ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps

Internal Combustion Engines & Combustion

Datasheet

CONTENTS
1 Ideal gas
2 Air standard cycles
3 Engine performance parameters
4 Turbocharging
5 Properties
6. Enthalpy of formation
p = Pressure (Pa)
7. Enthalpy of gases
8. Internal energy of gases v = Specific volume (m3kg-1)
9 Otto cycle analysis
V = Volume (m3)
10 Diesel cycle analysis
T = Temperature (K)
PERFECT/IDEAL GAS
R = Gas constant (J kg-1K-1)
Gas Law
R0 = Universal gas constant

= = = 8314.4 J K-1kmol-1
m = Mass (kg)
= M = Molecular mass (kg kmol-1)
Specific Heat
cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
(J kg-1K-1)
= − =
cv = Specific heat at constant volume
(J kg-1K-1)
Internal Energy
γ = Ratio of specific heats
Δ = Δ [N.B.: constant specific heat is an additional idealisation -
a gas can be ideal but have non-constant specific heat] u = Specific internal energy (J kg-1)
Δ = Δ
U = Internal energy (J)
Enthalpy
h = Specific enthalpy (J kg-1)
≡ + ℎ≡ +
H = Enthalpy (J)
Δℎ = Δ [N.B.: constant specific heat is an additional idealisation -
a gas can be ideal but have non-constant specific heat] Q = Heat transferred to system (J)
Closed System Energy Equation q = Heat transferred per mass (J kg-1)
= +∆ = +∆ W = Work done by the system (J)
For reversible processes: =∫ d w = Specific work output (J kg-1)

1
Reversible non-flow processes for a perfect gas
Constant volume (isochoric) p
2
= const
q
w=0
= ( − ) 1

Constant pressure (isobaric) p

= const q
1 2
= ( − ) w
= ( − ) = (ℎ − ℎ )

v
Constant entropy (isentropic) p
= const 1

= const w
− 2
= = −∆ = ( − )
−1
=0 v

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Constant volume / Otto cycle
Compression ratio, rc = v1/v2 p
3
Efficiency, =1− c
qIN
1→2: Isentropic compression wOUT

2→3: Heat addition at constant volume 2 4

3→4: Isentropic expansion qOUT

wIN
4→1: Heat rejection at constant volume 1

2
Diesel cycle
Compression ratio, rc = v1/v2
p
Cut-off ratio, rco = v3/v2

−1 qIN
c co
= 1− 2 3
( co − 1) wOUT
1→2: Isentropic compression 4
qOUT
2→3: Isobaric heat addition wIN
1
3→4: Isentropic expansion
v
4→1: Heat rejection at constant volume

Atkinson Cycle p
3
Compression ratio, rc = v1/v2
Expansion ratio, re = v4/v2

2
4
(e− )
= 1−
e − c 1 5

ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Units
1 Imperial/Mechanical horsepower = 745.7 W

1 Metric horsepower (aka PS, cv, hk, pk, ks, ch) = 735.5 W P = Power output (W)

1 bar = 105 Pa τ = Torque (Nm)

Power-Torque relationship n = Rotational speed (revs s-1)

N = Rotational speed (revs min-1)

=2 =
30 nc = Number of revolutions per
power stroke (4-stroke=2, 2-
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
stroke=1)
By definition: = me d
Vd = Engine displacement (m3)
and: =
W = Net work per cycle (J)

c 2πnc pme = Mean effective pressure

∴ = =
d d (Pa)

3
Indicated and Brake Efficiency
Indicated Efficiency/Indicated MEP: Based on indicated (p.dv)
work out (or ideal cycle work out)
Brake Efficiency/Brake MEP: Based on actual work out

brake = mech indicated

where: ηmech = Engine mechanical efficiency ̇ = Mass flow

rate of charge (kg s-1)
Volumetric efficiency (4-stroke engines)
ρin = Charge density at
2 ̇ charge
vol = inlet (kg m-3)
d in

TURBOCHARGING
Compressor density ratio with no intercooling

2.8
2 Full cooling (T2=T1)

2.6 C wc

2.4
1
Density ratio (ρ2/ρ1)

2.2 Isentropic
compression
2
ηc=0.8
ηc=0.7
1.8
ηc=0.6
ηc=0.5
1.6

1.4

1.2

1
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Compressor pressure ratio (p2/p1)

4
Compressor density ratio with intercooling

3
3 (to engine
2.8 intake)
2 Full cooling (T3=T1)
Intercooler 1
2.6 C wc
ε=0.8
2.4
ε=0.7
Density ratio (ρ3/ρ1)

2.2 ε=0.6

2
No cooling
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Compressor pressure ratio (p2/p1)

PROPERTIES
Properties of air
Dry air:
78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide (molar basis)
For approximate calculations:
79% nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2) (by mole fraction)
76.7% N2, 23.3% O2 (mass basis)

Air properties
cp (J kg-1K-1) 1005
cv (J kg-1K-1) 718
γ 1.40
Gas constant, R (J kg-1K-1) 287.1
Molecular mass, M (kg kmol-1) 28.96

5
Element molar masses

Element Molar mass (g mol-1 / kg kmol-1)

Hydrogen, H 1.008
Carbon, C 12.011
Nitrogen, N 14.007
Oxygen, O 15.999
N.B.: In any combustion calculations, it is acceptable to round the molar mass to the nearest
integer.

Enthalpy of Formation

Substance Formula State f (kJ kmol-1)

(298.15 K, 1 bar)
Carbon dioxide CO2 Gas -393 520
Water vapour H2O Gas -241 830
Water H2O Liquid -285 820
Methane CH4 Gas -74 870
Ethane C2H6 Gas -84 670
Propane C3H8 Gas -103 840
Butane C4H10 Gas -126 140
Heptane C7H16 Liquid -224 390
Iso-octane C8H18 Liquid -259 300
Iso-octane C8H18 Gas -224 009
n-Dodecane C12H26 Liquid -350 000

Calorific value of fuels

Calorific value
Liquid Fuels Higher Lower Density (kg m-3)
Petrol 47.0 44.6 743
Diesel 45.8 43.0 830
Aviation turbine fuel 46.2 43.9 798
(AVTUR)
Fuel oil 43.5 40.9 973
Source: Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES, 2021)
N.B.: Engine thermal efficiency usually based on lower calorific value.

Volumetric calorific value Mass calorific value

(MJ m-3 at 0°C, 1 bar) (MJ kg-1)
Gaseous Fuels Higher Lower Higher Lower
Natural gas 40.6 36.6 52.2 47.1
Hydrogen 12.7 10.8 141.7 120.0
Methane 39.8 35.8 55.5 50.0
Ammonia 22.5
Acetylene 54.7 49.9

6
Enthalpy of gases

Constant pressure adiabatic combustion: =

Enthalpy kJ kmol-1 ℎ = ℎ + ∆ℎ
(where ℎ is the enthalpy of formation at 25°C and ∆ℎ is the enthalpy change with change in
temperature (T-298.15) K)
T (K) Oxygen, O2 Nitrogen, N2 Carbon Water Iso-octane
dioxide, CO2 vapour, H2O C8H18
32.00 kg 28.01 kg 44.01 kg 18.02 kg 114.23 kg
kmol-1 kmol-1 kmol-1 kmol-1 kmol-1
0 -8 682 -8 669 -402 884 -251 734
100 -5 778 -5 770 -399 976 -248 445
200 -2 866 -2 858 -396 934 -245 110 -239 681
298.15 0 0 -393 520 -241 830 -224 009
300 54 54 -393 453 -241 767 -223 659
400 3 029 2 971 -389 512 -238 378 -201 920
600 9 247 8 891 -380 604 -231 332 -143 494
800 15 841 15 046 -370 705 -223 839 -69 283
1000 22 707 21 460 -360 115 -215 852 16 713
1200 29 765 28 108 -349 036 -207 354 111 723
1400 36 966 34 936 -337 613 -198 383 213 942
1600 44 279 41 903 -325 940 -188 986 322 101
1800 51 689 48 982 -314 078 -179 221 435 116
2000 59 199 56 141 -302 070 -169 141 552 096
2200 66 802 63 371 -289 950 -158 794 672 311
2400 74 492 70 651 -277 730 -148 226 795 164
2600 82 274 77 981 -265 440 -137 460 920 165
2800 90 144 85 345 -253 080 -126 540 1 046 911
3000 98 098 92 738 -240 660 -115 470 1 175 070
3200 106 130 100 160 -228 190 -104 280 1 304 371
3400 114 230 107 610 -215 670 -92 980 1 434 592
3600 122 400 115 080 -203 110 -81 580 1 565 552
3800 130 630 122 570 -190 520 -70 110 1 697 107
4000 138 910 130 080 -177 890 -58 550 1 829 139

7
Internal energy of gases

Constant volume adiabatic combustion: =

Internal energy kJ kmol-1 =ℎ−

(for datum see enthalpy table on Page 7)
T (K) Oxygen, O2 Nitrogen, N2 Carbon Water Iso-octane
dioxide, CO2 vapour, H2O C8H18
32.00 kg 28.01 kg 44.01 kg 18.02 kg 114.23 kg
kmol -1
kmol-1 kmol-1 kmol-1 kmol-1
0 -8 682 -8 669 -402 884 -251 734
100 -6 609 -6 601 -400 807 -249 276
200 -4 529 -4 521 -398 597 -246 773 -241 344
298.15 -2 479 -2 479 -395 999 -244 309 -226 488
300 -2 440 -2 440 -395 947 -244 261 -226 154
400 -297 -355 -392 838 -241 704 -205 246
600 4 258 3 902 -385 593 -236 321 -148 483
800 9 189 8 394 -377 357 -230 491 -75 935
1000 14 393 13 146 -368 429 -224 166 8 398
1200 19 788 18 131 -359 013 -217 331 101 746
1400 25 326 23 296 -349 253 -210 023 202 302
1600 30 976 28 600 -339 243 -202 289 308 798
1800 36 723 34 016 -329 044 -194 187 420 150
2000 42 570 39 512 -318 699 -185 770 535 467
2200 48 510 45 079 -308 242 -177 086 654 019
2400 54 537 50 696 -297 685 -168 181 775 210
2600 60 656 56 363 -287 058 -159 078 898 548
2800 66 864 62 065 -276 360 -149 820 1 023 631
3000 73 155 67 795 -265 603 -140 413 1 150 127
3200 79 524 73 554 -254 796 -130 886 1 277 765
3400 85 961 79 341 -243 939 -121 249 1 406 323
3600 92 468 85 148 -233 042 -111 512 1 535 620
3800 99 035 90 975 -222 115 -101 705 1 665 512
4000 105 652 96 822 -211 148 -91 808 1 795 881

8
 𝑉
Compression ratio, 𝑟c = 𝑉1
Air Standard Spark Ignition (Otto) Cycle Analysis 2

Displacement volume, 𝑉d = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑊net 1−𝛾
Isentropic Expansion 3→4 𝜂= = 1 − 𝑟c
𝑄in
−𝛾
𝑝4 = 𝑝3 𝑟c
1−𝛾
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 𝑟c
p
WOUT = maircv(T3-T4)
3
Isochoric Heat Addition 2→3
QIN = maircv(T3-T2)
QIN
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 +
𝑄in WOUT
𝑚𝑐𝑣
𝑇3
𝑝3 = 𝑝2
𝑇2 2 4
WNET = WOUT - WIN = ηQin Isochoric Heat Rejection
4→1

QOUT QOUT = maircv(T4-T1)

WIN
1

V
Isentropic Compression 1→2
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑚air =
𝑅𝑇1
𝛾 𝛾−1 9
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 𝑟c 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟c
WIN = maircv (T2-T1)
 Air Standard Compression Ignition (Diesel) Cycle Analysis Compression ratio, 𝑟c = 𝑉1
𝑉
2

Isentropic expansion 3→4 Displacement volume, 𝑉d = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

p 𝑟𝑐𝑜 𝛾−1
𝑉
Cut-off ratio, 𝑟𝑐𝑜 = 𝑉3
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) 2
𝑟𝑐
1−𝛾 𝛾
𝛾 𝑊net 𝑟𝑐 (𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1)
𝑟𝑐𝑜 𝜂= =1−
𝑝4 = 𝑝3 ( ) 𝑄in 𝛾(𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1)
𝑟𝑐

QIN W23 W34 = maircv(T3-T4)

Isobaric heat addition 2→3
WOUT = W23+W34
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 𝑟co 2 3
𝑝3 = 𝑝2
QIN = maircp(T3-T2) W34
W23 = p2(V3-V2)
4
Wnet =Wout -Win= ηQin Isochoric heat rejection 4→1

QOUT QOUT=maircv(T4-T1)

1
WIN

V2 V3 V1 V
Isentropic compression 1→2
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑚air =
𝑅𝑇1
𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟c 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 𝑟c 10
WIN = maircv (T2-T1)