Transportation, = movement of people, goods, or information from one place to another. - Derived from the Latin words: Trans — across; and Portare - to carry - plays a crucial role in connecting people, facilitating trade, and enabling economic and © Evolution of Transportation 1, Early times - relied on their own physical abilities (walking), then domesticated animals for riding 2. Early Civilazation - utilized rivers and seas for transportation via raft and boats. River civilization (Nile and Tigris-euphrates) relied on waterways. 3. 3600 B.C. - roads with hard surfaces were found in mesopotamia Romans discovered cement , created road networks in many direction 4, 18th century - Age of railway. First successful steam locomotive built by George Stephenson (1814) 5. 19th century - Automobile era. The automobile industry transformed mobility, enabling personal transportation and reshaping urban planning. 6. Early 20th century - aviation and air travel, 1903. First plan was made and was named Wright Flyer 1 © Highways in the Philippines 1 1900's - Transportation depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads and partially graveled roads, Macadam road was introduced by the american government. A type of road pioneered by Scottish Engineer John Loudon McAdam around 1820, in which crushed stone is placed in shallow, convex layers and compacted thoroughly. 1946 - After the Second World War, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation and construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese governmentImportance of Highway Planning: Makes nation grow and develop Provides access to various services (education, hospital, employment) Protects adjacent resources Promotes efficiency (traveling) Lower vehicle operating cost, user safety Efficient and safe traffic operation at minimum cost Maximum utlity, plan for future requirements Workout financing system Classification of Roads 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Highway Plans and Speci Freeways - wide roads designed for fast-moving vehicles that travel long distances with higher speeds. 4 lanes (2 lanes each direction). It is unhindered Expressways - superior types of access-controlled roadways, controlled by ramps. Highways - connects villages/cities to one another. Usually in 2 lanes that run through. the length and breadth of the country. Subcategorized by national highways, state highways, urban highways and rural highways. Arterials - roads laid inside the city or town. Joins the central business point to the outside residential areas. provides access to highways. Carry a large volume of traffic. Local streets - do not carry large volumes of traffic. 30 knvhr is the speed limit. Allow you to properties around it. Collector roads - collect and deliver the traffic to and from local streets and arterials, ation Plans and specification - set of documents of instructions and conditions under which highway and bridges are built Highway Plans Detailed scheme: 1, Traffies Drainage Erosion control Roadside development Structure Soils Pavements NOARON Presentation of a road plan: 1. Upper sheet - top view showing horizontal alignments, right of way, drainage arrangement, etc,2. Lower sheet - original elevation of the ground surface, roadway cente vertical alignment. 3. Exaggerated vertical scale (5-10 times for precise detail) Partial List of subjects covered by the standard drawing: 1. Pipe culverts 2. Concrete box culverts 3, Guard rail and parapet 4, Curbs 5, Gutter 6. Curb structures 7. Sidewalks 8, Drainage inlet and outlet structure 9, Manholes 10. riprap / other bank protection 11. Fences and right of way 12. Other survey markers SPECIFICATIONS Survey Types of Specification 1. Standard Specifications - repeatedly occurring subjects in projects 2, Special Provisions - peculiar items of the project in question, like additional modification to the standard specifications. a. General clause that deals with the bidding procedure b. Specifying detail regarding the material Methods of surveying 1. Before - used a slide ruler and was replaced by a calculator machine. 2. Present - data processing and reporting are done using computer networks Computers have: computer graphics displays a motorist view, stereo plotter for map, environmental simulations Computers can process data for many problems like: 1 2 3. 4 5. Bridges Economic analysis Geometric Pavement management Financial programming© Design Criteria Consist of a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road standards. Includes © Design Speed 1 oahen N 8. 9. resource management objectives - purpose of the road environmental constraints and social-political constraints Safety - stopping distance, sight distance, and allowable design speed physical environmental factors (topography, climate, and soils), traffic requirements - average daily traffic. traffic service levels - type of traffic that will make use of the road networks and its characteristics Vehicle characteristics Economics - road alternatives Road uses Maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway (AASHTO) Selected speed used to determine various geometric features of the roadway. Factors that influence design speed: 1 2 3. Functional classification of the highway - purpose, capacity Character of the terrain - physical and geographical features Density and character of adjacent land uses - types of activities and development patterns in the vicinity Traffic volumes expected - number of vehicles that use a particular stretch of highway Economic and environmental considerations - essential factors in the planning, development and management of highways __TABLE21 MINIMUM RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEED Des sacutry TAN Em RURAL Kar Treewy | 4095 prefered T1055 moana ‘areal Gessiatatinbait | uoIO Cats | athe See Ttie22 Loa Belfi See Tie22 ‘TABLE22 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED KM. FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL ROADS [BASED ON CURRENT ADT Cale ‘aa ooo 30 [over roting| 15 | 3 s Mowisious| 30_| 4s Ps Tal 3 [a8 retin] 30 | 4s* Road Alignment - Position of the centerline of the road that determines its alignment, how the road will be oriented, the direction which the road will pass. = Types of Alignment 1, Horizontal alignment - consist of straight sections of road (tangents), connected by circular horizontal curves. Good HA can result to high performance regarding speed, safety, efficiency, comfort, economy and increase in highway capacity. 2. Vertical alignment - comprises gradients and vertical curves. Defined as the height and depth in a vertical axis with respect to the horizontal axis. - Basic Requirements of ideal alignment: 1. Short - to be economical and straight as possible. Easy - to construct Safe - for traffic operations Economical - in cost of construction, maintenance and traffic operations Utility - would offer maximum utility and by serving maximum population and products. ge seNn ‘© Sight Distance - Actual visible distance that is observed along the road surface for a driver from a specified height above the carriage way. The distance will let the driver see all the stationary and the moving objects in front of the vehicle. - Considered Sight Distance in Road Construction Geometric design: 1. SSD (Stopping Sight Distance) or Absolute Minimum Sight Distance This is the minimum distance a driver needs to be able to stop safely in case of an emergency or sudden obstacle on the road 2. ISD (Intermediate Sight Distance! ISD is twice the value of SSD, providing a greater margin of safety for drivers and allowing for more time to react to unexpected situations on the road. 3. OSD (Overtaking Sight Di OSD refers to the distance required for a driver to overtake another vehicle safely. It ensures that there is sufficient visibility and space for overtaking maneuvers without risking a collision: 4, (Other SD) Headlight sight distance - distance that is available for the driver during the night travel 5, Safe Sight Distance - sight distance available to enter an intersection - Computation of the sight distance mainly depends on the: 1, Driver's Reaction Time 2. Vehicle's Speed, Higher Speed = Higher SD 3. Efficiency of Brakes - assume 50% brake efficiency. Lower BE= Higher sD4. The frictional Resistance Existing Between the Tire and Road, Higher Friction = Lesser SD 5, Gradient of Road, going up = small SD, going down = high SD SAFE SIGHT DISTANCE, S30: CIRCULAR CURVES: Level Tein ag = SSD = Passing Stglt Distance + breaking distance = v(0) +2. = degree of curve Where: Ina speed/veloaty etme acceleration cu to gravty ‘+ coetcont of retion crestor Sa S80 = v(0) aay where: ‘initial spesc/veocty time acceleration ceo gravty coafteent of feetion radeslope Sf downhill loos] Geometric Design Highway - deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway. Cross-sectionPavement surface characteristics 1. Friction 2. Unevenness 3, Light reflecting characteristics 4, Drainage of surface water Width of Pavement or Carriageway - total width of the road, depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes. It is determined based on the maximum width of a heavy commercial vehicle, Class Of Road Width OF Carriageway (m) Single lane road 3.75 Two lanes, without raised 7 kerbs Two lanes, with raised kerbs 75 Intermediate Carriageway 55 Multi-lane pavements 3.5 per lane Cross slope or camber - slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction th drain off rainwater. ‘Why is it important to drain water: = Maintain stability, surface condition and increase life of pavement - Prevent stripping bitumen - Prevent slipping The design depends on the type of pavement surface and amount of rainfall Median or traffic separator - divides the traffic moving in opposite direction, prevents head-on collision between vehicles, Can be in the form of pavement markings, physical dividers or area separators Kerbs - indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or footpath or shoulder. Types: = Low kerb = Semi-barrier kerb - Barrier type kerb Road margins - composed of various elements: - Shoulder, guard rail, footpath, driveway, ycle track, parking lane, embankment slope Width of formation - sums of widths of pavement including separators, if any and shoulders.‘* Horizontal Curves - provides transition between 2 tangent strips of roadway. The design is dependent on the intended design speed, sight distance, traffic volume, geometric properties, These curves are semicircles to provide the driver with a constant turning rate. Types: = Single curve - Compound curve - Reverse curve = Spiral curve ‘© Super-elevation - transverse inclination to the pavement to counteract centrifugal force, also known as cant/banking ¢ Widening - Reasons: 1, provide room for off tracking 2, Safety 3, Greater visibility 4. Prevent skidding when superelevation cannot counteract centrifugal force © Intersection and Interchanges Intersection - area shared by two or more roads, designed for the vehicles to turn to different directions. There are 3 levels of intersection control. 1. Passive control - use traffic signs or road marking 2, Semi-control/Partial control - uses channelization and traffic rotaries, 3. Active control - uses traffic signals and grade separated intersections. Types of Grade separators: 1. Flyover - subdivided into overpass and underpass 2. Interchange - a system where traffic between two or more roadways flow at different levels in the grade separated junctions. Purpose - Prohibited tums can be prevented - Refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrian - Funneling vehicles into narrowing opening prevent overtaking - Speed of vehicles are controlled over approaching intersection - Smooth intersection of traffic a. Clover interchange b, Trumpet interchange ©. Y-type interchange d. Flared type . Multi-leg intersectionsPavement - a road or walkway surface designed to support vehicular or pedestrian traffic. Its basic function is to guide drivers and support vehicle loads. ‘© Types of Pavement ‘A. Flexible pavement - type of road construction consisting of multiple layers of materials. Its layers are (from top to bottom). Stress is distributed to a larger area and stress decreases with depth (aggregate-to-aggregate particle contact), These pavements can flex under the weight of vehicles. 1, Protective asphalt Surface course Tack coat Binder course Prime coat Base course Sub-base course subgrade eNOMREN B. Rigid Pavement - a type of road or pavement construction made of a single, thick layer of concrete. These do not flex but rather rigid. This type of pavement is. capable of transferring wheel load to a wide area as it has good flexural strength. Its layer consists of Portland cement (concrete slab), base, and subgrade. ‘* Principles for Flexible Pavements - aggregate-to-aggregate particle contact. Characteristic: - Initial costs are low. - Lifespan is short. = Construction joints are not required, = Repair work is easy. - Can be used for traffic shortly after construction - Less Durable. - Offer more tractive resistance. - High maintenance cost. Structural Number, SN - quantifier of the structure of a pavement. This captures the thickness and stiffness of the various pavement layers Measuring Pavement quality and performance: 1, Pavement performance - how well a pavement meets the expectations and requirements of its user 2, Pavement quality - focused on the pavement serviceability index (PSI) Factors measured by the highway pavement agencies: 1. International Roughness index (IRI)- _ most popular measure for evaluating the conditions of pavement. Determined by measuring vertical movements in a standardized vehicle's suspension per unit length of roadway. The higher the number, the rougher the road. = Measured in inches, how much “travel” a vehicle's suspension has refers to the distance between the center of the wheel from full extension to full compression 2, Friction measurement - measured by performing a standardized test under wet conditions using either a treaded or smooth tire. Using a trailer at 40 mi/hr which wheel is, locked on the wetted road surface, and the torque developed from this wheel locking is used to measure a friction number. = Treaded tire - microtexture, smooth tire - macrotexture 3. Rut depth - Measure of pavement surface deformation in the wheels path Types of Cracking on Flexible Pavement 1. Longitudinal Fatigue Cracking - a surface-down cracking that occurs due to material fatigue in the wheel path, caused by a poorly constructed joint and shrinkage of the asphalt layer. 2, Transverse Cracking - the result of low temperatures that cause fractures across the traffic lanes (resulting in an increase in pavement roughness). Often caused by thermal expansion/contraction 3, Alligator Cracking - a consequence of material fatigue in the wheel path, generally starting from the bottom of the asphalt layer. 4. Reflection Cracking - occurs when hot-mix asphalt (HMA) overlays are placed over existing pavement structures that had alligator-fatigue cracking, or other indications of pavement distress, and these old distresses manifest themselves in new distresses in the overlay. Principles for Rigid Pavements - beam action of Portland cement concrete Characteristics: - Life span is almost twice as long as flexible - pavements, - Use concrete as binder. = Slab action takes place = Initial cost is higher - Maintenance cost is lower- Take a higher load. - Less thickness. = Joints are required * Measuring Pavement Quality and Performance Faulting - a critical measure of pavement distress. An indicator of erosion or fatigue of the layers beneath the slab and reflects a failure of the load-transfer ability of the pavement between adjacent slabs. Cause: - Soff foundation due to pavement settlement - Settlement due to voids under the pavement slab due to erosion of material under the pavement, Effect - _ Implications on the pavement (structurally and serviceability) Factors: - Trafficloads - Layer stiffness, strength and thickness - Presence of water undemeath the slab to Faulting - Repair Less than 3 mm (0.125 in) - does not need repair. Between 3 mm (0.125 in) and 12.5 mm (0.5 in) - dowel bar retrofit Excess of 12.5 mm (0.5 in) -total reconstruction Punchout = _ measures the fatigue damage at the top of the slab = Occur when the close spacing of transverse cracks cause high tensile stresses. that result in portions of the slab being broken into pieces. Cause: - Heavy repeated traffic loads - Slab thickness inadequacy - Foundation support loss or the construction deficiencyEffects: - Severe roughness = Allow moisture infiltration = _ Inour costs for materials, labor, and traffic management during repairs Factors: - Heavier traffic loads = Adequate thickness and proper materials for layers - Possibility of water infiltrating the pavement layers Punchout - Rep: - Full Depth patch Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design - One of the more recent tools for the design and rehabilitation of pavement structures. - Predict multiple pavement-performance measures and provide a direct link among pavement elements. = Must be done using a software package. = Process 1. Designer select a pavement structure 2. Data inputs are then gathered 3, The data are fed to the software then it will run and produce calculated changes in pavement layer properties, various distresses and the IRI over, the design life of the pavement.