ACADEMIC WRITING

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Demonstrate understanding of the general requirements for presentation of written
assignments
 Interpret essay questions - instruction words and special conditions
 Write a well structured academic essay
 Demonstrate understanding of writing as a product and a process
 Guard against plagiarism
 Cite and reference properly

Definition
Lyons and Willard define writing as “[t]he task of organising ideas and feelings into
words and putting the words on paper in a way that truly communicates something
reflecting one’s state of mind” (1972:10). Writing, therefore, is a process of encoding
messages on scripts to facilitate a shared understanding of meaning with the reader. Thus
writing possesses five key elements, namely, the writer, the audience, the purpose the
context and the message/content.
Academic writing is the engagement of thought in the discovery of knowledge/new
knowledge. It involves writing academic essays, research articles, seminars papers,
dissertations and theses. It is the type of writing that is used by learners, educationists and
researchers in the broad field of academia to facilitate effective communication in various
disciplines. Academic writing is an important discovery learning tool as it also facilitates
the discovery of new ideas, for example, new theories and hypotheses, as well as aids the
understanding of existing ones. It also helps clarify thoughts.

Nature of academic writing

It is crucial to understand that academic writing is impersonal, argumentative (or
analytical and interpretive) and highly inter-textual due to citation of scholarly views.

Academic writing as impersonal

Academic writing requires a sort of deachment from the content being written. This
means that language is used in such a way that the author is removed from the subject
under discussion. This implies that in academic writing there is:
 No use of emotional tone
 Use of neutral words and expressions

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  Restrictions on the use of personal pronouns, such as I, we and possessives such
as my, mine, our etc., especially during undergraduate study. In post-graduate study,
however, their are exceptions to this restriction as you are acknowledged as a more
seasoned academic who can be a owner of knowledge/new knowledge.

Academic writing as argumentative

Most academic essays will require you to present an argument through reasoning and the
use of evidence. In the process of planning and drafting your essay, you will need to
respond to the assigned question by thinking, reading and writing your way to a
considered position/stance.
Arguments are the centre of academic discourse. An important aspect of an argument is
that it is analytical. This means that topics are discussed at different levels of abstraction.
These abstract ideas need to be exemplified. Thus academic writing should always
possess examples that help to clarify the abstract ideas discussed.
Argument implies that ideas are supported by established facts, examples, logical
deductions and references. There should be an explicit relationship between statements.
Being explicit means that assumptions need to be stated. It also means stating the stages
in an argument, including reasons for conclusions. Logicality entails the use of logical
connectives such as, therefore, as, however, for example, for instance etc.

INTEPRETING ESSAY QUESTIONS

Questions are an important part of academic learning. Questions form an essential aspect
of the interaction between lecturers and students. Lecturers use questions to check
whether students have understood the concepts taught. This implies that they are often
used for assessment and evaluation purposes. There are three main types of questions that
can be used in university learning namely:
Knowledge questions
Such questions test the ability to recognise and recall facts and important details. These
are mainly lower order questions characterised by key words such as who, what, when,
where, how and describe. If you encounter such question, always remember to give
relevant examples.
Comprehension questions
These test a learner’s level of understanding. They require demonstration of whether
information has been understood. These questions also check the ability to interpret facts.
These questions usually use words such as explain, discuss, etc.
Application questions
These type of questions test the ability to apply knowledge to solve real life problems.
They can also be used to test the ability to apply information to produce some results.
Learning is geared towards helping people to solve problems in life. Without this aspect

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of problem-solving learning would be futile. Application questions also test the ability to
use facts, rules and principles. Examples of these are How can ... Be applied to...? How is
... Related to ...? Why is ... Significant? e.g. How is the interactive model of
communication relevant to university learning?
Analysis questions
These are higher order questions. This means that it is a type that demands detailed
scrutiny of the issues concerned. They demand an informed view. Analysis basically
involves the splitting up of something to show how its components are interrelated. These
questions involve outlining, comparing and contrasting and justifying evidence given for
certain facts. E.g Critique the ... Analyse.... Give an analysis of .... Explore ...
Synthesis questions
These demand the creation of a unique, original idea or product. They are high order
questions. Such questions do not restrict the candidate. They require the exploration of
facts. E.g. Predict the outcome of ....; Make an inference on ... given ...
Evaluation questions
These call for the exercise of judgment on a subject. It involves making value decisions
about information. Such questions assist one to attempt to come to resolution of
controversies and different opinions. E.g. Evaluate the assumption that ... Assess the
relevance of ...

ACADEMIC ESSAY STRCTURE

Your essay will need the following:
An introduction which:
• sets out the context/background of your argument;
• introduces the content of the essay;
• introduces the theoretical perspectives you will be using;
• may define key terms (alternatively you can do the work of definition in the second
paragraph;
• sets out your line of argument/central contention; and
• explains how the essay will be organised (order of points).

A body containing a number of paragraphs each of which will:

• present a topic sentence or central idea supporting your line of argument/central
contention;
• contain developing sentences which extend on or amplify the topic sentence;

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• give evidence/examples/references which support/relate to your topic sentence; and
• provide a concluding/linking sentence.

A conclusion which:
• restates your line of argument/central contention;
• summarises the points and evidence you provided to support your thesis; and
• may suggest areas for further research/investigation.

Guarding Against Plagiarism - Acknowledging Sources in Academic Writing

Much of your written work at university is based on the ideas of other writers. As such,
academic writing is characterised by the acknowledgment of sources.Whenever you have
taken something from another author (that is to say, you have taken an author’s theory,
opinion, idea, example, conclusion, or findings), you must identify who you took it from,
and where the original source can be found.

In other words, you must acknowledge and cite your sources. This is important whether
you quote directly (using the author’s own words or paraphrase.

Why acknowledge your sources?

 to lend authority to what you are writing
 to strengthen your argument
 to support your own ideas
 to provide details or background
to what you are writing
 to avoid the charge of plagiarism.

What is plagiarism?

Failure to acknowledge your sources amounts to plagiarism. Plagiarism is the act of using
another person’s ideas as if they are your own. It is a very serious breach of academic
etiquette.

How do you acknowledge your sources?

There is more than one way to acknowledge your sources; the commonest systems are the
footnoting system and the Author-Date system (often known as the Harvard system). But
whichever system you use, you must follow it consistently.

Always ask your lecturer for his/her preferred referencing system and style for any
assignment. There are two main referencing styles, the Harvard style and the American

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Psychological Association (APA) style. Whatever system and style you use, use it
consistently by following a referencing guide.

The reference list/bibliography

Although technically a reference list is not the same as a bibliography, there is usually no
difference between them as far as undergraduate study is concerned—they are the same
thing with different names. Some people call it reference list, and others call it
bibliography, but the same rules apply.

At the end of an assignment you should give a list of all the sources you have referred to.
Your reference list/bibliography must provide full and accurate details, as it is the means
by which the reader can follow up your sources. Make sure that every in-text reference
(citation) appears in the reference list.

1. Author or Editor
You start with the author or authors’ surname(s) (or editor) , followed by their first name
(either in full or using initials).

2. Date
It is necessary to give the date of publication. Usually in the Harvard System, the
author /editor is followed by the year of publication.

3. Title
The date is followed by the title of the book or article. If it is the title of a published book,
it has either to be underlined or written in italics. A title of an unpublished book is not
underlined or italicised.

4. Publication details
This includes the name of the city where the text was published. It also includes the name
of the publisher.

HARVARD REFERENCING STYLE EXAMPLES

In-text Referencing (Citation)

Direct quotation

When you quote the exact words of an author, always use inverted commas directly
before (“) and after (”) the quoted text. Acknowledge thesource of thequotation in line
with the referencing method prescribed by your department or subjectfield. For example:

Although Vambe (2003) offers an alternative reading of Mapenzi, Muhwati’s reservations

need to be taken seriously. Too often women endure negative stereotypes. For Muhwati

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(2006:2), “the unmistakable trend in the novels under study is their ignominious
association of HIV and AIDS, including a host of other sexually transmitted diseases,
with the female principle.”

Paraphrasing
This is when you make use of someone else’s ideas, but put them into your own words,
and according to your personal style ofwriting. Generally, it is better to paraphrase than
to quote. The following needs to be remembered when paraphrasing:

- Ensure that you formulate others’ ideas in such a waythat it blendsin nicelywith your
ownwriting style.
- Do not misrepresent the other person’s ideas in order to suit your purposes
- As with quotations, acknowledge the source of your ideas using the prescribed
referencing method. For example:

Abdullah states that organisations such as the Women’s Trust have aligned themselves
with poor urban and rural women in confronting the state and demanding that laws that
dehumanize women be abolished (2007: 153). He further argues that these organisations
have the legitimate authority to struggle for women’s human rights because they are
organically connected to grassroots women (ibid).

References

Book:
Geteria, Wamagunda. 1992. Nice People. Nairobi: Spear Books.

Gikandi, Simon and Evans Mwangi. 2007. The Columbia Guide to East African
Literature in English Since 1945. New York: Columbia University Press.

Chitando, Anna and Angeline Madongonda . 2004. Manning The Nation: Father-figures
in Zimbabwean Literature and Society. Harare: Weaver Press.

Denzin, K., Lincoln T. and Yvonna S. 1994. Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. Thousand
Oaks. New York: Sage.

Journal article:
Chennells, Anthony. 2009. “The Authority of Presence: Reading Judith Todd’s Through
the Darkness as Diary”, in Journal of Literary Studies, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 98-114.

Internet Article:
Celarent, B. 2010. “Facing Mount Kenya Review.” Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1086/658069 on 17 June, 2011.

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WRITING AS APROCESS AND PRODUCT

Writing as a process
Cawelti and Eben consider writitng to be a complex process involving information
gathering, mapping, planning and organising, drafting, focusing, revising and
proofreading. This implies that writing is not a once-off event.

Mapping
Brainstorming or mapping refers to a situation whereby the writer writes down
everything that comes to mind about a central idea. Usually, information is jotted down in
point form without any form or order. This strategy assists the writer to come up with as
much information as possible about the subject. For some writers, mapping assists the
process of organising ideas into sub-headings so that the writer can come up with a plan.

Researching/Planning
In the researching phase, you should begin by carefully analysing the essay topic to be
sure you understand exactly what you are required to do (Interpreting an essay topic).
Next, we suggest you spend some time thinking about the topic area and try to draft a
very provisional plan for the essay (Developing a provisional essay plan). Your thinking
and planning around the topic will then assist you in working out what types of readings
will be relevant to the task (Selecting relevant readings). When you are engaging with
reading material for the essay, you should adopt a critical approach and also attempt to
record key ideas in your own words (Taking notes from texts).

The various stages in the researching phase will tend to be of a cyclical nature - that is,
your reading will help you to develop your plan, which in turn will point you in the
direction of additional readings, leading to further refinement of the plan.

Drafting
After you feel you have done adequate research, you will be ready to move on to the
drafting phase (Drafting the essay). Begin by drafting an introduction and then outlining
the essay's subsequent sections.

It is advisable during the drafting phase to refer back regularly to the essay topic to
ensure that you are on track and to make sure that you have not embarked on a task that is
different from the one prescribed. Drafting is not a once off event, and many drafts are
made before the final submission of the academic writing.

Although the researching and drafting phases are explained separately, these processes
are never entirely independent. While you are drafting your essay, you will probably need
to refer back to some of the references you read during the research phase; you may also
need to seek out additional references to cover gaps that emerge in your draft.

Revising
Ideally, after the first draft has been completed, you will leave the essay to lie for several
days. The benefit of having a break is that when you pick it up again you will have

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established just a little 'distance' from your work. This will enable you to view your work
more from the perspective of a reader, which will make it easier for you to pick up on any
problems in it (e.g., ideas that are poorly expressed, sections that do not follow on clearly
from preceding ones, grammatical errors, etc).

When you are doing a final review of your work prior to submitting it, read it aloud to
yourself. You will find that your ear is more efficient at picking up problems in your
writing than your eyes.

Finally keep in mind that essay writing should never be regarded as a mere sequence of
skills to be mastered. Your success as a writer will be determined ultimately by what you
say to your reader: that is whether your writing is able to present an informed and
coherent account of your subject matter. This requires a good deal of intensive reading,
drafting and redrafting, and above all a good deal of hard thinking.

Editing
Once you are satisfied with your work, make sure you edit it carefully to check for
omissions, grammatical errors spelling, etc. It is also importan to check for coherence
and continuity within the essay. This will ensure that the final product is a a presentable
piece of writing.

All these steps show that academic writing is a rigorous process that requires time, care
and hard work in order to excel in it.

Essay checklist
• Did you read and unpack the question?
• Have you completed the research and critically reviewed the material?
• Have you planned your essay?
• Does your introduction set the scene by providing a context, history or background?
• Have you elaborated on and provided supporting evidence for your focus in the body of
the essay?
• Does your conclusion restate the focus and include a summary of the main points?
• Did you answer the question?

• Have you developed and maintained an appropriate writing style?

• After you have finished writing, did you edit your essay and check spelling and
grammar?
• Have you submitted the essay in the required format?
• Have you kept a copy of your essay?

Writing as a product
The product of writing is the finished outcome of the process that writing entails. These
outcomes can be in the form of essays, seminar papers, textbooks, journal articles,
assignments, examinations, notes, dissertations, modules, etc. The length and writing
style of these products differ depending on the purpose and the targeted audience. These
products should be well presented so as to appeal to the targeted reader/s. This means that

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the content must be neatly and logically presented.