The Cell and the Development and

Advancement of the Cell Theory

In this lesson, we will explore the answers to these significant
questions:

 Why is cell considered the fundamental unit of life?

 What are the events that lead to its discovery?
 Who are the scientists that made significant contributions to
the development of the cell theory?
 Entamoeba histolytica

Escherichia coli

Saccharomyces cereviceae
The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
a. It is the smallest part of the organism that can perform
all of the characteristics of life.
b. It can grow and divide to replace aged and injured
cells.
c. It can acquire energy from a wide variety of sources
and use it to carry out a wide range of cellular
processes necessary for its survival.

Understanding its structure and function is

fundamental to all the biological sciences.
The History of the Cell Theory
1595 - Hans and Zacharias Janssen (father and son lens
grinder and spectacle maker from the Neatherlands) figured
out how to align and combine lenses to view things far away
or up close. They were credited by historians to be the
inventors of the first telescope and microscope

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) – an English scientist
1665 – He discovered the cell after he examined under a
compound microscope very thin slices of cork tissue. He noticed
that it has a honeycomb-like structure which he said was made up
of “cells” or small walled compartments.
His observations on the cell were published in 1665 in his book
entitled Micrographia. However, since the cork is just a piece of
dead wood, there was anything left to see but the walls of those
empty cells.

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The First Edition of Micrographia by Robert Hooke
The History of the Cell Theory
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) – a Dutch
tradesman and craftsman with no formal education
1675 – he started making his own microscopes
1676 - he reported his discovery of forms of life including
algae, protozoans, and nematodes, after he examined
lake/pond water samples under his microscope. He called
the minute, moving organisms as “animalcules”.

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) – a Dutch
tradesman and craftsman with no formal education
He was also the first to observe bacteria which he collected
from a human mouth.

Leeuwenhoek wrote detailed documentations of his

observations to the royal society. His letters were published
in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London.

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory

1675 - 1723
YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850
The History of the Cell Theory
Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier (1797 – 1878) – a
French biologist who first described cell division in plants.

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory

“For more than 2000 years, a concept based on

Aristotle’s doctrine of spontaneous generation
dominated the mind of mankind”

Spontaneous Generation is the theory that life comes from

inanimate objects or non-living things.
 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
“Life can originate from non-living materials”
The History of the Cell Theory
Robert Brown (1773 - 1858) – introduced the term nucleus in 1833 as the
opaque spot near the middle of the cell.
Gabriel Gustav Valentin (1810 – 1883) – made the first accurate
description of “nucleolus” in 1835.

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804 - 1881) –
proposed that every structural elements of
plants is composed of cells (1838).

Theodor Schwann (1810 – 1882) –

suggested that the parts of animal tissues are
made up of cells (1839).

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The History of the Cell Theory

One question still remained.

WHERE DID CELLS COME FROM?
The History of the Cell Theory
Rudolf Virchow
In 1855, he published his famous aphorism

“omnis cellula e cellula”

(all cells arise from pre-existing cells)

YEAR 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

The Classical Tenets of the Cell Theory

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of
all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
The Modern Cell Theory
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
- he conducted experiments with
different varieties of pea plants
- he is the Father of Modern
Genetics
The Modern Cell Theory
James Watson and Francis Crick
- They discovered the structure of the
DNA
The Modern Cell Theory
Question 1
Who was the first person to see cells under the
microscope and give them a name?

A Antoni van Leeuwhenhoek

B Robert Hooke

C Theodor Schwann

D Matthias Schleiden
Question 2
He discovered that all plants were made of cells, which
contributed to the development of the cell theory.

A Antoni van Leeuwhenhoek

B Robert Hooke

C Theodor Schwann

D Matthias Schleiden
Question 3
He advanced the cell theory with his conclusion that
cells could only come from other cells.

A Antoni van Leeuwhenhoek

B Rudolph Virchow

C Theodor Schwann

D Robert Hooke
Question 4
Which of the following is NOT one of the main
components of the cell theory?

A cells must contain DNA

B all living things are made of cells

C cells can only come from other cells

D cells are the basic unit of life

Question 5

What did Leeuwenhoek do?

A Looked at cork

B Stated that animals are made of cells

C All plants are made of cells

D Used simple light microscope and saw microorganisms

Question 6 Cell theory states:
I. All living cells must have a cell wall.
II. All living cells require glucose for survival.
III. The basic unit of life is a cell.

A I only

B II only

C III only

D I and III only

Question 7
Robert Hooke published the discovery of the cell in his
book

A Genera Plantarum

B Species Plantarum

C Micrographia

D The Origin of Species

LC: Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Cells
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Cell – a cell that do not have a well-defined

nucleus and have its genetic material floating freely in the
cytoplasm.

Eukaryotic Cell – a cell that has a well-defined nucleus and

vast internal membranes that allow compartmentalization within
the cell.
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Organisms Bacteria and Archaea Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals

Level of Unicellular Unicellular (most Protists)

Organization Multicellular (fungi, plants and
animals)
Cell Size 1-10 microns 10-100 microns

Nucleus Lacks nuclear membrane and Consists of nuclear membrane

nucleoli and nucleoli
Organelles Ribosome is present Membrane-bound organelles
present
Genetic Material Single circular double stranded Multiple linear DNA, usually in
DNA that lack histones pairs, with histones
Cell Wall Made up of peptidoglycan Made up of cellulose when
when present present
Domains of Life
Evolutionary Relationships Among Domains
Prokaryotic Cell
Plasmids

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is

distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA. Plasmids naturally exist in
bacterial cells. Often, the genes carried in plasmids provide bacteria
with genetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance.
Horizontal Gene Transfer

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or Lateral Gene Transfer

(LGT) is the movement of genetic material between unicellular
and/or multicellular organisms other than via vertical
transmission (the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring.)
Types of Horizontal Gene Transfer in Prokaryotes
Bacterial Capsule

• The capsule is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell

envelope of bacteria, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope
of a bacterial cell.
• The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the
ability of bacteria to cause disease (e.g. prevents phagocytosis).
The capsule can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells,
such as macrophages.
Bacterial Cell Wall

• The cell wall is a tough and flexible envelope found between the
inner plasma membrane and the outer capsule.
• It prevents bacteria from rupturing or over-expanding due to high
osmotic pressure when exposed to watery environments.
The Cell Wall also gives bacteria their characteristic shapes
which include the rodlike bacillus, the spherical coccus, and
the spirally twisted spirillum.
Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria
• Gram Staining is a staining technique developed in 1882 by a
Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram
• This staining technique differentiates bacterial species into two
groups – Gram-positive and Gram-negative.
Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria
• It uses Crystal Violet stain which is retained by Gram-positive
bacteria. Safranin stain, on the other hand, is used as
counterstain and gives Gram-negative bacteria its characteristic
pink color.
Gram-positive (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus)
S. aureus can cause a range of illnesses, from minor skin infections,
such as pimples and boils to life-threatening diseases such as
pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis.
Gram-negative (e.g. Escherichia coli)

E. coli can grow massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic

conditions for 3 days. Most E. coli strains do not cause disease,[but
virulent strains can cause gastroenteritis and urinary tract infections.
Gram-Positive Bacterial Cell Wall Structure

• Characterized by the presence of peptidoglycan or murein

which is immediately located outside the cell membrane.
• Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the cell wall.
Concept Map
Plant vs Animal Cells
Concept Map
Plant vs Animal Cells
Plant vs Animal Cells
Plant vs Animal Cells
Plasmodesmata

It is a narrow thread of cytoplasm that passes

through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells and
allows communication between them.
Structure and Function of Major Organelles
Structure and Function of Major Organelles
The Nucleus
• largest organelle
• genetic information center or the control center of the cell
• surrounded by a nuclear membrane that forms a boundary
between the nuclear contents (nucleoplasm) and the
cytoplasm.
Chromatin vs Chromosome vs Chromatid

CHROMOSOME – a complex of DNA and proteins (primarily histone

proteins) in the nucleus of the cell.
CHROMATIN – the form taken by DNA and chromosomes in the
nucleus during interphase.
CHROMATID – each of the two threadlike strands into which a
chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division.
Chromatin vs Chromosome vs Chromatid
Chromatin vs Chromosome vs Chromatid

Each chromosome
contains a linear DNA
molecule that coils
around an assembly
of eight histone
proteins that forms
the nucleosome. The
coiling of DNA
facilitates the easy
separation of the
chromosomes
during cell division.
Chromatin vs Chromosome vs Chromatid

histones are highly

alkaline proteins found in
eukaryotic cell nuclei that
package and order the DNA into
structural units called
nucleosomes. They are the chief
protein components of
chromatin, acting as spools
around which DNA winds, and
playing a role in gene regulation
What is a Karyotype?

A karyotype is the number and appearance of

chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The
term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes
in a species, or an individual organism.
Down syndrome , also known
as trisomy 21, is a genetic
disorder caused by the presence of
all, or part of a third copy
of chromosome 21. It is typically
associated with physical
growth delays, characteristic facial
features, and mild to
moderate intellectual disability. The
average IQ of a young adult with DS
is 50, equivalent to the mental age
of an 8- or 9-year-old child.
What are genes?
 Genes are the tiny, basic units of inheritance found in DNA.
 Genes determine color, size, and make-up of every living species.
 Each individual species receives half of their genes from their
father and half from their mother.
 Physically, genes are linked together like a strand of pearls to
form a chromosome.
What are Genes?
Polymerase Chain Reaction
The thermal cycler (also known as a thermocycler, PCR
machine or DNA amplifier) is a laboratory apparatus most
commonly used to amplify segments of DNA via the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR).
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
What is a recombinant DNA?
Recombinant DNA is a technology scientists developed that
made it possible to insert a human gene into the genetic material
of a common bacterium. This “recombinant” micro-organism
could now produce the protein encoded by the human gene.

Bacterial DNA
 CONSTRUCTION OF EXPRESSION PLASMIDS

Gene cloning using plasmids

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Plasmids are small DNA molecule that is physically separate from

and can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA within a cell.
The Endomembrane System

In eukaryotes the
organelles of
the endomembrane
system include:
a. the nuclear membrane,
b. the endoplasmic
reticulum,
c. the Golgi apparatus,
d. lysosomes,
e. vesicles,
f. endosomes and
g. the cell membrane.
Types of Ribosome

 Free ribosomes – those that are floating freely in the

cytoplasm and manufacture proteins used exclusively by the
cell.
 Attached ribosomes – those that are found on the surface
of the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
The ER is composed of lipid bilayer
RECALL: The Structure of the Cell Membrane
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

 rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – characterized by

the presence of ribosomes on its surface
- Synthesis of proteins especially those that are destined to
be secreted by the cell e.g. follicle-stimulating hormone

 smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – has no

ribosomes on its surface
- Synthesis of lipids
- Detoxification of drugs and poisons
The Endoplasmic Reticulum

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The Golgi Apparatus/Complex

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The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex working together to
direct the traffic of protein products into and out of the cell
Lipids are synthesized in the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins
Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are organelles
that act as floating garbage
disposals for the cells
digesting and recycling
cellular waste products and
consumed materials.
 FUNCTIONS:
a. Carry out digestion
b. Recycle cellular
organelles
c. Breakdown viruses and
other cellular invaders.
Lysosomes
 They are formed in the Golgi complex and contain “hydrolytic
enzymes” or hydrolases that degrade almost all organic
substances found in cells.
 The single phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the lysosome is
the only structure that separates the digestive enzymes from the
rest of cytoplasm.
The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex working together to
direct the traffic of protein products into and out of the cell
Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are analogous to the human stomach. The pH within
a lysosome is very acidic.
Intracellular digestion
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that
resemble lysosomes. Unlike lysosomes that contain
hydrolases, peroxisomes have oxidases and catalases
that are used by the cell in oxidizing substances produced
by and taken into the cell such as fatty acids,
phospholipids, and even alcohol.
 The oxidation of these substances results in the formation
of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is toxic to the cell. The
cells, however, use the catalase enzymes in the
conversion of H2O2 into water and oxygen, hence, the term
“peroxisome”.
 FUNCTION: neutralization of toxic substances
Peroxisome
HeLa Cells
 A HeLa cell is a cell type in an immortal
cell line used in scientific research.
 It is the oldest and most commonly used
human cell line.
 The line was derived from cervical
cancer cells taken on February 8,
1951 from Henrietta Lacks, a patient who
died of her cancer on October 4, 1951.
The cell line was found to be remarkably
durable and prolific which warrants its Henrietta Lacks
(1920-1951)
extensive use in scientific research.
Cervical Cancer
Cytoskeleton

 The cytoskeleton refers to the network of fibrillar

elements extending from the nucleus to the plasma
membrane that forms the structural framework of the
cell.
 It is responsible for maintaining cell shape and for
movement of organelles within the cytoplasm.
 It has three main components:
a. actin filaments or microfilaments,
b. intermediate filaments, and
c. microtubules.
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments/Actin Filaments
 The actin filaments are the thinnest among the three types of
cytoskeletal elements with a diameter ranging from 5 to 7 nm.
 It contains two chains of G-actin (globular actin) monomers that coil
around each other to form a filament.
 This type of cytoskeleton is abundant in the periphery of the cell
where they are anchored beneath the plasma membrane.
 They play an important role in the movement of large molecules
across the membrane via exocytosis and endocytosis as well as in
the formation of pseudopods in amoeboid cells.
Amoeboid Cell
Intermediate Filaments
The intermediate filaments measure 8-11 nm in diameter which
is between the size of actin filaments and microtubules. In terms
of protein content, intermediate filaments are classified into five
types.
1. Keratin – found in epithelial cells like the epidermal cells of the
skin
2. Desmin – structural components of muscle cells
3. Vimentin – occurs in cells endothelial cells of blood vessels,
fibroblasts and white blood cells
4. Neurofilament and glial filament - are found in specialized
cells of the nervous system.
(Keratin)
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
 The microtubules have the thickest diameter with an average
of 25 nm.
 Microtubules are primarily composed of α-tubulin and β-tubulin
proteins that combine as dimers. These tubulin dimers organize
themselves in 13 rows around a lumen.
 The formation of microtubules in most cells is controlled by the
centrosome. The microtubules are involved in the movement
of organelles in the cytoplasm.
The Centrosome (an organelle)

 The centrosome play an important role in the formation

of microtubules which are part of the cytoskeleton.

 The centrosome, as a unit, consists of a pair of

centrioles and the surrounding centriolar satellites.
The centrioles are the sources of the spindle fibers that
appear during cell division.

 Aside from the spindle fibers, the centrioles also form the
cilia and flagella.
The Centrosome (an organelle)
The Centrosome (an organelle)
Motor Proteins and Microtubules
 Microtubules provide a track along which organelles as well as
vesicles formed from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
complex can move.
 Vesicles that pinch off from the membranes of these organelles
are carried by kinesin to their destination by “walking” along
the microtubule. In contrast, dynein motor proteins, carry
cellular packages towards the cell center.
Motor Proteins and Microtubules

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General Biology I Syllabus Q1, W4-6

Content Content Standard Learning Competencies

Cell • Cell Cycle 6. Characterize the phases of the cell
- Mitosis cycle and their control points;
- Meiosis 7. Describe the stages of
mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6;
8. Discuss crossing over and
recombination in meiosis;
9. Explain the significance or
applications of mitosis/meiosis;
10.Identify disorders and diseases that
result from the malfunction of the cell
during the cell cycle;
The Cell Cycle

Stages of Cell Division

The Cell Cycle

Gap 1 (G1) and Gap 2 (G2) phases - cells are actively synthesizing cellular
macromolecules, growing and roughly doubling their mass, and preparing to
divide.
Synthesis (S) phase - every chromosome is copied or replicated with high
fidelity in a process that involves a large number of enzymes. A single
replicated chromosome has two chromatids that are joined at the
centromere. The end result is the production of two identical copies of
the genetic material.

G1 - 5-6 hours
G2 - 4-6 hours.
S Phase – 10-12 hours
M Phase - < 1 hour
 Checkpoints monitor the status of actively dividing cells

Mitosis stops if chromosomes are not properly aligned

Mitosis will not occur if DNA is damaged or not replicated

Apoptosis can occur if DNA is damaged

General Biology I Syllabus Q1, W4-6

Content Content Standard Learning Competencies

Cell • Cell Cycle 6. Characterize the phases of the cell
- Mitosis cycle and their control points;
- Meiosis 7. Describe the stages of
mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6;
8. Discuss crossing over and
recombination in meiosis;
9. Explain the significance or
applications of mitosis/meiosis;
10.Identify disorders and diseases that
result from the malfunction of the cell
during the cell cycle;
General Biology I Syllabus Q1, W4-6

Content Content Standard Learning Competencies

Cell • Cell Cycle 6. Characterize the phases of the cell
- Mitosis cycle and their control points;
- Meiosis 7. Describe the stages of
mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6;
8. Discuss crossing over and
recombination in meiosis;
9. Explain the significance or
applications of mitosis/meiosis;
10.Identify disorders and diseases that
result from the malfunction of the cell
during the cell cycle;
MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS
OF GAMETOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis

Three Stages of Spermatogenesis

1. Spermatocytogenesis – development of spermatogonia
into primary spermatocytes.
2. Meiosis – the two successive cell divisions that the
primary spermatocytes and their daughter cells
respectively undergo to give rise to haploid cells called
spermatids.
3. Spermiogenesis – transformation of spermatids into
spermatozoa.
Spermatogenesis