) = x2+ 3 = (x - 0) + 3

5 5 5
(h, k) = (-2, 3)
translate
translate
left 2, up 3
left 2, up 3;
(h, k) = (2, 3)
(h, k) = (-2, 3) reflect down

-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

translate
right 2, up 3

-5 -5 -5
2 2 2
(d) f(x) = x2 - 4x +7 = (x - 2) + 3 (e) f(x) = x2 + 4x +7 = (x + 2) + 3 2
(f ) f(x) = -x - 4x +7 = -(x + 2) + 3
Figure 2.6 (Translating and reflecting f (x) = x2 )

(a) Figure (a) f (x) = ax2 , a = 12 , 1, 2.

Decreasing a from 2 to 21 (i) does (ii) does not spread the parabola.
(b) Figure (b) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 4.
   2
x2 − 4x + 4 = 1 x2 − 4x + 4 + 4 − 1 (4) add/subtract 1 × 1
2
× −4 =1×4
= 1 (x − 2)2 + 0
= a(x − h)2 + k
so vertex (h, k) = (i) (−2, −3) (ii) (2, 0) (iii) (3, −2)
so f (x) = x2 translated (i) left (ii) right 2 units because h = 2
and not translated up or down because k = 0
and reflected (i) up (ii) down because a = 1 > 0
(c) Figure (c) f (x) = x2 + 3.
   2
x2 + 3 = 1 x2 + 0 + 3 − 1 (0) add/subtract 1 × 1
2
×0 =1×0
Section 2. Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflection (LECTURE NOTES 3)49

= 1 (x − 0)2 + 3
= a(x − h)2 + k

so vertex (h, k) = (i) (−2, −3) (ii) (0, 3) (iii) (3, −2)
so f (x) = x2 not translated left or right because h = 0
and translated (i) up (ii) down 3 units because k = 3
and reflected (i) up (ii) down because a = 1 > 0
(d) Figure (d) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 7.
   2
x2 − 4x + 7 = 1 x2 − 4x + 4 + 7 − 1 (4) add/subtract 1 × 1
2
× −4 =1×4
2
= 1 (x − 2) + 3
= a(x − h)2 + k

so vertex (h, k) = (i) (−2, −3) (ii) (3, −2) (iii) (2, 3)
so f (x) = x2 translated (i) left (ii) right 2 units because h = 2
and translated (i) up (ii) down 3 units because k = 3
and reflected (i) up (ii) down because a = 1 > 0
(e) Figure (e) f (x) = x2 + 4x + 7.
   2
x2 + 4x + 7 = 1 x2 + 4x + 4 + 7 − 1 (4) add/subtract 1 × 1
2
×4 = 1×4
= 1 (x + 2)2 + 3
= a(x − h)2 + k

so vertex (h, k) = (i) (−2, −3) (ii) (3, −2) (iii) (−2, 3)
so f (x) = x2 translated (i) left (ii) right 2 units because h = −2
and translated (i) up (ii) down 3 units because k = 3
and reflected (i) up (ii) down because a = 1 > 0
(f) Figure (f ) f (x) = −x2 − 4x − 1.
   2
−x2 − 4x − 1 = −1 x2 + 4x + 4 − 1 + 1 (4) add/subtract −1 × 1
2
×4 = −1 × 4
= −1 (x + 2)2 + 3
= a(x − h)2 + k

so vertex (h, k) = (i) (−2, 3) (ii) (−2, −3) (iii) (3, −2)
so f (x) = x2 translated (i) left (ii) right 2 units because h = −2
and translated (i) up (ii) down 3 units because k = 3
and reflected (i) up (ii) down because a = −1 < 0

3. More completing the square, a(x − h)2 + k.

50 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

(a) f (x) = −3x2 + 2x + 1.

2
 
−3x2 + 2x + 1 = −3 x2 − x + 1 factor out −3
3
2 1 1
     2
= −3 x2 − x + +1+3 where ± −3 × 12 × − 32 = −3 × 1
9
3 9 9
2
1 4

= −3 x − +
3 3
2
= a(x − h) + k
     
1 4
so vertex (h, k) = (i) ,
3 3
(ii) − 31 , 23 (iii) − 31 , 43
(b) f (x) = 4x2 + 2x − 5.
1
 
4x2 + 2x − 5 = 4 x2 + x − 5 factor out 4
2
1 1 1
     2
2 1 1 1
= 4 x + x+ −5−4 where ± 4 × 2
× 2
=4× 16
2 16 16
1 2 21
 
= 4 x+ −
4 4
2
= a(x − h) + k
     
so vertex (h, k) = (i) − 41 , 21
4
(ii) 1
4
, − 21
4
(iii) − 41 , − 21
4

4. Quadratic example: throwing a ball. A ball is thrown upwards with an initial

velocity of 32 feet per second and from an initial height of 150 feet. A function
relating height, f (t), to time, f , when throwing this ball is:

f (t) = −12t2 + 32t + 150

(a) Function f (t) reflects (i) up (ii) down because a = −12 < 0,
so the vertex is a (i) minimum (ii) maximum
(b) Completing the square
32
 
2 2
−12t + 32t + 150 = −12 t − t + 150 factor out −12
12
8 16 16
     2
2
= −12 t − t + + 150 + 12 ; −12 × 12 × 83 = −12 × 16
9
3 9 9
2
4 514

= −12 t − +
3 3
= a(t − h)2 + k
     
4 514
so vertex (h, k) = (i) 3
, 3 (ii) − 34 , 514
3
(iii) − 43 , − 514
3
4 514
(c) Maximum height of ball is (i) 3
(ii) 3
(iii) 150 feet.
Section 2. Quadratic Functions; Translation and Reflection (LECTURE NOTES 3)51

(d) Time until ball hits ground is t-intercept, when f (t) = 0,

√ q √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −32 ± 322 − 4(−12)(150) −32 ± 8224
t= = = ≈
2a 2(−12) −24

(i) 5.01 (ii) 5.11 (iii) 5.21 seconds.

ignore negative answer, choose positive answer

5. Translation and reflection of f (x), which are not necessarily quadratic.

5 5 5
translate up k

translate left h

-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

translate down k

-5 -5 -5

(a) y = f(x) (b) y = f(x) + k, y = f(x) - k (c) y = f(x + h)

5 5 5

translate right h
reflect horizonatally

-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

reflect vertically

-5 -5 -5

(d) y = f(x - h) (e) y = -f(x) (f ) y = f(-x)

Figure 2.7 (Translations and reflections of f (x))

True / False Various translations and reflections of a function f (x) are correctly
given in figure above.
√
6. Translation and reflection of f (x) = x.
52 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

10 10

,_
f(x) = x

-10 10 -10 10
10 10

-10 -10
-10 10 (b) -10 10

-10 -10
(a) (c)
√
Figure 2.8 (Translations and reflections of f (x) = x)
√
(a) f1 (x) = x +√ 1−4
Since f (x) = x, √
translate left 1 unit, f (x + 1) = x + 1, √
and translate down 4 units, f (x + 1) − 4 = x + 1 − 4
So f1 (x) corresponds to Figure (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
√
(Type x + 1 − 4 into Y=, ZOOM ZStandard.)
√
(b) f2 (x) = − x − 1 + 4
√
Since f (x) = x, √
translate right 1 unit, f (x − 1) = x − 1, √
reflect vertically (flip upsidedown), −f (x − 1)
√ = − x − 1,
and translate up 4 units, −f (x − 1) + 4 = − x − 1 + 4
So f2 (x) corresponds to Figure (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
√
(Type − x − 1 + 4 into Y=, ZOOM ZStandard.)
√
(c) f3 (x) = 1 −√ x−4
Since f (x) = x, q
reflect horizontally and translate right 1 unit, f (−(x − 1)) = −(x − 1),
q
and translate down 4 units, f (−(x − 1)) − 4 = −(x − 1) − 4
So f3 (x) corresponds to Figure (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
√
(Type 1 − x − 4 into Y=, ZOOM ZStandard.)

2.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

A polynomial function of degree n is defined by

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

Section 3. Polynomial and Rational Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3) 53

where leading coefficient an 6= 0, the ai are real numbers and n is a nonnegative inte-
ger. Linear and quadratic functions are polynomials of degree 1 and 2, respectively;
cubic and quartic polynomials are of degrees 3 and 4, respectively. Simple polynomials
of the form f (x) = xn are called power functions. Some properties of polynomials:
• polynomials of degree n have at most n − 1 turning points (or relative extrema);
graphs of polynomials with n turning points are at least of degree n + 1
• ends of a polynomial with even degree either both turn up or both turn down;
one end of a polynomial with odd degree turns up and other turns down
• graph goes up as x becomes a large positive number if leading coefficient posi-
tive; goes down if leading coefficient negative
A rational function is
p(x)
,
f (x) =
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) 6= 0. Since
• if a function grows larger in magnitude as x approaches k, x = k is a vertical
asymptote,
• if a function approaches k as |x| gets larger, y = k is a horizontal asymptote,
then if both numerator p(x) and denominator q(x) of a rational function are zero at
same x = k, graph has a hole (removable discontinuity) at k, but if only denominator
q(x) is zero at x = k, x = k is a vertical asymptote.

Exercise 2.3 (Polynomial and Rational Functions)

1. Properties of polynomial functions.

y y

x x
5 y

x
-5 5
(b) x (d)

-5

(a) (c)

Figure 2.9 (Polynomial functions)

54 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

(To graph, set WINDOW to -5 5 1 -5 5 1 1 then Y= and type function 2x + 3 and then the others. Set graphs
to “dot” display by typing Y=, then arrowing left twice and ENTERing until the dotted line appears.)

(a) Linear function f (x) = 2x + 3 corresponds to

graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (d)
with degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
graph moves (i) up (ii) down as x becomes large positive number
(b) Quadratic function f (x) = −2x2 + 2x − 2 corresponds to
graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (d)
with degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
both ends turn (i) up (ii) down
(c) Cubic function f (x) = 2x3 − 4x corresponds to
graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (d)
with degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
graph moves (i) up (ii) down as x becomes large positive number
(d) Quartic function f (x) = x4 − 5x2 corresponds to
graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (d)
with degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
both ends turn (i) up (ii) down

2. More properties of polynomial functions.

(a) Polynomial function f (x) = 3x3 + 4x − 2

(Set WINDOW to -2 2 1 1 -10 10 1 1 before graphing function.)
has degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with at most (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
graph moves (i) up (ii) down as x becomes large positive number
Section 3. Polynomial and Rational Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3) 55

(b) Polynomial function f (x) = −2x4 − 5x3 + 3x − 2x + 1

(Set WINDOW to -5 5 1 1 -5 5 1 1 before graphing function.)
has degree (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4
and so is a polynomial of (i) even (ii) odd degree
with at most (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 4 turning points
and since leading coefficient is (i) positive (ii) negative
both ends turn (i) up (ii) down
and (i) is (ii) is not a power function

3. Properties of rational functions.

5 y
y y
4
3
2 4
2
x
-10 -6 -2 2 6 10 -10 -6 -2 2 6 10 -3 -1 1 3 5
-4

-3
-8
-5

(a) f(x) = 1/x (b) f(x) = (x2 - 4) / (x - 2) (c) f(x) = (x 2 + x - 6) / (x2 - 4)

Figure 1.10 (Different Rational Functions)

(a) Rational function f (x) = x1 corresponds to

graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
with vertical asymptote at x = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
because f (x) = x1 grows larger as x approaches 0
and horizontal asymptote at y = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
because f (x) = x1 approaches 0 as |x| gets larger
and has no x-intercepts, y-intercepts or removable discontinuities (holes)
−4 2
(b) Rational function f (x) = xx−2 corresponds to
graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
has removable discontinuity (hole) at x = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 because

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f (x) = = = x + 2, x 6= 2
x−2 x−2
and y-intercept y = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
because y = f (0) = 0 + 2 = 2
and x-intercept x = (i) 0 (ii) −1 (iii) −2
because f (x) = x + 2 = 0 when x = −2
and has no vertical or horizontal asymptotes
56 Chapter 2. Nonlinear Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3)

2
(c) Rational function f (x) = x x+x−6
2 −4 corresponds to
graph (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
has removable discontinuity (hole) at x = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 because
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2) x+3
f (x) = 2
= = , x 6= 2
x −4 (x + 2)(x − 2) x+2

with vertical asymptote at x = (i) 0 (ii) −1 (iii) −2

x+3
because f (x) = x+2 grows larger as x approaches −2
and horizontal asymptote at y = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
x+3
because f (x) = x+2 ≈ xx approaches 1 (not 0!) as |x| gets larger
and y-intercept y = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 1.5
0+3
because y = f (0) = 0+2 = 1.5
and x-intercept x = (i) −1 (ii) −2 (iii) −3
because f (x) = x+3
x+2
= 0 when x = −3

4. More properties of rational functions.

7x
(a) Rational function f (x) = 3−x
(Set WINDOW to -10 10 1 1 -20 20 1 1 before graphing function.)
has vertical asymptote at x = (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3
7x
because f (x) = 3−x grows larger as x approaches 3
and horizontal asymptote at y = (i) −7 (ii) 37 (iii) 7
7x 7x
because f (x) = 3−x ≈ −x approaches −7 as |x| gets larger
and y-intercept y = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 1.5
because y = f (0) = 7(0)
3−0
=0
and x-intercept x = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
7x
because f (x) = 3−x = 0 when x = 0
and no removable discontinuities
x2 +4x+3
(b) Rational function f (x) = x−3
= (x+1)(x+3)
x−3
(Set WINDOW to -7 15 1 1 -20 40 1 1 before graphing function.)
has vertical asymptote at x = (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3
because f (x) = (x+1)(x+3)
x−3
grows larger as x approaches 3
2 2
and no horizontal asymptote because f (x) = x +4x+3
x−3
≈ x +4x
x
≈ x and so
graph moves (i) up (ii) down as x becomes large positive number
and y-intercept y = (i) 0 (ii) −1 (iii) −2
because y = f (0) = (0+1)(0+3)
0−3
= −1
and x-intercepts x = (choose two!) (i) −1 (ii) −2 (iii) −3
because f (x) = (x+1)(x+3)
x−3
= 0 when x = −1, −3
and no removable discontinuities
5. Rational example: average cost. Monthly fixed costs of using machine I are
$15,000 and marginal costs of manufacturing one widget using machine I is $20.
Section 3. Polynomial and Rational Functions (LECTURE NOTES 3) 57

Consequently, average costs are

20x + 15000
C(x) = , x>0
x
(Set WINDOW to 0 700 1 1 0 1000 1 1 before graphing function.)

(a) vertical asymptote at x = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2

because C = 20x+15000
x
grows larger as x approaches 0
(b) horizontal asymptote at C = (i) 1 (ii) 20 (iii) 200
because C̄(x) = 20x+15000
x
≈ 20x
x
≈ 20
(c) (i) True (ii) False no y-intercept, x-intercept or removable discontinuities