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Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a

systematic review and integration

Joshua B. Grubbs, Paul J. Wright, Abby L. Braden, Joshua A. Wilt & Shane W.
Kraus

To cite this article: Joshua B. Grubbs, Paul J. Wright, Abby L. Braden, Joshua A. Wilt & Shane W.
Kraus (2019): Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic review and integration,
Annals of the International Communication Association, DOI: 10.1080/23808985.2019.1584045

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Published online: 20 Feb 2019.

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ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2019.1584045

Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic

review and integration
a
Joshua B. Grubbs , Paul J. Wrightb, Abby L. Bradena, Joshua A. Wilt c
and Shane
W. Kraus d
a
Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, USA; bThe Media School, Indiana
University, Bloomington, IN, USA; cDepartment of Psychological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, OH, USA; dDepartment of Veterans Affairs, VISN 1 New England MIRECC, Bedford VAMC, Bedford, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Pornography use is a common activity in the developed world. This work Received 9 June 2018
consolidates research about pornography use into an organizational Revised 12 February 2019
structure that is relevant to sexual motivation more broadly. To Accepted 13 February 2019
accomplish this, a comprehensive review of research is conducted,
KEYWORDS
examining personality, emotional, and attitudinal associates and Sexual motivation; pleasure
predictors of pornography use, as well as behaviours, attitudes, and seeking; motivation; media
motivations that are associated with or predicted by pornography use. effects; pornography use;
Reviewing over 130 studies, the present work demonstrates that sexual drive
pornography is most often consumed for pleasure-seeking purposes,
that it associated with increases in casual or impersonal approaches to
sexuality, and that it predicts more pleasure-oriented approaches to
sexual behaviour. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Sexually explicit forms of media – pornography – have existed for millennia. However, technological
advances over recent decades (i.e. the internet) have revolutionized the distribution and consump-
tion of such media. Globally, internet pornography use (hereafter: IPU = internet pornography use;
IP = internet pornography) is a common phenomenon (Ogas & Gaddam, 2011; Price, Patterson,
Regnerus, & Walley, 2016; Regnerus, Gordon, & Price, 2016). Internationally, substantial majorities
of individuals have viewed internet pornography (e.g. Sweden, Canada, Germany, and U.S., 77% of
college students; Döring, Daneback, Shaughnessy, Grov, & Byers, 2017; Australia, 84% of men and
54% of women Rissel et al., 2017). Furthermore, in nationally representative studies, up to 46% of
adult men in the U.S. and 16% of adult women report intentional IPU in any given week (Regnerus
et al., 2016). A number of recent works confirm that these viewing patterns are extremely common
among adolescents as well (e.g. Taiwan, 74% of adolescent boys and 26% of adolescent girls, Chen,
Leung, Chen, & Yang, 2013; Sweden, 96% of adolescent boys, Mattebo, Tydén, Häggström-Nordin,
Nilsson, & Larsson, 2013; U.S. 50% of adolescents Rasmussen & Bierman, 2016). Various reports
have placed IP as the largest single category of electronic media both in terms of total bandwidth
and total traffic (Misra, 2014), with the most popular online pornography website boasting over
3732 petabytes (over three billion gigabytes) of downloads in 2017 alone (Pornhub, 2018). In
short, the consumption of IP is a common activity for many adults and adolescents worldwide,
with a frequency that is unprecedented by previous forms of erotic media.
Given the prevalence of IPU, it is not surprising to see that it is also often a topic of academic
inquiry. Over recent years, there has been an increase in peer-reviewed literature examining IP

CONTACT Joshua B. Grubbs [email protected] Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling
Green, OH 43403, USA
© 2019 International Communication Association
2 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

from psychological (for reviews, see: Peter & Valkenburg, 2016; Short, Black, Smith, Wetterneck, &
Wells, 2012), sociological (Brickell, 2012), anthropological (Vucurovic, 2013), and even philosophical
(Watson, 2010) perspectives. However, despite the ubiquity of pornography use in developed
nations, to date, the majority of publications and empirical studies of IPU have been relegated to
topical journals and special interest publications. Herein, we seek to consider this behaviour in
terms that are relevant to psychological and communication sciences more broadly.

Internet pornography use and sexual motivation

Internet pornography use is a sexual behaviour. That is, people most often view pornography for sexual
purposes (Solano, Eaton, & O’Leary, 2018) and describe their use of pornography as being related other
aspects of their sexual attitudes, beliefs, preferences, and behaviours (Attwood, 2005; Kohut, Fisher, &
Campbell, 2017; Rissel et al., 2017). In the decades following the advent and widespread use of the
internet, a plethora of empirical research has been published examining how IPU is related to
various aspects of sexuality (Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Harkness, Mullan, & Blaszczynski, 2015; Peter & Valk-
enburg, 2016). Building on this, the purpose of the present work was to conduct a systematic and inte-
grative review that contextualizes pornography within the greater context of human sexual
motivation. Specifically, we sought to examine what factors (both sexual and non-sexual) predict
IPU and the ways in which IPU influences, predicts, or is associated with sexual attitudes, beliefs,
and behaviours. More to the point, we examined what factors predict IPU (a sexual behaviour) and
how IPU, in turn, seems to influence various dimensions of the human sexual experience.
To accomplish these goals, we conducted a systematic review of available literature on IPU. To be
included, the study had to examine the association between IPU and at least one other variable rel-
evant to sexual motivation, attitudes, or behaviours. Studies that only examined gender as a correlate
of IPU were excluded.1 Cross-sectioonal and longitudinal investigations were included. To this end,
we conducted a search of available academic literature, specifically querying the following databases:
Academic Search Complete, Academic Search Premier, MEDLINE, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
Collection, PsycINFO, SocINDEX, CINAHL, and PubMed. All searches included the initial terms, ‘inter-
net’ and ‘pornography,’ which were followed by a number of search terms that were meant to assess
the variables of interest. These additional terms were: ‘reason*,’ ‘predict*,’ ‘outcome,’ ‘behavior,’2 ‘per-
sonality,’ ‘motiv*,’ ‘trait,’ ‘risk,’ ‘attitude,’ ‘longitudinal,’ ‘effect,’ and ‘future.’ These initial search par-
ameters returned over 1000 results that were then screened for inclusion. The results of this
review are summarized, according to PRISMA guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009),
in Figure 1.
After deleting duplicates, removing irrelevant or non-academic works, and screening out studies
that did not involve empirical research, we then reviewed the full texts of over 275 papers for
inclusion in our final review. We elected to only include studies that either examined personality
and motivational associates and predictors of IPU or studies for which IPU was framed as an associate
or predictor of a behavioural (e.g. sexual activity) or attitudinal (e.g. sexual values, acceptance of
sexual behaviours) outcome. We specifically omitted studies that focused exclusively on problematic
or addictive use of pornography, studies that were limited to clinical or treatment seeking popu-
lations, studies that focused exclusively on non-internet pornography (e.g. studies before 1998),
studies that focused exclusively on paraphilic or pedophilic pornography use, case studies or
reports, and studies that did not focus on human subjects directly (e.g. content analyses of pornogra-
phy websites). This process led to the inclusion of 134 studies.

Methodological concerns
Before engaging in such a systematic review, it is important to acknowledge the methodological cri-
tiques of research to date. Below, we consider three such concerns: gender, morality, and negative
bias.
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 3

Figure 1. Summary of systematic review according to PRISMA guidelines (Moher et al., 2009).

Gender
One of the greatest limitations of research related to IPU is that such research tends to be gender-
constricted. A vast number of studies regarding IPU have focused on such use in men alone
(Duffy, Dawson, & das Nair, 2016; Short et al., 2012). This male-centric focus is warranted to a
degree, as women reportedly use pornography at rates much lower than men do (Regnerus et al.,
2016), which is likely a function of multiple factors such as a grander cultural trend in which
women’s sexual motivation is often secondary to the male sexual drive (Baumeister, 2000, 2004; Bau-
meister & Twenge, 2002; Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Baumeister, Catanese, & Vohs, 2001), more univer-
sal differences in male vs. female sexuality (Peplau, 2003; Petersen & Hyde, 2010; Schmitt &
International Sexuality Description Project, 2003), and the fact that much of currently available por-
nography is marketed toward male audiences (French & Hamilton, 2018). Another possibility is that
women may also underreport their IPU due to cultural norms around sexuality and gender roles, and
there is good evidence that significant numbers of women do use IP with some regularity (16%–17%
of adult women in the U.S. report use within the past week or month Grubbs, Kraus, & Perry, 2019;
Regnerus et al., 2016). In short, the male-centric approach to IP research to date has hampered under-
standings of women’s use. As such, we provide gender breakdowns for each sample reviewed in this
paper, and note areas in which gender is of particular importance.
4 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Morally charged subject matter

Another noted limitation of IP research is related to the morally charged nature of the topic (Fisher,
Montgomery-Graham, & Kohut, 2018; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2018). Numer-
ous analyses have found that both personal morality and religious beliefs dramatically impact atti-
tudes toward IP use (Droubay, Butters, & Shafer, 2018; Grubbs, Exline, Pargament, Hook, & Carlisle,
2015; Grubbs, Wilt, Exline, Pargament, & Kraus, 2018; Short, Kasper, & Wetterneck, 2015). Religious
individuals tend to broadly disapprove of IP use (MacInnis & Hodson, 2016) and support the censor-
ship of pornography in various forms (Droubay et al., 2018; Lambe, 2004). Not surprisingly then, reli-
gious individuals report using IP at rates much lower than the general population (Perry, 2017;
Rasmussen & Bierman, 2017; Wright, 2013; Wright, Bae, & Funk, 2013). Yet, despite these associations,
there are several studies indicating that religious individuals do indeed use IP (Nelson, Padilla-Walker,
& Carroll, 2010; MacInnis & Hodson, 2015; Perry, 2015), often with great emotional distress (Grubbs
et al., 2019; Patterson & Price, 2012; Volk, Thomas, Sosin, Jacob, & Moen, 2016). Given these associ-
ations, religiosity and moral values should be considered relevant covariates in research on IP use.
Yet, these factors have not been considered frequently enough in formal analyses, limiting the gen-
eralizability of current research.

Negative bias
Finally, another key limitation of pornography research is the seemingly negative bias of such
research (Fisher et al., 2018; Fisher & Barak, 2001; Ley, Prause, & Finn, 2014; Montgomery-Graham,
Kohut, Fisher, & Campbell, 2015), with little research examining whether there could be positive
aspects of IP use. Inherently then, there is likely a bias in available studies demonstrating either nega-
tive or neutral effects of IP consumption, with very little prior research demonstrating, or even
attempting to measure, positive effects (Kohut & Campbell, 2019).

Factors motivating or predicting internet pornography use

In the first part of this review, we consider the various factors that may motivate the consumption of
internet pornography, with special attention paid to studies presenting evidence of factors that are
likely to drive pornography use. This method resulted in the identification of 34 studies falling into
three broad categories, as described below.

Individual difference variables

Across a number of studies – particularly earlier studies (e.g. before 2010) of IPU – personality charac-
teristics and individual difference variables consistently emerged as predictors of IPU. These findings
are detailed in Table 1, though we review the general findings below.

Dispositional sexual affect

Dispositional sexual affect is a term for personality factors that lead individuals to respond to
sexual stimuli in a predictable way (Gunter, 2001). It often refers to the erotophobia-erotophilia
spectrum (Paul, 2009) that ranges from negative attitudes toward impersonal sex (e.g. disinterest
in strippers or pornography) to more positive attitudes toward impersonal sex (e.g. casual or
group sex), including pornography specifically (Fisher, White, Byrne, & Kelley, 1988). Higher
levels of erotophilia are associated with pleasure-seeking motivations for sexual activity in
general (Birnbaum & Gillath, 2006; Cooper, Shapiro, & Powers, 1998), and a greater propensity
to pursue sexual pleasure.
As reviewed in Table 1, U.S. studies show that higher erotophilia predicts greater motivation to
engage in IPU, greater arousal from IPU (Paul, 2009), and greater probability of responding to
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 5

Table 1. Summary of studies reporting individual difference variables predicting or associated with pornography use.
Study Sample Characteristics Traits Identified Study Conclusions
(Beyens, Longitudinal Study of Belgian adolescent Sensation- Sensation-seeking was positively associated
Vandenbosch, & boys (N = 325; Mage = 14.1, SD = 0.8) Seeking with pornography use concurrently and
Eggermont, 2015) predictive of such use over time.
(Bouffard, 2010) Cross-sectional sample of U.S. Sexual Sexual entitlement was positively
undergraduate men (N = 325; age not Entitlement associated with greater use of
specified). pornography.
(Buzzell, Foss, & Cross-sectional study of undergraduate Low Self Low self-control was positively associated
Middleton, 2006) men in the U.S. (N = 134, 53% men, Control with likelihood of viewing online
Mage = 20.8, SD = 1.3) pornography by downloading
pornography or by visiting pornographic
websites.
(Grubbs, Wilt, et al., Cross-sectional U.S. samples of both Trait Trait entitlement was positively, though
2018) undergraduates (N = 1507; 65.2% men; Entitlement weakly, correlated with average daily
Mage = 19.3; SD = 2.2) and adult web pornography use (as measured in hours).
users (N = 782, 48.8% men, Mage = 32.6,
SD = 10.3)
(Kasper, Short, & Cross-sectional, U.S. sample of web users Narcissism Narcissism was a consistent positive
Milam, 2015) (N = 257; 37% men, Mage = 29, SD = 9.3) associate of past and current
pornography use (yes/no question of use).
(Luder et al., 2011) Cross sectional study of Swiss Adolescents Sensation- Sensation-seeking broadly correlated with
(N = 7548, 51.5% boys; Age Range: 16– Seeking both wanted and unwanted exposure to
20) IP among both boys and girls
independently, even when various other
explanatory factors (e.g. frequency of
internet use, the use of the internet for
sexual information-seeking) were
adjusted statistically
(Paul, 2009) Cross sectional study of undergraduate Erotophilia For both men and women, erotophilic
students in the U.S. (N = 337, 53.1% tendencies positively predicted both
men, Mage = 20, SD = 1.8) pornography use and arousal from
pornography use, above and beyond
other predictors. Additionally, separate
analyses in this same sample (Shim, Lee, &
Paul, 2007), found that erotophilic
tendencies were also associated with
general likelihood to respond to
unsolicited IP (e.g. pop-up
advertisements, sexually explicit emails,
sexually explicit ads) by seeking more IP.
(Peter & Valkenburg, Cross sectional analysis of Dutch Sensation- Sensation-seeking was positively associated
2006a) adolescents (N = 690, 48% boys, Mage = Seeking with pornography use and intentional
15.5, SD = 1.7) efforts to view pornography.
(Peter & Valkenburg, Longitudinal study of Dutch Adolescents Sensation- Sensation-seeking at baseline predicted
2011b) and Adults (Adolescent N = 1445, 51% Seeking pornography use six months later
men, Mage = 14.5, SD = 1.7; Adult N =
833, 49% men, Mage = 47.9, SD = 16.7)
(Sinković, Štulhofer, & Cross-sectional analysis of Croatian young Sensation- In both genders, sensation-seeking was
Božić, 2013) adults (N = 1005; 50.7% men; Age Seeking positively related to pornography use in
Range: 18–25) the past year. Sensation-seeking was also
positively associated with considering
pornography as important in the
participant’s life, suggesting that
sensation-seeking is associated with both
behaviour and values regarding
pornography use.
(Ševčíková, Šerek, Cross-sectional study of adolescents in the Sensation- Sensation seeking emerged as a consistent
Macháčková, & Czech Republic (N = 495, 48.4% men, Seeking positive predictor of pornography
Šmahel, 2013) Mage = 13.0, SD = 1.5) consumption among children/
adolescents
(Velezmoro, Negy, & Cross-sectional analysis of undergraduates Erotophilia Across both genders in both samples,
Livia, 2012) in Lima, Peru, (N = 251, 62.5% men, erotophilia was consistently associated
Mage = 21.3, SD = 2.8) and Southeastern with the use of the internet for sexual
U.S. (N = 320, 39.1% men, Mage = 18.6, purposes, including viewing IP.
SD = 0.5)

(Continued)
6 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 1. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Traits Identified Study Conclusions
(Weisskirch & Murphy, Cross-sectional study of college students Sensation- Across the whole sample, pornography use
2004) in the U.S. (N = 138; 45% men; Mage = Seeking was positively predicted by trait-
20.0, SD = 2.4) sensation-seeking.
(Zheng & Zheng, Cross-sectional analysis of Chinese young Sensation- Sensation-seeking was positively associated
2014) adults (N = 460, 55.4% men, Mage = 30.5, Seeking with pornography use in both men and
SD = 6.0) women.

unsolicited IP with more IP search behaviours (Shim et al., 2007). These tendencies seem to hold in
contexts outside the U.S. as well (e.g. Lima, Peru; Velezmoro et al., 2012).

Sensation-seeking
Across a number of studies, sensation-seeking is a common predictor of IPU, in both U.S. and inter-
national contexts using both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs (See Table 1). This is notable,
given that sensation-seeking is a pleasure-seeking drive (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Zuckerman,
1994, 2014), that predicts pleasure-seeking behaviours in general (Comeau, Stewart, & Loba, 2001;
Magid, MacLean, & Colder, 2007) and sexual behaviours specifically (Kalichman & Rompa, 1995).
Not surprisingly then, a number of studies identified sensation-seeking as a consistent predictor of
IPU, both cross-sectionally and over time.

Narcissistic traits
In addition to dispositional sexual affect and sensation-seeking, narcissistic traits have also been
linked to IPU. For example, entitlement is a self-focused trait that is a key component of narcissism
more broadly (Campbell, Bonacci, Shelton, Exline, & Bushman, 2004; Grubbs & Exline, 2016). Gen-
erally speaking, entitlement is associated with a desire for pleasure and enjoyable experiences
and it often predicts selfish behaviours (Bushman, Moeller, & Crocker, 2011; Campbell et al.,
2004). At least a few studies have noted that trait entitlement, narcissism, and sexual narcissism
are each cross-sectionally and retrospectively associated with greater levels of reported pornogra-
phy use. Collectively, these studies, alongside previously reviewed studies, suggest that self-
focused traits such as dispositional sexual affect, sensation-seeking, and narcissism are all associ-
ated with IPU (See Table 1).

Self-reported reasons for IPU

In addition to research on dispositional correlates of IPU, many studies have directly evaluated self-
reported reasons for IPU. Below, we consider the major findings in this domain.

Arousal and enhancement

IPU results in sexual arousal (Brand et al., 2011; Goodson, McCormick, & Evans, 2000, 2001; Hald,
Malamuth, & Lange, 2013). Not surprisingly then, sexual arousal and sexual enhancement are
consistently reported as predominant reasons for using pornography (See Table 2). Specifically,
masturbation enhancement (Wallmyr & Welin, 2006), sexual arousal (Baltazar, Helm, McBride,
Hopkins, & Stevens, 2010), and more general pleasure-seeking goals (Paul & Shim, 2008) are
all commonly reported as the predominant motivation for pornography consumption. Self-
reported hedonic motivations for pornography use are also evident in recent work attempting
to classify pornography users by their reasons for viewing pornography (Brown, Durtschi, Carroll,
& Willoughby, 2017). Finally, these findings also persist outside of Western contexts (Chen et al.,
2013).
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 7

Table 2. Summary of studies reporting self-reported reasons for pornography use.

Study Sample Characteristics Reasons Reported Study Conclusions
(Baltazar et al., 2010) Cross-sectional analysis of Sexual Arousal Sexual arousal was the most
undergraduates (N = 751, 44.6% commonly endorsed reason for
men, Mage = 22.3, SD = 5.6) at a pornography use among both men
religiously affiliated (Christian) (39% endorsed as factor leading to
university in the U.S. pornography use) and women
(25% endorsed as factor leading to
pornography use), despite the fact
that the sample had largely
negative views of pornography in
general.
(Brown, Durtschi, Cross-sectional analysis of college Sexual Arousal, Pleasure, Pornography users (38% of total
et al., 2017) students at a university in the Masturbation sample) predominantly endorsed
Midwestern U.S. (N = 457; 36% pleasure-focused reasons as the
men; Mage = 19.7, SD = 2.0) primary motivations for
pornography use (i.e. sexual
arousal, physical pleasure,
masturbation)
(Chen et al., 2013) Cross-sectional sample of Taiwanese Satisfying sexual desires Satisfying sexual desires was listed as
Adolescents (N = 1166, 55.5% men; a core motivation for pornography
Age Range: 10th–12th grade use by over 64% of teens reporting
students) intentional pornography use.
(Emmers-Sommer, Cross-sectional sample of adult Masturbation In the total sample, the primary
2018) pornography users in the U.S. (N = enhancement; reasons identified for pornography
76; 60.5% men; Mage = 21.2, SD = curiosity, sexual use were ‘I use it to masturbate’
4.8) excitement (53.9%), ‘It is sexually exciting’
(15.8%), and ‘Curiosity’ (13.2%).
(Mattebo, Tydén, A cross-sectional sample of Self-reported reasons for Majority of participants (94% of boys,
Häggström- adolescents in Sweden (N = 877; viewing pornography 79% of girls) reported that
Nordin, Nilsson, & 54% men, Age Range: 15–20) pornography use is arousing.
Larsson, 2014) Additionally, 93% of adolescent
boys and 72% of adolescent girls
reported that pornography is ‘good
for masturbating.’
(Paul & Shim, 2008) Cross-sectional analysis of college Sexual Arousal & Pleasure enhancement reasons (e.g.
students in the U.S. Masturbation ‘As an arousing visual aide to look
(N = 321, 150 men, 171 women, at while masturbating,’ Paul &
Mage = 20, SD = 1.8) Shim, 2008, p. 193) were the most
commonly endorsed reason for
pornography use. This motivation
was grouped (through exploratory
factor analysis) with other pleasure-
enhancement/pain-reduction
motivations such as frustration
management, boredom relief, and
stress reduction
(Romito & Cross-sectional sample of young Reasons for first exposure For men, curiosity (84.2%), friends
Beltramini, 2011) adults in Italy (N = 303; 52% men; watching (70.4%), sexual
Age Range: 18–>22) excitement (52.6%) were the
primary reasons for first exposure
to pornography. For women,
friends watching (82.0%), Curiosity
(76%), and accidental encounters
(56%) were the primary reasons.
(Ševčíková & Cross-sectional analysis of Sexual Arousal, Curiosity, Among adolescent boys, sexual
Daneback, 2014) adolescents in the Czech Republic and Desire for Sexual arousal was the greatest self-
(N = 2950, 53.3% women, Mage = Education reported reason for pornography
20, SD = 1.8) use (69.8%) and this motivation
increased as they aged through
adolescents (e.g. older boys
reported greater use for arousal).
Among women, curiosity was the
greatest self-reported reason

(Continued)
8 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 2. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Reasons Reported Study Conclusions
(46.1% of users), followed by
arousal (44.9%)
(Solano et al., 2018) Cross-sectional convenience sample Sexual Arousal; For both men and women, sexual
of adults in the U.S. (Mechanical Masturbation excitement to aid in masturbation
Turk. N = 1392, 61% women, Mage enhancement; Sexual was the primary motivation for
= 35.8, SD = 11.8) Relief; Entertainment pornography use (81.6% of men;
66.7% of women), followed by
sexual arousal more generally and
sexual relief. Entertainment and
curiosity were also commonly
endorsed.
(Wallmyr & Welin, Cross sectional sample of Swedish Sexual Arousal & Sexual arousal with the goal of
2006) adolescents and young adults (N = Masturbation masturbation was the most
876, 36.6% male; Age Range: 15– commonly reported reason that
25) men gave for viewing IP (48.8%).
For female respondents, sexual
arousal was much less frequently
endorsed as a motive for
pornography use compared to
other motives (12.4%), falling far
behind reasons such as curiosity
(54.6%) and social pressure (19.0%)

Curiosity and information-seeking

A number of studies also note that a commonly reported motivation for IPU is education, curiosity, or
information (e.g. Chen et al., 2013; Paul & Shim, 2008). Individuals may report a desire to learn new
sexual positions, new sexual practices, or generally gain a better understanding about sexual activity
in general (Attwood, 2005; Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, & Irizarry, 2010). Given that curiosity is a less
commonly endorsed reason for viewing IP than directly hedonic reasons (Brown, Durtschi, et al.,
2017), curiosity is not likely the most common motivation for use, particularly among frequent
users. Additionally, in some ways, curiosity and information-seeking may also be seen as pleasure-
seeking drives (Kashdan & Steger, 2007; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004; Litman, 2005). New infor-
mation can be both liked and wanted (Litman, 2005), and the hedonic value of new information
can be predictive of the individual’s engagement with it (Higgins, 2006). As such, although this
reason is less commonly endorsed than arousal, pleasure, or masturbatory aid, it may be another
form of pleasure-seeking motivation for pornography use.

Intimacy and coupling motives

Another potential motivation for IPU would be intimacy or relationship goals. A number of prior the-
ories of sexual motivation (e.g. Baumeister & Tice, 2001; Cooper et al., 1998) have cited intimacy and
relationship goals as important impetuses for sexual drive. These motives are particularly common for
women (Basson, 2000; Peplau, 2003) and often serve as the primary motivation for sexual activity
(Cooper et al., 1998). As such, the role of such goals in motivating any sexual behaviour cannot be
understated.
Some men and women in heterosexual relationships report viewing IP with their partner (Dane-
back, Træen, & Månsson, 2009; Olmstead, Negash, Pasley, & Fincham, 2013; Poulsen, Busby, &
Galovan, 2013; Resch & Alderson, 2014). Oftentimes, the motivation for this use is to satisfy a
partner or enhance a sexual relationship. However, IPU with a romantic partner is less common
(Poulsen et al., 2013), as less than 20% of men report ever using pornography with a partner, com-
pared to 90% of men who report using alone (Kraus & Rosenberg, 2014, 2016). More to the point,
coupled use of pornography is likely not a primary motivation for regular IPU for the majority of
users. Having said this, recent qualitative research suggests that young adults are increasingly
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 9

expecting pornography use to be a part of their future relationships (Kohut et al., 2017), which may
indicate that this motivation for pornography consumption will change in coming years.

Coping
In addition to enhanced pleasure, the reduction or avoidance of dysphoric or unpleasant states is also
a powerful motivation for a variety of behaviours (Elliot & Covington, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2001). Impor-
tantly, this motivation is also a consistent predictor of greater pornography use. That is, across a
variety of studies (See Table 3), mood management and stress relief are consistently endorsed as
reasons for IPU, as are feelings of psychological distress and/or loneliness more generally. Impor-
tantly, these findings are both cross-sectional and longitudinal (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b),
suggesting a potential causal link between lower mood states and the use of pornography as a
coping mechanism. We also note that problematic pornography use (though not the focus of this
review) is also commonly predicted by the use of pornography to cope with or avoid negative
emotions (Reid, Li, Gilliland, Stein, & Fong, 2011).

Boredom
Continued evidence for IPU for pain reduction or avoidance is also present in research related to
boredom and IPU (See Table 3). Boredom is considered a unique and undesirable psychological
state (Goldberg, Eastwood, LaGuardia, & Danckert, 2011) that is distressing (Martin, Sadlo, & Stew,
2006). Consequently, people are often highly motivated to avoid boredom (Pekrun, Goetz, Daniels,
Stupnisky, & Perry, 2010), often through a variety of pleasure-seeking behaviours, such as gambling
(Neighbors, Lostutter, Cronce, & Larimer, 2002), eating (Macht, 2008), drug use (Boys, Marsden, &
Strang, 2001), and masturbation (Carvalheira, Træen, & Stulhofer, 2015; Janssen, McBride, Yarber,
Hill, & Butler, 2008). In keeping with this trend, a number of studies do suggest that boredom is
often a motivation for pornography use (See Table 3).

Summary of motivations for IPU

A number of factors may motivate IPU, but pleasure-focused motives seem to be the most robust
and obvious of these factors. Self-focused, individual-difference variables, such as entitlement and
sensation-seeking, often predict IPU; and people most often report viewing IP to enhance arousal
and pleasure or to escape negative affective states. These findings are particularly true of men, for
whom sexual arousal, sexual excitement, and masturbation were the most consistent predictors of
use. For women, pleasure focused motivations were also common, though typically endorsed at
lower rates than men. Such a finding is consistent with the broader literature suggesting that
men tend to be more pleasure-motivated in sexual behaviour than women (Cooper et al., 1998).
Although certain exceptions to this motivation certainly exist (e.g. individuals watching IP as a
couple), self- focused pleasure-seeking motives seem to predict general desire to consume IP
and the consistency of such consumption better than other factors (Paul & Shim, 2008; Solano
et al., 2018).
Despite the consistency of these results, the majority of studies described in Tables 1–3 are cross-
sectional and retrospective in nature. That is, the vast majority of findings on the individual differ-
ences and self-reported reasons that predict pornography use are based on temporally static, past
recall dependent methods, rather than on prospective longitudinal or experimental designs. The
notable exceptions to these trends are the few longitudinal studies documenting that psychological
distress seems to predict pornography use over time (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b) and the studies that
show that sensation-seeking prospectively predicts greater pornography use over time (Beyens, Van-
denbosch, & Eggermont, 2015; Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b). As such, there is a need for future longi-
tudinal and experimental work that explicitly test the causal mechanisms motiving greater IPU, as
well as for more rigorous assessment methods, such as Ecological Momentary Assessments which
would allow for more immediate detail regarding the specific predictors of pornography use.
10 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 3. Summary of studies reporting coping motivations for pornography use.

Negative Affect
Study Sample Characteristics Measure Study Conclusions
(Baltazar et al., Cross-sectional analysis of Coping Motivation and Among pornography users, 23% of
2010) undergraduates (N = 751, 44.6% Low Self-Esteem men and 4% of women reported
men, Mage = 22.3, SD = 5.6) at a using pornography to reduce
religiously affiliated (Christian) negative affect, despite the fact that
university in the U.S. the sample had largely negative
views of pornography in general.
Additionally, 8% of men users and
5% of women users also endorsed
increasing pornography use in
response to feelings of low self-
esteem.
(Chen et al., 2013) Cross-sectional sample of Taiwanese Boredom Boredom relief was listed as a
Adolescents (N = 1166, 55.5% men; motivation for IP-seeking among
Age Range: 10th–12th grade 55.8% of respondents
students)
(Nelson et al., 2010) Cross-Sectional Study of young adult Depressive Symptoms Depressive symptoms were associated
men in the U.S. (N = 192; 100% men; with greater use of pornography.
Mage = 21.0, SD = 3.0)
(Paul & Shim, 2008) A cross-sectional analysis of U.S. Frustration Pleasure enhancement reasons were
college students (N = 321, 150 men, management, the most commonly endorsed reason
171 women, Mage = 20, SD = 1.8). boredom relief, and for pornography use. However, these
stress reduction motivations were grouped (through
exploratory factor analysis) with
pain-reduction motivations such as
frustration management, boredom
relief, and stress reduction
(Peter & A longitudinal, nationally Lower Life Satisfaction Ratings of lower life satisfaction at
Valkenburg, representative, 2008, two-wave baseline, for both adults and
2011b) panel study of adults (N = 833; Mage adolescents, consistently predicted
= 14.49, SD = 1.68; 51% men) and pornography use six months later.
adolescents (N = 1445; Mage = 47.89,
SD = 16.67; 49% men) in the
Netherlands.
(Rissel et al., 2017) A cross-sectional, nationally Psychological Distress For both men and women, current
representative sample of Australian psychological distress was associated
adults (N = 8424; 47.6% men; Age with greater likelihood of reporting
Range: 16–69) lifetime pornography use.
(Rothman et al., A qualitative study of inner-city youth Boredom Boredom relief was endorsed as a
2015) in the U.S. (N = 23; Mage = 17.6, SD reason for the use of pornography
= N/A; 40% boys) (not limited to internet pornography
use).
(Schenk, 2009) A U.S. cross-sectional study of 290 Boredom Boredom was consistently related to
couples (N = 580 individuals; 50% pornography use; although the
men, Mage = 45.4, SD = 5.8) simple effect of this relationship was
small (e.g. 2.2% variance in
pornography use accounted for by
boredom), these results were actually
curvilinear in nature, with boredom
demonstrating positive quadratic
effects (e.g. more powerful predictor
of pornography use at higher levels
of boredom)
(Weaver et al., Cross-sectional sample of adults in the Depressive Symptoms Depressive symptoms associated with
2011) U.S. (N = 559; 48.5% men, Age greater use of pornography.
Range: 35–54)
(Weber et al., 2018) A Cross-sectional study of German Life Satisfaction; Loneliness was positively associated
adults (N = 2527 individuals; 47% Loneliness with greater pornography use
men, Mage = 49.4, SD = 17.8) among both men and women; for
men only, lower levels of life
satisfaction also predicted greater
levels of pornography use

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 11

Table 3. Continued.
Negative Affect
Study Sample Characteristics Measure Study Conclusions
(Wilt, Cooper, Cross-sectional, U.S. undergraduates Self-Esteem Lower levels of self-esteem were
Grubbs, Exline, & (N = 1070, 68% men, Mage = 19.23, related (weakly) to greater use of
Pargament, 2016) SD = 2.34) pornography.
(Ybarra & Mitchell, Nationally representative, cross- Depressive Symptoms Depressive symptoms were associated
2005) sectional study of adolescents in the with greater IP-seeking behaviours.
U.S.; N = 1501, gender not specified;
Age Range: 10–17 years
(Yoder, Virden III, & Cross-sectional survey of adults in the Loneliness Loneliness was positively associated
Amin, 2005) U.S. (N = 400; 71.5% men; Age with daily and weekly pornography
Range: 21–61) use.

Influence of sexual media on sexual motivation

Separate from the above literature seeking to examine or explain what factors motivate or drive IPU,
there is also a body of literature examining how IPU is associated with sexual attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviours. This literature is often framed in terms of outcomes or effects of pornography use,
though such causal language may not be universally warranted. Below, we summarize this literature,
with a specific focus on the broad categories that seem to be well-represented in published work:
casual sexual behaviour and attitudes, sexual risk-taking, sexual objectification, sexual preferences,
and sexual satisfaction.

Casual sexual behavior

One commonly investigated associate and outcome of IPU is uncommitted sexual behaviour (e.g.
casual sex with consenting partners). Across many studies (See Table 4), uncommitted sexual behav-
iour, casual sex, hooking up, and sexual permissiveness are consistently well-predicted by IPU. These
findings are observed in nationally-representative data, as well as in convenience samples and a
variety of methodologies. In studies both in the U.S. (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009; Carroll et al.,
2008) and abroad (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008; Rissel et al., 2017), IPU is consistently associated with
greater sexual permissiveness, more sexual partners in recent history, and with casual sexual behav-
iour. Outside of Western contexts, these findings persist. For example, in Indonesia (Hald & Mulya,
2013), in a sample of Taiwanese adolescents (Lo & Wei, 2005) and in a cross-sectional analysis of
men in Hong Kong (Lam & Chan, 2007), IPU was consistently positively associated with greater accep-
tance of and engagement in casual sexual behaviours. Moreover, these findings are also consistently
found in longitudinal works, over the course of several weeks (Braithwaite, Aaron, Dowdle, Spjut, &
Fincham, 2015) to multiple years (Martyniuk & Štulhofer, 2018).
Collectively, these findings indicate that there is likely an association between IPU and both atti-
tudes toward and engagement in casual sexual behaviour. These findings are consistent across
several cultural contexts and methodological paradigms. Furthermore, given that many of these
findings are both longitudinal and representative in nature, they provide strong evidence for the gen-
eralizability of this conclusion (that IPU is associated with casual approaches to sexuality) and suggest
that there may be grounds for causal speculation.

Sexual preferences/desires
Sexual preferences and desires are also commonly investigated as correlates or outcomes of IPU.
Across a number of studies (See Table 5), IPU is consistently cross-sectionally associated with
greater diversity in sexual preferences, with a greater endorsement of specific sexual preferences
or requests for specific sexual acts, and with a greater desire to replicate or imitate sexual acts or
behaviours that are observed in IP. Qualitative works that seek to explore individual narratives
12 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 4. Summary of studies reporting associations between pornography use and casual sexual attitudes and behaviour.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Baams et al., 2015) Longitudinal study of Dutch Permissive attitudes toward Higher sexual media use (including
adolescents (N = 444, 48.2% sexuality pornography) corresponded to
men, Mage = 14.5, SD = 0.61) more permissive sexual attitudes.
Over time, these variables
trended together, so that greater
sexual media use was associated
with increasingly permissive
attitudes toward sex over time.
(Braithwaite, Aaron, Cross-sectional study of Friends with benefits Pornography use was associated
et al., 2015) undergraduates in the U.S. relationships with greater likelihood of having
Study 1 (Study 1, N = 850, 23% men, engaged in a ‘friends with
Mage = 19.3, SD = 1.3) benefits’ relationship, greater
number of partners with which
one had engaged in such
relationships, and greater plan to
continue such relationships in the
future
(Braithwaite, Aaron, Longitudinal study of Friends with benefits Cross-sectional replication of Study
et al., 2015) undergraduates in the U.S. relationships 1 (above). When these findings
Study 2 (Study 2, N = 992, 30% men, were examined longitudinally
Mage = 19.5., SD = 1.3) over a three-month period, the
association between
pornography use and ‘friends
with benefits’ relationships both
held, and was stronger than the
cross-sectional association
between the two behaviours,
after adjusting for the stability of
‘friends with benefits’
relationships
(Braithwaite, Coulson, Same as described in Braithwaite, Casual Sexual Encounters Pornography use was associated
et al., 2015) Aaron, et al., 2015 (referred to as ‘hook ups’) with casual sexual behaviour in
the form of hookups both cross-
sectionally and longitudinally.
pornography use predicted both
the likelihood of having engaged
in a hookup, the number of
previous hookup partners, and
the planned likelihood of
engaging in future hookups.
(Braun-Courville & A cross-sectional study of History of past casual sexual Pornography use was associated
Rojas, 2009) adolescents in the U.S. (N = encounters; Attitudes with a greater history of casual
433, 85% women, Mage = 18; toward future casual sexual sexual encounters and more
SD = 2.1) encounters permissive attitudes toward
future casual sexual encounters
(Brown, Conner, & A cross-sectional study of college Sexual Permissiveness Pornography use was associated
Vennum, 2017) students in the U.S. (N = 635; with greater sexual
75% women; Mage for men = permissiveness in both men and
20.22, SD = 3.10; Mage for women.
women = 19.16, SD = 2.12)
(Brown & L’Engle, Longitudinal study (2 years) of Permissive Sexual Norms and Greater use of sexually explicit
2009) adolescents in the Casual Sexual Behavior media was cross-sectionally
Southeastern United States (N associated with more permissive
= 967, 49.9% boys, Mage = 13.6, sexual norms and greater
SD = 0.7), acceptance of casual sexual
behaviour in both men and
women. When sampled again
two years later, pornography use
at baseline was associated with
continued tendencies toward
greater sexual permissiveness, as
well as greater engagement in a
variety of sexual behaviours

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 13

Table 4. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Carroll et al., 2008) Cross-sectional study of young Attitudes toward non- Pornography use was commonly
adults in the U.S. (N = 813, 38% committed sexual reported by both genders (more
men; Mage = 20, SD = 1.8) behaviours so among men: 86.1% men vs.
31% of women) and positively
associated with acceptance of
non-committed sexual
behaviours
(Doornwaard, A four-wave, longitudinal study Sexually permissive attitudes For boys, there was a unidirectional
Bickham, Rich, ter of Dutch adolescents (N = and sexual behaviour effect of pornography use on
Bogt, & van den 1132; 52.7% boys; Mage = sexually permissive attitudes,
Eijnden, 2015) 13.95, SD = 1.18) where greater use predicted
more permissive attitudes over
time, but not the reverse. That is,
pornography use led to increases
in permissive sexuality, but
permissive sexuality did not
necessarily lead to increases in
pornography use.
(Emmers-Sommer, A cross-sectional study of Sexual openness and For both men and women, use of
Hertlein, & Kennedy, university students in the U.S. permissiveness pornography was associated with
2013) (N = 846; 41.9% boys; Mage = greater sexual openness and
21.25, SD = 5.05) permissiveness as indicated by
greater willingness to engage in
non-committed or extra-
relational sexual behaviour.
(Ferron, Lussier, A cross-sectional study of French- Cyber-infidelity (e.g. Pornography use was associated
Sabourin, & Canadian adults in emotional or sexual with greater engagement in
Brassard, 2017) relationships (N = 779; 32.7% involvement with an cyber-infidelity among both men
men; Mage = 29.85, SD = 9.91) individual who is not one’s and women.
primary partner)
(Gwinn, Lambert, Two studies of undergraduates in Attitudes toward and Experimentally (Study 1) exposure
Fincham, & Maner, the U.S. engagement in infidelity to pornography use was shown to
2013) Study 1, Experimental (N = 74; increase perceived quality of
36%% men; Age Range = 18– relationship alternatives (e.g.
25) options for infidelity).
Study 2, 12-week longitudinal Longitudinally (Study 2), over 12
(N = 291; 18.2% men; Age weeks, greater use of
Range: 18–28) pornography use at baseline
predicted greater engagement in
extradyadic infidelity.
(Hagen, Thompson, & A four-year longitudinal study of Number of sexual partners Pornography use was associated
Williams, 2018) college men in the U.S. (N = since age 14 with a greater mean number of
795; Mage = 18.58 at baseline) sexual partners since age 14.
(Hald & Mulya, 2013) Cross-sectional study of Non-committed and Pornography use was predictive of
university students (N = 556; extramarital sexual non-committed sexual
73.4% women) in a behaviour behaviours and extramarital
predominantly Muslim society sexual behaviours
with strict anti-pornography
laws (Indonesia)
(Lam & Chan, 2007) Cross-sectional analysis of men in Sexually permissive attitudes Pornography use was positively
Hong Kong (N = 229, Mage = associated with sexual
21.5, SD = 1.8) permissiveness and proclivity to
engage in sexual harassment
(Lambert, Negash, Cross-sectional analyses of Casual sexual encounters, Pornography use in the past 30
Stillman, Olmstead, college students in romantic infidelity days was associated with greater
& Fincham, 2012) relationships in the U.S. likelihood of engaging in casual
Study 1 sexual encounters and/or
(N = 367, Age 17–26 18.3% extradyadic encounters, as well as
men) reduced commitment to one’s
Study 4 partner.
(N = 67, Age Range 17–25,
43.5% men)
Study 5

(Continued)
14 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 4. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(N = 240, Age Range 18–28,
21.5% men)
(Leonhardt & Cross-sectional (N = 568) and Sexual Permissiveness Both cross-sectionally and over a
Willoughby, 2017) longitudinal (N = 142) studies one year time period, for
of emerging adults in the U.S. unmarried emerging adults,
(Time 1: Mage = 20.82, SD = greater pornography use was
3.53) associated with greater sexual
permissiveness and greater
emphasis on being sexually
‘ready’ before marriage.
(Lo & Wei, 2005) Cross-sectional sample of Sexually permissive attitudes Pornography use was cross-
Taiwanese adolescents (N = sectionally associated with and
2001; 50% boys; Mage = 15.6, predictive of more sexually
SD = 0.9) permissive attitudes and
behaviours (e.g. casual sex)
(Lou et al., 2012) Cross-sectional sample of Chinese Premarital sexual Pornography use (including, but
adolescents (N = 17,016, Age permissiveness and sexual not limited to pornography use)
Range 15–24; 51.2% women) behaviour engagement was positively predictive of
greater premarital sexual
permissiveness and behavioural
sexual engagement.
(Martyniuk & Longitudinal studies of Croatian Sexual Permissiveness Although positive cross-sectional
Štulhofer, 2018) adolescents in two samples associations between
(Sample 1, N = 372; 72% pornography use and sexual
women, Mage = 16.1, SD = 0.46; permissiveness were observed,
Sample 2, N = 753; 63% over the course of two years,
women; Mage = 15.9, SD = 0.52) pornography use did not predict
increases in sexual
permissiveness in men or women.
(Martyniuk, Briken, Cross-sectional survey of German Casual sexual behaviour. Men who used pornography more
Sehner, Richter- (N = 1303, 51.5% men; Mage = (including, but not limited to the
Appelt, & Dekker, 22.79, SD = 1.96) and Polish (N internet) reported greater levels
2016) = 1135, 34.5% men; Mage = of casual sexual behaviour.
21.91, SD = 1.88) University
students.
(Mattebo et al., 2014) A cross-sectional sample of Self-reported experiences of Positive attitudes toward
adolescents in Sweden (N = casual sex pornography use were associated
877; 54% men, Age Range: 15– with greater self-reports of
20) casual-sex engagement.
(Mattebo, Tydén, A cross-sectional sample of Casual sex engagement (one- Girls who reported pornography
Häggström-Nordin, adolescent girls in Sweden (N night stands) use (not limited to the internet)
Nilsson, & Larsson, = 393, Age Range: 15–20) reported substantially higher
2016) rates of casual sexual behaviours
(45% of pornography users) in
contrast with non-users (22%).
(Omori et al., 2011) A cross-sectional sample of Sexual permissiveness Pornography exposure (in print,
college students in Japan (N = internet, and TV forms) was
476; 40.3% men, Mage = 19.5, associated with greater
SD = 1.3) endorsement of sexually
permissive attitudes
(Rasmussen & Longitudinal study of adolescents Number of sexual partners Pornography use (including, but
Bierman, 2018) in the U.S. (N = 2029; 50% boys; not limited to the internet) was
Age Range: 13–17) predictive of initiation of sexual
activity with a greater number of
partners and experimentation in
a greater number of sexual
activities.
(Peter & Valkenburg, Cross-sectional study of Dutch Sexual permissiveness; Pornography use was associated
2008) adolescents (N = 2343, 51% Attitudes toward future with greater sexual
men; Mage = 16.4, SD = 2.29) non-committed sexual acts permissiveness and acceptance of
non-committed sexual
exploration in the future.

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 15

Table 4. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Peter & Valkenburg, Cross-sectional study of Dutch Recreational attitudes toward Exposure to IP was associated,
2006b) adolescents (N = 471, 52% sex. positively, with more recreational
boys; Mage = 15.5, SD = 1.7) and uncommitted attitudes
toward sex, though this
relationship was mediated by
perceived realism.
(Peter & Valkenburg, Longitudinal study of Dutch Instrumental views of sex Exposure to IP at baseline positively
2010) adolescents (N = 959; Mage = predicted increasingly
16.8, SD = 2.3) instrumental (rather than
relational/intimate) views of
sexual behaviour. This process
was mediated by the effect of
pornography use on increasing
social realism (i.e. that IP was
realistic) and utility (i.e. that IP is
useful). Greater frequency of IP at
baseline predicted increases in
perceived realism and utility,
which, in turn, predicted
increases in instrumental
attitudes toward sex.
(Rissel et al., 2017) Cross-sectional, nationally Number of sexual partners in Having two or more sexual partners
representative study of adults the past year within the previous 12 months
in Australia (N = 20,094; 49.5% was predictive, for both men and
men; Age Range: 18–65) women, of greater odds of
endorsing both lifetime and 12
month use of pornography
(Shaughnessy, Byers, A cross-sectional study of Acceptance of casual sexual Past-month pornography use for
& Walsh, 2011) participants in the U.S. (N = behaviour and number of sexual arousal purposes was
217; 50% men; Mage = 19.5; SD sexual partners positively associated with both
= 2.0) greater acceptance of casual sex
and a greater reported number of
past sexual partners.
(ter Bogt, Engels, A cross-sectional sample of Dutch Casual sex acceptance Among boys, but not girls,
Bogers, & adolescents (N = 217; 53% pornography use (both on the
Kloosterman, 2010)t boys; Age Range: 13–16) internet and on TV) was positively
associated with greater
acceptance of casual sex.
(To, Ngai, & Iu Kan, A cross-sectional study of Premarital sexual Adolescents who reported
2012) adolescents in Hong Kong (N = permissiveness pornography use in the past year
503; 53.1% boys; Mage = 15.85; were more likely to report higher
SD = 1.18) levels of premarital sexual
permissiveness, with greater
frequency being related to
greater permissiveness.
(Štulhofer, Buško, & A cross-sectional study of Acceptance of recreational Among both men and women,
Schmidt, 2012) Croatian college students (N = sex frequency of pornography use
544; 34% men; Age Range: 18– was not associated with greater
25) acceptance of recreational or
casual sex.
(van Oosten, Peter, & Longitudinal study of Dutch Willingness to engage in Over time, greater pornography use
Vandenbosch, 2017) adolescents (N = 1467; 50% casual sexual behaviour was associated with increased
men; Age Range: 13–17) willingness to engage in casual
sex.
(Vandenbosch & van Three-wave longitudinal study of Engagement in casual sexual Pornography use was positively
Oosten, 2018) Dutch Adolescents (N = 1079; behaviour predictive of engagement in
53.1% boys; Mage = 15.11; SD = more casual sexual behaviours
1.39) over time. This finding was
robust, though the inverse was
not (i.e. that casual sex predicted
more pornography use over
time).

(Continued)
16 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 4. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Wright, 2012) U.S. Nationally Representative Casual Sexual Behavior Pornography use was associated
Sample (GSS) with increasing engagement in
casual sexual encounters, but
casual sexual encounters were
not reciprocally associated with
increased pornography use.
Although these findings cannot
confirm a direct, causal
relationship between
pornography use and casual sex,
they do show that increases in
pornography use precede greater
engagement in casual sexual
behaviours over time
(Wright, 2018) Four nationally representative Premarital (Samples 1 and 2) Across samples 1 and 2,
samples of participants in the and extramarital sexual pornography viewing was
U.S. derived from the General behaviour (Samples 3 & 4) consistently associated with
Social Survey data from 1988 to greater acceptance of premarital
2016. sexual activity and greater
Sample 1: unmarried engagement in premarital sexual
participants (N = 4181; Mage = activity, even after controlling for
40.9, SD = 18.3, 43% men) the relationship between use and
Sample 2: unmarried attitudes toward premarital
participants (N = 275; Mage = sexuality. That is, pornography
32.8, SD = 12.7, 54% men) use was independently related to
Sample 3: married or behavioural engagement in
previously-married participants premarital sexual activity, above
(N = 6621; Mage = 49.3, SD = and beyond its relationship with
15.3, 44% men) attitudes toward and acceptance
Sample 4: married or of such behaviours.
previously-married participants Across samples 3 and 4, the same
(N = 388; Mage = 44.62, SD = patterns held, with regards to
11.93, 51% men) both attitdudes toward and
engagement in extramarital
sexual activity.
(Wright, Tokunaga, & Longitudinal panel study of Sexual Permissiveness and Over time, the use of sexually
Bae, 2014) General Social Survey (GSS) openness to extramarital explicit media (not directly
participants in the U.S.; two behaviours defined as internet use only) was
samples were surveyed at two associated with increases in
time-points over two years sexual permissiveness and more
(Sample 1, N = 269, Mage = open attitudes toward
47.0, SD = 14.8, 37% men, extramarital sexual behaviours.
sampled at 2006 and 2008); Notably, this association
Sample 2, N = 282, Mage = 49.9, persisted, above and beyond
SD = 14.0, 50.1% men, sampled baseline attitudes, suggesting
at 2008 and 2010 that pornography use is
predictive of such attitudes.
Additionally, the pattern was not
evident in reverse (e.g.
extramarital openness did not
predict pornography use over
time), suggesting that the
relationship between the two
variables is not bidirectional.

around and understandings of personal IPU often find that users of IP understand the link between
IPU and sexual preferences as directional in nature (Attwood, 2005; Löfgren-Mårtenson & Månsson,
2010; Rothman, Kaczmarsky, Burke, Jansen, & Baughman, 2015). In short, despite limitations associ-
ated with cross-sectional designs and retrospective recall (Chan, 2009), people seem to believe
that their IPU influenced their sexual preferences.
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 17

Table 5. Summary of studies reporting associations between pornography use and specific sexual preferences or desires.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Bridges, Sun, Ezzell, A cross-sectional samples of internet Desire for specific Pornography use was associated with
& Johnson, 2016) using undergraduates in the U.S.; (N sexual practices the desire to try specific sexual
= 1883; 38.6% men; Mage = 22.6, SD practices commonly seen in
= 8.0), pornographic content (e.g. men
spanking their partners, facial
ejaculation, anal penetration).
(Donevan & A large cross-sectional study of high- Likelihood of trying Greater pornography use was associated
Mattebo, 2017) school students in Sweden (N = 229, activities seen in IP with engagement in behaviours or
46% boys; Participants all 18 years acts witnessed in pornography.
old)
(Häggström-Nordin, A large cross-sectional study of high- Likelihood of trying Users, particularly boys, who consumed
Hanson, & Tydén, school students in Sweden (N = 718, activities seen in IP more pornography reported greater
2005) 53.9% boys; Age Range: 17–21) likelihood of trying to perform acts
seen in a film.
(Hald, Kuyper, Cross-sectional study of Dutch Desire for Pornography use was positively
Adam, & de Wit, adolescents (N = 4600; 30.5% men; ‘adventurous sex’ predictive of a desire to have more
2013) Age Range: 15–25) ‘adventurous sex’ in real life (e.g.
multiple partners at the same time;
meeting online partners for real-life
encounters), even when other
explanatory variables (e.g. thrill-
seeking, sexual sensation-seeking,
assertiveness, sexual self-esteem,
religiousness) were controlled
(Husain & Qureshi, A cross-sectional study of married Sexual practice Both men and women who consumed IP
2016) adults in Pakistan (N = 100, 41% preferences in were more likely to report a desire or
men; Age Range: 21–66) marriage expectation for partnered practices
commonly depicted in pornography
(e.g. oral sex, unconventional sexual
practices).
(Martyniuk et al., Cross-sectional survey of German (N = Variety of sexual Pornography use (not limited to the
2016) 1303, 51.5% men; Mage = 22.79, SD activities internet) was positively associated
= 1.96) and Polish (N = 1135, 34.5% with greater variety of sexual
men; Mage = 21.91, SD = 1.88) activities, but not with greater sexual
university students. risk taking.
(Mattebo et al., A cross-sectional sample of adolescent Sexual fantasy and Pornography use (not limited to the
2016) girls in Sweden (N = 393, Age variety of sexual internet) was associated with greater
Range: 15–20) activities sexual activity and with endorsement
of having fantasies or attempts to
copy behaviours witnessed in
pornography.
(Morgan, 2011) Cross-sectional study of of college Sexual Preferences Regular pornography use was
students in the Northwest U.S. (N = associated with greater variety in
782, 41.7% men, Mage = 19.9, Age sexual preferences and a greater
Range: 18–30) preference for a variety of sexual
practices (e.g. using toys or props;
playful domination/submission; trying
novel positions). Regular users tended
to report a desire to engage in a wide
variety of sexual experiences, even if
they had previously had no experience
with such behaviours
(Schrimshaw, A cross-sectional study of men who Sexual Fantasies and Large proportions of respondents
Antebi-Gruszka, & have sex with men in the U.S (N = Preferences indicated that pornography use (not
Downing, 2016) 265; Mage = 32.9, SD = 12.5) limited to the internet) had shaped
their sexual desires (85%), fantasies
(93%), and actions (70%).
(Sun et al., 2016) A cross-sectional of undergraduate Sexual Preferences Pornography use predicted the
men in the U.S. (N = 479, Age likelihood that an individual would
Range: 18–29) request specific sexual acts seen in IP
from a real-life partner and the
likelihood that pornography would be

(Continued)
18 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 5. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
integrated into sexual encounters as a
supplement to enhance arousal.
(Sun, Wright, & A cross-sectional study of German Desire to participate Pornography use (including, but not
Steffen, 2017) women (N = 392; Mage = 27.49, SD in submissive sexual limited to the internet) was positively
= 6.72) acts associated with a desire to participate
in sexually submissive acts, consistent
with those seen in most mainstream
pornographic films.
(Træen & Daneback, A cross-sectional sample of Norwegian Sexual Among heterosexual men (but not
2013) adults (N = 2381; 41% men; Age Experimentation among women or Gay/Bisexual men),
Range: 18–25) pornography consumption was
associated with greater sexual
experimentation and sexual activities
consistent with those witnessed in
pornography.
(Weinberg et al., Interview based study of Openness to Diverse IP exposure was associated with
2010) undergraduates in the U.S. (N = 172; Sexual Acts increased openness to a variety of
Study 1 41% men; Mage = 21.3; Age Range: sexual acts, including oral-genital
18–34) contact, the use of mechanical
enhancements (i.e. sex toys), openness
to anal sexual stimulation, and the
desire to engage in multi-partner
sexual encounters (i.e. three-way
sexual encounters)
(Weinberg et al., Cross-sectional, qualitative study with Openness to Diverse Free response answers from both men
2010) undergraduates (N = 73, 26% men) Sexual Acts and women reflected a causal
Study 2 understanding of the relationship
between their pornography use and
sexual preferences, noting that IP had
normalized a wide range of sexual
behaviours and enhanced their
personal openness to engaging in
such behaviours.
(Wright & Tokunaga, Experimental Study of undergraduate Preference for more Men who typically did not engage in
2015) men in the U.S. (N = 133, Mage = attractive partners regular pornography use, when
20.91, SD = 1.84), shown images of centerfolds, reported
greater preferences for attractive
partners.
(Wright, Steffen, Cross-sectional study of German Desire for specific Pornography use in women is associated
et al., 2017) women (N = 392, Mage = 27.5, SD = sexual practices with a desire to engage in specific
6.7) sexual practices seen in IP
(Wright, Sun, Cross-sectional study of German men; Desire for specific Pornography use in men is associated
Steffen, & N = 384, Mage = 32.1, SD = 9.1 sexual practices with a desire to engage in specific
Tokunaga, 2015) sexual practices seen in IP

Sexual risk-taking
Collectively, across several (but not all) studies, there appear to be links between IPU and sexual
risk taking (See Table 6). Given this general trend, previous systematic reviews have concluded
that there is a notable, positive relationship between the use of sexually explicit media and risky
sexual behaviour (Harkness et al., 2015) and that this link is possibly causal in nature. Having
said this, the results of our review suggest that such clear conclusions may be premature, par-
ticularly based on data obtained in the past 4–5 years. That is, links between IPU and risk beha-
viours are not consistent across studies, with many studies reporting no association between IPU
and real-world sexual risk behaviours. This discrepancy, in part, seems to be attributable to the
content of pornography content viewed. Several studies note links between consumption of
pornography demonstrating unsafe sexual practices and likelihood of engaging in unsafe
sexual practices. However, in many cases (as reviewed in Table 6), direct links between mere
consumption of pornography and sexual risk-taking are not evident.
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 19

Table 6. Summary of studies reporting associations between pornography use and sexual risk taking.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Bradley et al., 2016) Clients of Female Sex Workers in Solicitation of sex Among men who were clients of
India (N = 684; 100% men; Age workers. HIV risk female sex workers, those who
Range: 18–60; Mage = 31.4) behaviours. had recently consumed
pornography (not limited to
internet) were more likely to
report anal sex with a sex worker.
Additionally, clients who did not
use condoms during encounters
with sex workers were more likely
to be regular pornography users.
(Braithwaite, Givens, Cross-sectional study of college Multiple indicators of Pornography use was associated
et al., 2015) students in the U.S. (N = 1216; 37% sexual risk taking with intoxication during
men; Men: Mage = 19.6, SD = 1.4; uncommitted sexual encounters,
Women: Mage = 19.2, SD = 1.15) with men specifically
demonstrating a pattern of
greater pornography use being
associated with greater
intoxication. Additionally, it was
also associated with a higher
incidence of unprotected (e.g. no
condom) penetrative sexual
encounters while intoxicated, a
particularly risky sexual behaviour
(Braun-Courville & Cross-sectional study of adolescents Multiple indicators of Pornography use was positively
Rojas, 2009) in New York City (N = 433; 85% sexual risk taking associated with greater frequency
girls; Mage = 18, SD = 2.1, Age of sexual intercourse, more
Range: 12–22) lifetime partners, more partners
within the past three months,
greater likelihood of using alcohol
or illicit substances during
intercourse, greater likelihood to
have had anal sex, and with
overall sexual risk scores.
(Bulot, Leurent, & Cross-sectional study of university Various indicators of Pornography use use, particularly
Collier, 2015) students in (N = 794; 38.2% men; sexual risk taking more frequent pornography use,
Mage = 19.8, SD = 1.7) was associated with a number of
risk factors such as greater
number of sexual partners, greater
engagement in casual sexual
behaviours, lower use of
preventative measures to avoid
sexually transmitted infections,
and higher consumption of
substances when sexual active.
(Donevan & Mattebo, A large cross-sectional study of high- Multiple indicators of Individuals who use more IP report a
2017) school students in Sweden (N = sexual risk taking variety of behaviours that are
229, 46% boys; Participants all 18 often considered risky, such as
years old) earlier sexual debut.
(Eaton, Cain, Pope, Cross-sectional study of men in the Unprotected sex In a sample of HIV negative men
Garcia, & Cherry, U.S. who have sex with men (N = participating in a risk-reduction
2012) 149) intervention, pornography use
was associated with a greater
likelihood of having had recent
unprotected sex and a greater
number of partners with whom
unprotected sex had occurred
(Lim, Agius, Carrotte, Cross-sectional study of Australian High-risk sexual Pornography viewing was not
Vella, & Hellard, 2017) adolescents and young adults (N behaviours associated with unprotected or
= 941; 27% men; Age Range: 15– high-risk sexual behaviours, but
29) was associated with greater
prevalence of anal sex.

(Continued)
20 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 6. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Luder et al., 2011) A 2002, Cross sectional study of Multiple indicators of There were no associations found
internet-using Swiss adolescents sexual risk taking between IP exposure (intentional
(N = 7458, 51.5% boys) or unintentional) and risky sexual
behaviours for either male or
female participants, except for
condom use among boys. For
boys, intentional exposure to IP
was associated with a reduced
likelihood to have used a condom
during the most recent sexual
encounter.
(Mahapatra & Saggurti, Cross-sectional study of male Multiple indicators of Having viewed pornographic videos
2014) migrant workers in India (N = sexual risk taking in general was associated with a
11,219, 100% men, Mage = 26.6, greater likelihood of engaging in
SD = 5.5) paid sex, experience of an STI, and
inconsistent use of condoms.
(Martyniuk et al., 2016) Cross-sectional survey of German (N Sexual debut under 15, Among women, but not men,
= 1303, 51.5% men; Mage = 22.79, number of sexual pornography use (not limited to
SD = 1.96) and Polish (N = 1135, partners, and the internet) was associated with
34.5% men; Mage = 21.91, SD = younger sexual debut and a
1.88) University students. greater number of sexual partners.
In both men and women,
pornography was not related to
condom use.
(Morrison, Morrison, & A cross-sectional sample of men who Safe sex practices No statistically significant
Bradley, 2007) have sex with men (N = 66, Mage = association was found between
35.5, SD = 12.6) exposure to pornography (not
limited to the internet) and safe
sexual practices.
(Noubiap et al., 2015) A cross-sectional survey of college Condom use, number of Consumption of pornography (not
students in Cameroon (N = 411; lifetime sexual limited to internet pornography)
Age Range: 17–50; Mage 24.6, SD partners, and age of was associated with a greater
4.6) sexual debut number of lifetime sexual partners
and a lower age of first sexual
debut. Condom use was unrelated
to pornography consumption.
(Nelson, Eaton, & African-American/Black men in the Condom Use and Pornography use was common, with
Gamarel, 2017) U.S. who reported same-sex sexual preference for the majority of participants
encounters (N = 654; Age Range: condom use in indicating a preference for
18–62; M 33.58, SD 11.01) pornography pornography that feature no use
of condoms. However, such
preferences were not associated
with real-world behaviours with
regards to condom use.
(Peter & Valkenburg, Longitudinal, nationally Unsafe Sexual Practices Pornography use was associated
2011a) representative, 2008, two-wave with greater sexual risk taking.
panel study of adults (N = 833) and Cross-sectionally, within both
adolescents (N = 1445) in Holland samples, there were small positive
correlations between
pornography use and unsafe
sexual practices (i.e. unprotected
sex). Over a six-month period,
pornography use was unrelated to
risky sexual behaviours in
adolescents, but positively
predictive of risky sexual
behaviour in adults, above and
beyond the predictive influence of
baseline risky sexual behaviours.
Additionally, no reciprocal
relationship was found (i.e. risky
sexual behaviour did not predict
pornography use over time),

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 21

Table 6. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
suggesting that pornography use
may be driving increases in risky
sexual behaviour, but not the
inverse
(Rissel et al., 2017) Nationally representative study of Anal Sex Lifetime history of anal sex (for both
Australian Adults (N = 20,094; Age men and women) was associated
Range 18–65) with greater odds of lifetime and
past-year use of pornography.
(Rosser et al., 2013) A cross sectional study of U.S. men Condomless sex Pornography use itself was not
who have sex with men (N = 1391; associated with condom use
83.7% aged 18–45; 16.3% aged behaviours, though there were
over 45) indications that higher use of
pornography (e.g. an hour per day
or more) was associated with
condomless sex. Greater
consumption of pornography
featuring condomless sex was
associated with greater risk
behaviours in real-life sexual
encounters.
(Schrimshaw et al., A cross-sectional study of men who Condomless sex Pornography use (not limited to the
2016) have sex with men in the U.S (N = internet) including preferences for
265; Mage = 32.9, SD = 12.5) condomless pornography were
largely unrelated to condom use
in sexual encounters.
(Sinković et al., 2013) Croatian young adults (N = 1005; Sexual risk-taking Frequency of pornography use and
50.7% men; Age Range: 18–25) personal importance of
pornography use were not
predictors of various risky sexual
behaviours. However, age at first
exposure to IP was a significant,
but weak, predictor of sexual risk
taking, with earlier age of
exposure being associated with
greater risk taking.
(Stein, Silvera, Hagerty, Large-scale, cross-sectional study of Condomless anal sex Men who reported having
& Marmor, 2012) non-monogamous men (in the witnessed unprotected anal
U.S.) who have sex with men (N = intercourse in IP were also more
751; Median Age = 32; Age Range: likely to endorse engaging in such
18–68) behaviours in their real-life sexual
encounters.
(Sun et al., 2013) Cross-sectional study of college Attitudes toward For both men and women
students in China (N = 19,123; condom use pornography use was associated
48.7% men, Mage = 20.8, SD = 1.5) positive attitudes toward risky
sexual behaviours such as not
using condoms
(Svedin, Åkerman, & A cross-sectional study of Swedish Unsafe sexual practices Frequent users of IP (N = 200) in
Priebe, 2011) adolescent boys (N = 1902; Mage = comparison to infrequent and
18.15; SD = 0.74) non-users (N = 1702) were more
likely to have paid for sex, sold
sex, have a sexual debut younger
than 15 years of age, and engage
in sexually coercive behaviour in
sexual encounters.
(Thai & Barlow, 2018) Experimental study of Australian Condomless sex Consumption of pornography
men who have sex with men (N = featuring condomless anal sex was
659; 84.5%% aged 18–50; 15.5% associated with greater intention
aged over 50) to engage in condomless sexual
activity, but only when the
potential target of such activity
(e.g. prospective partner) was
deemed highly attractive.

(Continued)
22 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 6. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Traeen et al., 2015; A cross sectional study of Norwegian Condomless sex Consuming pornography showing
Træen, Hald, et al., men who have sex with men (N = condom use was associated with
2014; Træen, Noor, 507; 75.4% aged 18–45; 24.6% real-world condom use
et al., 2014) aged over 45) behaviours. However, overall
pornography consumption was
associated with greater
unprotected anal sex, though this
was mediated by personal feelings
of condom use self-efficacy.
Consumption of pornography
featuring condomless sex
predicted condomless sex.
(Whitfield, Rendina, A longitudinal study of gay and Condomless anal sex Pornography use itself did not
Grov, & Parsons, bisexual 0men in the U.S. (N = 546; directly predict more condomless
2018) Mage = 40.8; SD = 13.7) sex, but consuming pornography
that featured condomless sex
moderated this finding, in that
frequent consumers of
pornography featuring
condomless sex were
substantively more likely to
engage in condomless sex
themselves.
(Wilkerson et al., 2012) Cross-sectional, qualitative study of Unsafe sexual practices When participants found acts
men (in the U.S.) who have sex depicted in IP to be arousing and
with men (N = 79; Mage = not pleasurable (in appearance), and
reported) when a trusted sexual partner was
available, riskier sexual behaviours
were reported as a likely result.
(Wright & Arroyo, 2013) Women from the U.S. nationally Sexual partners Women who acknowledged
representative GSS (years 2000– pornography use were more likely
2004) to report having multiple sexual
partners.
(Wright & Randall, Men from the nationally Multiple indicators of Men who acknowledged viewing
2012) representative GSS (N = 1079; sexual risk taking pornography also endorsed a
Mage = 14.2; SD = 14.1) variety of other riskier sexual
behaviours including having
multiple partners, engaging
extramarital sex, and paying for
sex.
(Wright, 2013) Cross-temporal analysis of 37 years Multiple indicators of For men, pornography use in
(1973–2010) of U.S. nationally sexual risk taking general – not just IP – in men was
representative data on men (via associated with more sexual
the GSS) partners over the lifetime and
greater likelihood of having
solicited or paid for a sexual
encounter.
(Wright et al., 2013) Cross-temporal analysis of 37 years Multiple indicators of Women who used pornography
(1973–2010) of U.S. nationally sexual risk taking were also more likely to report
representative data on women (via having extramarital sex, having
the GSS) paid sex, and having multiple
sexual partners
(Wright, Miezan, Sun, & A cross-sectional study of English Condom Use For individuals not in monogamous
Steffen, 2018) adults (N = 98; 58% men; Mage = relationships, viewing
31.2; SD = 9.5) pornography as a source of sexual
information was associated with
lower levels of condom use.
(Wright, Sun, & Steffen, A cross-sectional study of German Condom Use Pornography use itself was
2018) adults (N = 200; 50.5% men; Mage unrelated to condom use, but
= 28.93; SD = 7.34) considering pornography as a
source of sexual information was
associated with lower levels of
condom use.

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 23

Table 6. Continued.
Study Sample Characteristics Outcome Study Conclusions
(Wright, Tokunaga, & Two cross-sectional studies of Condom Use Pornography use (predominately
Kraus, 2016b) undergraduates in the U.S. xxx IPU) was associated with less
(Study 1, N = 310, 54.5% men; frequent use of condoms during
Mage = 20.4, SD = 1.8; Study 2, N = sexual encounters and lower
418, 78.7% women; Mage = 21.2, estimation of peer condom use
SD = 2.8) (i.e. believing that condom use is
generally less common).
(Wright, Sun, & Miezan, A cross-sectional study of women in Condom use Pornography use was negatively
2019) South Korea (N = 140; Mage = 23.7; associated with condom use, as
SD = 3.7) was perceiving pornography as a
source of sexual information.
(Xu, Zheng, & Rahman, Cross-sectional study of Chinese men Multiple indicators of Pornography use itself, among men
2017) who have sex with men (N = 314; sexual risk taking who have sex with men, was
Mage = 25.46; SD = 6.46) unrelated to risk behaviours,
though viewing unsafe sexual
practices in pornography was
associated with greater sexual risk
taking with regular partners, but
not with casual sexual partners.

Sexual satisfaction
The relationships between IPU and sexual satisfaction have been studied extensively in recent years,
with dozens of publications addressing the topic, theoretical reviews proposing models for under-
standing the topic (Leonhardt, Spencer, Butler, & Theobald, 2018), and previous meta-analytic
reviews examining these findings (Wright, Tokunaga, Kraus, & Klann, 2017). The findings of these
studies are summarized in Table 7.
In general, as indicated in Table 7, the relationships between IPU and personal sexual satisfaction
are complex. Among couples, there is limited support for the idea that IPU may enhance sexual sat-
isfaction when it is incorporated into partnered sexual activities. On an individual level, there is con-
sistent evidence that IPU is predictive of lower sexual satisfaction in men, with both cross-sectional
and longitudinal works pointing to the associations of such use with diminished satisfaction. Regard-
ing women, scattered evidence suggests that IPU may enhance sexual satisfaction, have no effect on
satisfaction, or diminish satisfaction over time. Despite these mixed findings, the conclusion of no sig-
nificant effect of IPU on sexual satisfaction in women is the most common finding. These results have
also been confirmed by a recent meta-analysis (Wright, Tokunaga, et al., 2017). Reviewing 50 studies
of pornography consumption and various satisfaction outcomes (e.g. self satisfaction, body satisfac-
tion, relational satisfaction, sexual satisfaction), this meta-analysis found that pornography consump-
tion (not internet-specific) was consistently related to and predictive of lower interpersonal
satisfaction variables, including sexual satisfaction, but for men only. No significant findings were
found for women. Collectively, such mixed results preclude definitive conclusions about the role
of IP in influencing satisfaction for women.
One of the more notable findings of recent works examining IPU and sexual satisfaction is that
there appears to be a curvilinear relationship between use and satisfaction, so that satisfaction
decreases more sharply as IPU becomes more common (Wright, Bridges, Sun, Ezzell, & Johnson,
2017; Wright, Steffen, & Sun, 2017). Given clear evidence across multiple international samples, it
seems reasonable to accept the conclusion that, as IPU increases to more than once per month,
sexual satisfaction decreases. Furthermore, although these studies (Wright, Bridges, et al., 2017;
Wright, Steffen, et al., 2017) were cross-sectional, given the number of longitudinal studies (Peter
& Valkenburg, 2009b) linking IPU to lower sexual satisfaction, it is possible to infer that these associ-
ations are potentially causal in nature. As IPU increases, interpersonal sexual satisfaction appears to
decrease (Tokunaga, Wright, & Roskos, 2019). However, very recent research on this topic (Perry,
24 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Table 7. Summary of studies detailing relationships between pornography use and sexual satisfaction.
Study Setting and Sample Summary of findings
(Bridges & Morokoff, 2011) A cross-sectional sample of U.S. adults in Pornography use in men was associated with
committed relationships lower individual sexual satisfaction;
(N = 217 couples; 50% Men; Men, Mage = 36.9, pornography use in women not associated
SD = 10.7; Women, Mage = 34.2, SD = 10.5) with personal sexual satisfaction.
(Blais-Lecours, Vaillancourt- A cross-sectional sample of French-Canadian Daily pornography use (average use in minutes)
Morel, Sabourin, & adults (N = 832, 28% men; Mage = 25.2, SD = was associated with lower sexual satisfaction,
Godbout, 2016) 7.99) though this was mediated by the association
between daily use and self-reported feelings of
compulsivity or addiction to IP.
(Brown, Carroll, et al., 2017) A cross-sectional sample of U.S. Couples (N = Among both men and women, pornography use
326 couples; 50% Men; Men, Mage = 38.2, SD was associated with lower levels of individual/
= 10.4; Women, Mage = 36.3, SD = 9.9) personal sexual satisfaction. Among women
only, pornography use was positively
associated with greater levels of shared sexual
satisfaction.
(Cranney & Štulhofer, 2017) A cross-sectional sample of adults in Croatia (N For men, pornography use (including, but not
= 2580, 28% men; Men Mage = 35.4, SD = 9.55; limited to the internet) was associated with
Women, Mage = 28.7, SD = 9.0) lower sexual satisfaction. For women, there
was not such a direct relationship, but the link
between use and sexual satisfaction was
moderated by religiousness, so that use was
associated with less sexual satisfaction for
more religious women.
(Doornwaard et al., 2014) A longitudinal study of Dutch adolescents (N = Over four waves of data collection over four
1132, 47.3% boys; Mage = 13.95, SD = 1.18) years, there was a negative predictive
relationship of pornography use on sexual self-
perception and esteem, so that those who
used more pornography reported more
negative views of themselves over time.
(Ferron et al., 2017) A cross-sectional study of French Canadian A small negative relationship was observed
adults in coupled relationships (N = 779, 32% between pornography use and both sexual
men; Mage = 29.85, SD = 9.91) and couple satisfaction
(French & Hamilton, 2018) A cross-sectional study of Canadian young For women, self-reported pornography use that
adults (N = 505, 38.6% men; Men Mage = 19.8, involved female-pleasure-centric pornography
SD = 2.7; Women, Mage = 19.8, SD = 3.8) (e.g. more focus on women’s pleasure) was
associated with self-reported positive impacts
on participant’s sex lives.
(Grov, Gillespie, Royce, & A cross-sectional study of adults in Croatia (N = Pornography use was negatively associated with
Lever, 2011) 2313; 44.9% Men; Men, Mage = 37.3, SD = 9.4; sexual satisfaction in men. No association
Women, Mage = 30.2, SD = 8.8) found between use and satisfaction in women
(Leonhardt & Willoughby, A cross-sectional sample of U.S. in committed For men, greater use of pornography (not limited
2019) romantic relationships (N = 858; 46.5% Men; to the internet) was associated with lower
Mage = 33.10, SD = 9.36) reported sexual satisfaction. For women, there
were no links between pornography use and
sexual satisfaction.
(Maddox et al., 2011) A cross-sectional study of U.S. Adults in romantic Pornography use as a primarily solitary activity
relationships (76% men, 31% of women users) was
(N = 1291; 36.8% Men; Mage = 25.5, SD = 4.0) associated with lower sexual satisfaction.
Exclusive use with a partner (no solitary use)
associated with higher sexual satisfaction.
(Morgan, 2011) A cross-sectional sample of U.S. undergraduates Pornography use was negatively associated with
(N = 782; 42% Men; Mage = 19.9, SD = NA) sexual satisfaction even when gender was
controlled statistically.
(Muusses, Kerkhof, & A longitudinal study of adult couples in the Pornography use in men was cross-sectionally
Finkenauer, 2015) Netherlands (N = 190 couples; 50% Men; Men, associated with lower sexual satisfaction. There
Mage = 34.1 (NA); Women, Mage = 31.2 (NA)) was no association found for women.
Longitudinally, over two years, no associations
found for either gender.
(Peter & Valkenburg, A longitudinal study of Dutch adolescents (N = Baseline pornography use was cross-sectionally
2009b) 1052; 50% Men; Age Range: 13–20) associated with lower sexual satisfaction in
both genders, and with decreases in sexual
satisfaction at intervals of six months and one
year.

(Continued)
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 25

Table 7. Continued.
Study Setting and Sample Summary of findings
(Poulsen et al., 2013) A cross-sectional study in the U.S. of adult Pornography use in men was associated with
couples (N = 617 couples; 50% Men) lower sexual satisfaction in men. pornography
use in women was associated with greater
satisfaction, but use in women was most often
in the context of dyadic use.
(Sun et al., 2016) A cross-sectional study in the U.S. of Pornography use was associated with lower
undergraduate men (N = 487; 100% Men; Age sexual satisfaction and lower enjoyment of
Range: 18–29) partnered sexual activity.
(Szymanski & Stewart- A cross-sectional study in the U.S. of Frequent pornography use was associated with
Richardson, 2014) undergraduate men in committed lower levels of satisfaction in sexual
relationships (N = 373; 100% Men; Age Range: relationships.
18–29)
(Willoughby, Carroll, Busby, Cross-sectional study of U.S. Couples (N = 1755 Pornography use discrepancy (female partner
& Brown, 2016) couples; 50% Men; Men Mage = 28.8, SD = 8.8; use vs male partner use) was associated with
Women Mage = 27.0, SD = 8.0) diminished sexual satisfaction in couples, with
men reporting substantially higher rates of use
that women, and increased discrepancy
predicting lower satisfaction.
(Wright, Bridges, et al., A cross-sectional analysis of U.S. undergraduates Among both men and women, pornography use
2017) and adults (N = 1513; 38.5% Men; Mage = 22.6, was associated with less sexual satisfaction in
SD = 8.0) an accelerating negative curvilinear fashion.
(Wright, Steffen, et al., Cross-sectional samples of English and German In both samples, for both men and women,
2017) undergraduates and adults (English: N = 195; pornography use was associated with less
38% Men; Mage = 30.1, SD = 9.1; German: N = sexual satisfaction in an accelerating negative
699; 49% Men; Mage = 30.0, SD = 8.2) curvilinear fashion. As pornography use
approached once per month or more, sexual
satisfaction decreased.
(Wright, Sun, Steffen, & A cross-sectional sample of German adults (N = Among both men and women, pornography use
Tokunaga, 2017) 405; 52% Men; Mage = 30.2, SD = 8.3) was associated with less sexual satisfaction
indirectly, linked by a preference for
pornography over sexual interaction. Those
who preferred pornography were less satisfied
sexually.

2019) suggests that, for married couples, this decrease in satisfaction may be accounted for by mas-
turbation itself, rather than pornography use.

Sexual objectification
Sexual objectification, by nature, involves the devaluation of the personhood of prospective sexual
partners and the view of them as objects for personal pleasure enhancement (Fredrickson &
Roberts, 1997). This is especially true of heterosexual men, for whom sexual objectification has
been primarily researched (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Szymanski, Moffitt, & Carr, 2011).
However, both men and women may view others as sexual objects (Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005),
and, although understudied in LGBTQ populations, there is evidence that such individuals may
also objectify prospective partners (Wilson et al., 2009).
Published literature on the use of pornography and attitudes toward women generally shows that
the use of pornography is associated with greater acceptance of violence toward women (Allen,
Emmers, Gebhardt, & Giery, 1995; Demare, Briere, & Lips, 1988; Hald, Malamuth, & Yuen, 2010), par-
ticularly among men already predisposed to engage in sexual violence (Malamuth, Hald, & Koss,
2012). Moreover, in a meta-analytic study of the effects of pornography use on sexual behaviours
(Wright, Tokunaga, & Kraus, 2016a), pornography consumption in both men and women was associ-
ated with more sexually aggressive behaviours. Building on this, in a longitudinal study of Dutch ado-
lescents (N = 962, Age Range: 14–20; Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a), pornography use predicted general
notions of women as sexual objects among both men and women. However, it was noted that only
among men did such increased views of women as sexual objects then predict increases in IPU. In
26 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

short, for male participants, IPU was longitudinally linked to greater sexual objectification of women,
which was, in turn, longitudinally linked to greater IPU.
Pornography exposure has also been shown to predict sexually objectified attitudes toward
women in experimental and correlational research conducted with collegiate men in the United
States (Wright & Tokunaga, 2015, 2016). For instance, in a sample of undergraduate men (N = 133,
Mage = 20.91, SD = 1.84), participants who did not generally consume sexually explicit media and
who were shown digital images of centerfolds from a popular pornographic website (compared to
individuals shown images of sports) reported increased desires for non-relational sex, increased
importance of physical attractiveness in prospective partners, and more views of women as sexual
objects for the purpose of gaining pleasure (Wright & Tokunaga, 2015). Internationally, IPU (6-
point ordinal; never – every day) specifically has also been correlated with objectifying women
among college students (N = 476; 40.3% men, Mage = 19.5, SD = 1.3) in Japan (Omori, Zhang, Allen,
Ota, & Imamura, 2011). Similar results have been found in undergraduate men in the U.S. (N = 393;
Mage = 18.9, SD = 1.6), where pornography use (time spent per week) was positively associated
with sexual objectification of women (Mikorski & Szymanski, 2017). Collectively, these findings
suggest that, particularly for heterosexual men, IPU is cross-sectionally, longitudinally, and exper-
imentally associated with increases in sexual objectification.

Summary of sexually related outcomes

From the above literature, a few key outcomes are clear. Primarily, IPU is associated with more per-
missive attitudes toward casual sex and more engagement in casual sex. These findings are particu-
larly robust, having been documented extensively in cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental
works, in diverse cultural settings, and in nationally-representative works in the U.S. and abroad.
Additionally, there is strong evidence from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental works
that IPU users are more likely to endorse sexually objectifying prospective sexual partners, viewing
them as instruments for personal pleasure. This body of work is smaller than the body of work
linking IPU to casual approaches to sexuality, but the evidence for this conclusion is relatively strong.
Moving beyond casual sex and sexual objectification, there is some evidence that IP consumers
are also likely to report specific sexual motives and preferences that they attribute to their IPU.
That is, the preponderance of literature strongly suggests that viewing IP is clearly associated with
sexual experimentation, greater willingness to try behaviours demonstrated in pornography, and
greater preferences for behaviours demonstrated in pornography. Having said this, the majority of
this research is cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, which limits causal inferences. Even so,
users of pornography typically report that they believe IPU has influenced their sexual desires and
preferences.
Finally, IPU demonstrates more complex relationships with sexual risk-taking and sexual satisfac-
tion. In both cases, divergent findings abound in the literature, precluding definitive speculation
about causal or directional links.

Discussion and implications of the review

The present article sought to systematically review and synthesize research findings from the past 20
years on IPU in the context of human sexual motivation, attitudes, beliefs, preferences, and behaviour
more broadly. To this end, we reviewed literature on the factors predicting IPU and literature related
to human sexuality related outcomes and correlates of IPU. Collectively, the findings point toward a
few key conclusions.
Primarily, we found that IPU is a pleasure-oriented behavioural engagement. That is, people pri-
marily use IP for sexual-pleasure seeking purposes such as sexual arousal, masturbation enhance-
ment, and sexual gratification. Moreover, people also seem to use IPU quite frequently as a means
of coping with or escaping negative affective states such as psychological turmoil or boredom.
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 27

Not surprisingly, personality traits associated with more pleasure-seeking orientations in general (e.g.
sensation-seeking, narcissistic traits) are consistently predictive of IPU, rounding out an understand-
ing of IPU as a hedonic behaviour. When this finding is integrated with the consistent finding in past
literature noting that IPU is most often a solitary activity (Grubbs et al., 2019; Kraus & Rosenberg, 2014;
Maddox, Rhoades, & Markman, 2011), it is reasonable to conceptualize this behaviour as an ego-
centric, hedonically motivated behaviour, as opposed to socially or relationally focused.
Moving beyond motivations for IPU, results also consistently pointed toward an understanding of
IPU’s influence as being hedonically or pleasure-focused as well. For example, IPU – across diverse
methods and cultural settings – consistently predicts greater engagement in casual sexual behaviour.
Uncommitted sexual behaviour is commonly associated with pleasure-seeking motives (Garcia &
Reiber, 2008; Kruger & Fisher, 2008; Sirin, McCreary, & Mahalik, 2004). People who engage in uncom-
mitted sexual behaviour often describe hedonistic goals as the primary motivation for such encoun-
ters (Armstrong & Reissing, 2015; Lyons, Manning, Longmore, & Giordano, 2014; Manning, Giordano,
& Longmore, 2006; Regan & Dreyer, 1999) and often explicitly deny social sexual motivations as
reasons for such encounters (Lyons et al., 2014). More to the point, such behaviours are often inher-
ently somewhat impersonal in nature. As such, uncommitted sexual behaviour is likely a strong indi-
cation of pleasure-focused sexual motivation, particularly among men (Regan & Dreyer, 1999),
although women also frequently report hedonic motivations for such encounters (Lyons et al., 2014).
We also note that a number of studies clearly indicate that IPU is associated with the development
of and experimentation with novel sexual preferences and practices. That is, many users of IP report
that IP has shaped how they view their own sexuality and the sexual preferences and proclivities that
they hold. In this regard, it seems that IPU is influential in shaping the sexual desires of users.
Additionally, IPU is consistently related to sexual objectification of prospective partners, particu-
larly by men. Should one approach partnered sexual activity from an exclusively self-focused and
hedonic perspective, it is quite likely that one would also view prospective sexual partners as
sexual objects by which greater sexual pleasure can be obtained (Wright & Tokunaga, 2015, 2016).
Therefore, links between IPU and increased sexual objectification are further evidence that IPU
seems to be associated with greater levels of pleasure-focused, impersonal sexual motivation, par-
ticularly for heterosexual men.
In contrast to the clear findings mentioned above, the influence of IPU on sexual satisfaction and
on sexual risk taking is much more nuanced. In both domains, IPU has been found to have deleterious
effects (lower satisfaction and more risk taking), no effects, or positive effects (more satisfaction and
less risk taking). These divergent results seem to vary as a function of populations being studied and
measures being used. Even so, there is evidence in prior literature that consuming pornography that
displays risky sexual behaviour is, itself, predictive of engaging in such behaviours. Similarly, there is
also evidence that the use of pornography as a compensatory behaviour (e.g. to account for unmet
sexual desires in a relationship) may also be associated with lower satisfaction (Perry, 2019).
Ultimately, whether or not IPU is causally linked to pleasure-seeking sexual motivation is unclear.
Given that IPU itself is predicted by greater pleasure-seeking sexual motivation, it is quite plausible
that associations between present IPU and future pleasure-seeking sexual motivations and beha-
viours is largely accounted for by a more pleasure-seeking sexual motivation in general. That is,
the same factors that motivate more pornography use may also be motivating future engagement
in more pleasure-focused sexual behaviour (see Wright, 2018 for some evidence that this is not
the case). Thus, it remains for future work to explicitly test whether or not sexual motivation, specifi-
cally hedonic sexual motivations, are influenced by IPU or whether both IPU and hedonic sexual
motivation are both influenced by other explanatory variables.

Sexual script theory

Another possible implication for the present work can be seen in its integration with media effects
extensions of sexual script theory. Sexual script theory posits that human sexuality is guided by
28 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

social influences that create scripts for determining sexual desires, fantasies, and practices (Gagnon,
1990; Simon & Gagnon, 1986). People observe, learn, and modify the scripts in their environment,
using them as cognitive guides for how to pursue and engage with real-life sexual partners. In
regards to sexual media generally and pornography specifically, Wright has integrated the concept
of sexual scripting with research and theory from communication, media effects, observational learn-
ing, and information processing into a sexual script Acquisition, Activation, Application model (3AM)
of sexual media socialization (Wright, 2011, 2014; Wright & Bae, 2016; Wright & Donnerstein, 2014;
Wright, Malamuth, & Donnerstein, 2012). Within the 3AM, acquisition refers to the processes by
which a consumer of sexual media develops new or novel sexual scripts based on the sexual philos-
ophies espoused and behaviours exhibited by media models. For example, an IP consumer might
develop a particular fetish or behavioural preference that had not existed for them prior to IPU
due to the statements and actions of actors in pornography. Script activation refers to the processes
by which sexual media may trigger, or prime, existing sexual scripts. An IP consumer may have
learned scripts for both relational, other-oriented sex and casual, self-interested sex, for example,
but their IPU keeps the latter script more centrally activated in memory. Finally, application refers
to the processes by which a sexual script that has been acquired and activated is called on to
guide a particular judgment, attitude, or behaviour.
Studies guided by the 3AM in the context of IPU (Braithwaite, Coulson, Keddington, & Fincham,
2015; Braithwaite, Givens, Brown, & Fincham, 2015; Donevan & Mattebo, 2017; Lim, Carrotte, &
Hellard, 2016; Tomaszewska & Krahé, 2016; Wright & Randall, 2012) have found evidence supporting
its conclusions, with many such findings consistent with the position that IPU is associated with plea-
sure-focused aspects of sexuality. Our findings are consistent with the notion that there is an
influence of IP on the acquisition or development of specific sexual scripts, the activation of
already existing scripts, and the application of those scripts. Additionally, as has been repeatedly dis-
cussed in script-theory literature, the sexual scripts available in IP tend to be hedonically self-focused
in nature, particularly for men (Brown & L’Engle, 2009; Hald & Štulhofer, 2016; Štulhofer, Buško, &
Landripet, 2010; Sun, Bridges, Johnson, & Ezzell, 2016). Therefore, the present findings may be
seen as a general body of evidence in support of the 3AM, in that the current work directly supports
the notion that IPU is influential in acquiring, activating, and applying pleasure-focused sexual scripts.

Limitations and future directions

Despite the evidence reviewed herein, there are limitations that are of consequence to the present
work. Chiefly, across over 100 studies reviewed, the most common methodology for pornography
related studies is cross-sectional survey research. Consistent with past critiques of the methodology
used in pornography research (Short et al., 2012), current research is similarly plagued by a prepon-
derance of causal speculations and inferences based on cross-sectional and retrospective reports. In
some domains, these critiques are less applicable (e.g. the abundant and robust links between por-
nography use and casual sexual behaviour). Yet, generally speaking, IP research is in need of diverse
methods, experimental paradigms, and longitudinal studies. This need is particularly apparent in ado-
lescent and child populations, as the age of pornography exposure is quite young, and the develop-
mental outcomes of widespread pornography exposure during childhood are not yet known. There is
also a need for more rigorous methods (e.g. Ecological Momentary Assessment techniques) that
delve into the experiences associated with pornography consumption in more detail.
We also note that the limitations mentioned at the beginning of this review likely influenced the
body of literature available to be reviewed. That is the foci of prior IPU literature on negative out-
comes (Campbell & Kohut, 2017; Ley et al., 2014; Montgomery-Graham et al., 2015), the male-
centric approach to IP literature (Short et al., 2012), and the morally charged nature of the topic of
IP (Grubbs et al., 2015; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2018) are all likely limiting
factors that have prevented a more complete understanding of the diverse ways that IPU impacts
those who use it.
 ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION ASSOCIATION 29

Finally, we would also note that the incredible rate of technological advancement means that the
type of IP available to consumers and the means by which it is consumed is perpetually changing. As
has been the case with technologies prior, at present, sexually explicit media – particularly IP – are
one of the first and predominant uses of new technologies such as virtual reality programming, kines-
thetic internet-connected devices, and even robotics. Given such advances, it is likely that the litera-
ture concerned with technology and pornography more broadly will continue to expand at a
seemingly exponential rate in coming years, and these changes in interactivity will likely correspond
to differential effects on human behaviours (Lo, Wei, & Wu, 2010). Although we believe that the
general conclusions of the present work, chiefly our demonstration of the links between pleasure-
focused sexual attitudes/behaviours and IPU, will still be relevant to future technology, only time
will test this supposition.

Conclusion
Given the incredible popularity of IP in modern societies and the rate at which it continues to be
used, it is likely to continue to influence and be influenced by various individual, relational, and
cultural motivations. The present article sought to provide a systematic review of the ever-
expanding body of literature related to IPU and to demonstrate the relevance of such literature
to understanding human sexuality more broadly. Collectively, available literature suggests that
IPU is most often associated with and predicted by pleasure-seeking motives and associated per-
sonality traits. With regards to attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs about sexuality, IPU itself tends to
be associated with more casual and pleasure-centric attitudes. Oftentimes, these associations are
predictive in nature, wherein IPU predicts greater future engagement in pleasure-centric sexual
behaviours and greater acceptance of pleasure-focused sexuality. Ultimately, the results of this
review suggest that IPU is more closely linked with pleasure-focused sexual constructs, rather
than socio-sexual bonding or procreative goals. However, given the over-reliance of this research
domain on cross-sectional self-report methods, causal inferences should still be made with some
caution, and there is a pressing need for more rigorous and definitive methodological
applications.

Notes
1. Across numerous studies in several cultural settings, the greatest predictor of pornography consumption is male
gender (e.g. Grubbs et al., 2019; Rasmussen & Bierman, 2017; Regnerus et al., 2016; Rissel et al., 2017; Vanwesen-
beeck, Bakker, & Gesell, 2010; Wright, 2013; Wright et al., 2013). For the present review, we did not include studies
only reporting gender as a predictor of use, instead focusing on works that identified individual difference vari-
ables that are associated with pornography use, self-reported reasons for pornography use, or evidence of por-
nography use for specific reasons.
2. We also searched for ‘behaviour’.

Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID
Joshua B. Grubbs http://orcid.org/00-0002-2642-1351
Joshua A. Wilt http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7059-6389
Shane W. Kraus http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0404-9480
30 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

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