4/7/2024

Unit - 3
Convection Heat Transfer
Dr. Rajesh Choudhary, SVNIT Surat

Contents
• Forced Convection:
• Governing Differential Equation, Dimensionless number and their physical significance,
• Internal forced convection, External forced convection, Flow over tube banks, Reynolds analogy and
Colburn analogy.
• Free Convection:
• Governing Differential Equation, Dimensionless number and their physical significance,
• Empirical relations for plate and cylinder and their use.
• Combined natural and forced convection.
• Fundamentals of boiling & condensation heat transfer.

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Physical Mechanism of Convection

Physical Mechanism of Convection

Convection heat transfer strongly depends on
• dynamic viscosity,
• thermal conductivity,
• density
• specific heat
• fluid velocity
• geometry
• the roughness of the solid surface,
• type of fluid flow

The convection heat transfer coefficient h can be defined as the rate of heat transfer between a solid
surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature difference.

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Physical Mechanism of Convection

No-Slip Condition
No-Temperature-Jump-Conditions

𝝏𝑻
𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = −𝒌𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝏𝒚 𝒚 𝟎
𝝏𝑻
−𝒌𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝏𝒚 𝒚 𝟎
𝒉= 5
𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻

Nusselt Number
• Dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient
• Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer as
a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.
𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝒉∆𝑻
∆𝑻
𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒌
𝑳
𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 𝒉∆𝑻 𝒉𝑳
= = = 𝑵𝒖
𝒒̇ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒌 ∆𝑻 𝒌
𝑳
• The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the convection.
• A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a fluid layer represents heat transfer across the layer
by pure conduction.
Bi = ? 6

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Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous versus Inviscid Flow
• Flows in which the effects of viscosity are significant are called viscous flows.
• The effects of viscosity are very small in some flows, and neglecting those effects
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy.
• Such idealized flows of zero-viscosity fluids are called frictionless or inviscid flows.

Classification of Fluid Flows

Internal versus External Flow
• The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is
external flow.
• The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces.

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Classification of Fluid Flows

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
• A pressure of 210 atm, for example, will cause the density of liquid water at 1 atm to
change by just 1 percent.
• A pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, will cause a change of 1 percent in the
density of atmospheric air.
• However, gas flows can be treated as incompressible if the density changes are under
about 5 percent, which is usually the case when the flow velocity is less than 30 percent
of the velocity of sound in that gas (i.e., the Mach number of flow is less than 0.3).

• The velocity of sound in air at room

temperature is 346 m/s. Therefore, the
compressibility effects of air can be
neglected at speeds under 100 m/s.
• Note that the flow of a gas is not necessarily a
compressible flow.
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Classification of Fluid Flows

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
• The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth streamlines is called laminar.
• The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
• The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities characterized
by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent.

• The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at

high velocities is typically turbulent.
• The flow regime greatly influences the heat
transfer rates and the required power for
pumping.

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Classification of Fluid Flows

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

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Classification of Fluid Flows

Natural (Free) versus Forced Flow
• A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending
on how the fluid motion is initiated.
• In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface
or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a
fan.
• In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to a natural
means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests
itself as the rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
• This thermo-siphoning effect is commonly used to
replace pumps in solar water heating systems by
placing the water tank sufficiently above the solar
collectors.

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Classification of Fluid Flows

Steady versus Unsteady (Transient) Flow
• The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is
important to have a clear understanding of their meanings.
• The term steady implies no change with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a specified region.
• Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers
operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
• During steady flow, the fluid properties can change from point to point within a device,
but at any fixed point they remain constant.

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Classification of Fluid Flows

One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional Flow
• A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution, and thus a flow is said to
be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three
primary dimensions, respectively.
• When the entrance effects are disregarded, fluid flow in a circular pipe is
one-dimensional since the velocity varies in the radial r direction but not in the angular -
or axial z-directions.
• That is, the velocity profile is the same at any
axial z-location, and it is symmetric about the
axis of the pipe.
• The velocity can be assumed to be constant
and thus uniform at a cross section in a pipe
flow.
• Fluid flow in a pipe usually approximated as
one dimensional uniform flow.
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Prandtl Number
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝝑 𝝁𝑪𝒑
𝑷𝒓 = = =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝜶 𝒌
• The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which indicates that both momentum and
heat dissipate through the fluid at about the same rate.
• Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr << 1) and very slowly in oils (Pr >> 1)
relative to momentum.
• Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid metals and much
thinner for oils relative to the velocity boundary layer.

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Reynolds Number
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness,free-stream velocity,surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑽𝑳𝒄 𝝆𝑽𝑳𝒄
𝑹𝒆 = = =
𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝝑 𝝁
• For a flat plate, the characteristic length is the distance x from the leading edge.
• The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical
Reynolds number.
• For flow over a flat plate, the generally accepted value of the critical Reynolds number is
𝑽𝒙𝒄𝒓 𝒖 𝒙𝒄𝒓
𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒓 = = = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝝑 𝝑
• where 𝑥 is the distance from the leading edge of the plate at which transition from
laminar to turbulent flow occurs.
• The value of Recr may change substantially, however, depending on the level of turbulence
in the free stream.
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Velocity Boundary Layer

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Velocity Boundary Layer

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Surface Shear Stress

𝝏𝒖
𝝉𝒔 = 𝝁
𝝏𝒚 𝒚 𝟎

 It requires a knowledge of the flow

velocity profile for external flow.
𝝆𝑽𝟐
𝝉𝒔 = 𝑪𝒇
𝟐
 The friction coefficient varies with
location along the surface
𝝆𝑽𝟐
𝑭𝒇 = 𝑪 𝒇 𝑨 𝒔
𝟐
 The friction coefficient is directly related
to the heat transfer coefficient and the
power requirements of the pump or fan.

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Thermal Boundary Layer

The flow region over the surface in
which the temperature variation in the
direction normal to the surface is
significant is the thermal boundary
layer.
• The thickness of the thermal
boundary layer increases in the flow
direction, since the effects of heat
transfer are felt at greater distances
from the surface further down stream.
• The development of the velocity
boundary layer relative to the thermal
boundary layer will have a strong
effect on the convection heat transfer.

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Boundary Layer

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Natural Convection Heat Transfer

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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

• In a gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes upward a light fluid placed in a heavier
fluid.
• The upward force exerted by a fluid on a body
completely or partially immersed in it is called the
buoyancy force. The magnitude of the buoyancy force
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body.
𝑭𝒃𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 . 𝒈. 𝑽𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
• In the absence of other forces, the net vertical force
acting on a body is the difference between the weight of
the body and the buoyancy force.
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾 − 𝑭𝒃𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝝆𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 . 𝒈. 𝑽𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 − 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 . 𝒈. 𝑽𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝝆𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 − 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒈. 𝑽𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

• Without buoyancy, heat transfer between a hot (or cold) surface and the fluid surrounding it
would be by conduction instead of by natural convection.
• The “chimney effect” that induces the upward flow of hot combustion gases through a chimney is
also due to the buoyancy effect, and the upward force acting on the gases in the chimney is
proportional to the difference between the densities of the hot gases in the chimney and the cooler
air outside.
• Note that there is no gravity in space, and thus there can be no natural convection heat transfer in
a spacecraft, even if the spacecraft is filled with atmospheric air.

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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

• In heat transfer studies, the primary variable is temperature,
and it is desirable to express the net buoyancy force in terms
of temperature differences.
• But this requires expressing the density difference in terms of
a temperature difference, which requires a knowledge of a
property that represents the variation of the density of a fluid
with temperature at constant pressure.
• The property that provides that information is the volume
expansion coefficient (β), defined as
𝟏 𝝏𝒗 𝟏 𝝏𝝆 𝟏
𝜷= =−
𝒗 𝝏𝑻 𝑷
𝝆 𝝏𝑻 𝑷
𝑲

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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

𝟏 ∆𝝆 𝟏 𝝆 −𝝆
𝜷=− =− (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷)
𝝆 ∆𝑻 𝝆 𝑻 −𝑻
𝝆 − 𝝆 = 𝝆𝜷 𝑻 − 𝑻 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷
𝟏 𝟏
𝜷𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 =
𝑻 𝑲
• A large value of β for a fluid means a large change in density with temperature, and that the
product βΔT represents the fraction of volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change ΔT at constant pressure.
• The buoyancy force is proportional to the density difference, which is proportional to the
temperature difference at constant pressure.
• Therefore, the larger the temperature difference between the fluid adjacent to a hot (or cold)
surface and the fluid away from it, the larger the buoyancy force and the stronger the natural
convection currents, and thus the higher the heat transfer rate.
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Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection

• The magnitude of the natural convection heat transfer between a surface and a fluid is directly
related to the flow rate of the fluid.
• In natural convection, no blowers are used, and therefore the flow rate cannot be controlled
externally. The flow rate in this case is established by the dynamic balance of buoyancy and
friction.
• Whenever two bodies in contact (solid–solid, solid–fluid, or fluid–fluid) move relative to each
other, a friction force develops at the contact surface in the direction opposite to that of the
motion.
• This opposing force slows down the fluid and thus reduces the flow rate of the fluid.
• Under steady conditions, the air flow rate driven by buoyancy is established at the point where
these two effects balance each other.
• The friction force increases as more and more solid surfaces are introduced, seriously disrupting
the fluid flow and heat transfer.
• For that reason, heat sinks with closely spaced fins are not suitable for natural convection
cooling.

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Equation of Motion
• Consider a vertical hot flat plate immersed in a quiescent fluid
body.
• Assume the natural convection flow to be steady, laminar, and
two-dimensional, and the fluid to be Newtonian with constant
properties, including density, with one exception:
The density difference 𝝆 − 𝝆 is to be considered since it is this
density difference between the inside and the outside of the
boundary layer that gives rise to buoyancy force and sustains flow.
(This is known as the Boussinesq approximation.)
• The flow is steady and two-dimensional, the x- and y-components
of velocity within boundary layer are u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y),
respectively.

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Equation of Motion
• Newton’s second law of motion for this control volume can be expressed as

• The forces acting on the differential volume element in the

vertical direction are the pressure forces acting on the top
and bottom surfaces, the shear stresses acting on the side
surfaces (the normal stresses acting on the top and bottom
surfaces are small and are disregarded), and the force of
gravity acting on the entire volume element.

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Equation of Motion
• Then the net surface force acting in the x-direction becomes

• The x-momentum equation in the quiescent fluid outside

the boundary layer can be obtained from the relation above
as a special case by setting u = 0. It gives

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Equation of Motion
• v << u in the boundary layer and thus ∂v/∂x ≈ ∂v/∂y ≈ 0, and that
there are no body forces (including gravity) in the y-direction, the
force balance in that direction gives ∂P/∂y = 0.
• That is, the variation of pressure in the direction normal to the
surface is negligible, and for a given x the pressure in the boundary
layer is equal to the pressure in the quiescent fluid.
• Therefore, P = P(x) = P∞(x) and ∂P/∂x = ∂P∞/∂x = -ρ∞g.

• The last term represents the net upward force per unit volume of the
fluid (the difference between the buoyant force and the fluid weight).
• This is the force that initiates and sustains convection currents.
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Equation of Motion
• From

• This is the equation that governs the fluid motion in the boundary layer due
to the effect of buoyancy.
• Note that the momentum equation involves the temperature, and thus the momentum and
energy equations must be solved simultaneously.

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Grashof Number

• For vertical plates, the critical Grashof number is observed to be about 109.
• Therefore, the flow regime on a vertical plate becomes turbulent at Grashof numbers greater than
109.

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Natural Convection over Surfaces

• The values of the constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow regime,
which is characterized by the range of the Rayleigh number.
• The value of n is usually for laminar flow and for turbulent flow. The value of the constant C is
normally less than 1.
• When the average Nusselt number and thus the average convection coefficient is known, the rate
of heat transfer by natural convection from a solid surface at a uniform temperature Ts to the
surrounding fluid is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Plate

Hot Vertical Plate Cold Vertical Plate

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Plate at Constant Temperature TS
• Following relations for fluids whose Prandtl number is close to unity, i.e. for air and other
gases.
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟏)
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 𝑹𝒂𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟗 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 … (𝟐)
• Eq. 1 is for laminar, boundary layer type, natural convection flow, while Eq. 2 is for turbulent,
boundary layer type, natural convection flows.
• Churchill and Chu present following relations (eq. 3, 4 and 5) for the entire range of Ra and also
valid for all Prandtl numbers from 0 to ∞.
• 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ; 𝟎 < 𝑷𝒓 < ∞:
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟎 𝑹𝒂𝟒
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 + 𝟒
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟑)
𝟗 𝟗
𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟔
𝟏+
𝑷𝒓
Eq. 3 is for fluids whose Pr is not too close to unity (or, to that of air).
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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Plate at Constant Temperature TS
• 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 > 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ; . 𝟎. 𝟔 < 𝑷𝒓 < ∞:
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑹𝒂𝟑
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏𝟔
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 > 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟒)
𝟗 𝟐𝟕
𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟔
𝟏+
𝑷𝒓
Eq. 4 is for high Prandtl no. fluids.
• 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 > 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ; . 𝟎 < 𝑷𝒓 < 𝟎. 𝟔:
𝟏 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟕 𝑹𝒂𝟔
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟓 + 𝟖
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 > 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟓)
𝟗 𝟐𝟕
𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟔
𝟏+
𝑷𝒓
Eq. 5 is for is for low Pr fluids i.e. for liquid metals.
• In the above equations, characteristic dimension for Nu and Ra is the height L of the plate; fluid
properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf.
• For inclined plates (inclined at an angle q to the vertical), vertical plate relations can be used by
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replacing g by g.cos(θ) for Ra < 109. Inclined length L is the characteristic dimension.

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Cylinders at Constant Temperature TS
• A vertical cylinder can be treated as a vertical plate and the relations given above can be applied
if the following criterion is satisfied:
𝑫 𝟑𝟒
=
𝑳 𝑹𝒂𝟏/𝟒
• Height L of the cylinder is the characteristic dimension.

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Plates at Constant Heat Flux
• In the case of constant surface heat flux, the rate of heat transfer is known, but the surface
temperature Ts is not.
• In fact, Ts increases with height along the plate. It turns out that the Nusselt number relations for
the constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux cases are nearly identical.
• Therefore, the relations for isothermal plates can also be used for plates subjected to uniform
heat flux, provided that the plate midpoint temperature TL/2 is used for Ts in the evaluation of the
film temperature, Rayleigh number, and the Nusselt number.
̇
• Noting that h = , the average Nusselt number in this case can be expressed as
/

ℎ𝐿 𝑞̇ 𝐿
𝑁𝑢 = =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 / −𝑇

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Vertical Plates at Constant Heat Flux
• Equations of Churchill and Chu, (3) and (4) are valid, with the following modifications:
(a) temperature of the constant flux plate is considered at a point mid-way between top and
bottom
(b) constant 0.492 should be changed to 0.437.
• Alternative relations are given below for vertical and inclined plates for natural convection in
water and air.
• Here, a modified Grashoff number, Gr’ is defined:
𝑔. 𝛽. 𝑞 . 𝑥
𝐺𝑟 = 𝐺𝑟. 𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘𝜗
where qs is the wall heat flux in W/m2.
• Then the following two relations are recommended for local heat transfer coefficients in laminar
and turbulent ranges, respectively:
𝟎.𝟐
𝑵𝒖𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝑮𝒓 . 𝑷𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟔)
𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝑵𝒖𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 𝑮𝒓 . 𝑷𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑮𝒓 > 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟕)
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A vertical pipe, 15 cm OD, 1 m long, has a surface temperature of 90°C. If

the surrounding air is at 30°C, what is the rate of heat loss by free convection
per meter length of pipe? (b) If the pipe is inclined to the vertical at an angle
of 30 deg. during installation, how does the heat loss/m change?
Properties of Air:
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝜗 = 18.97 × 10 ; 𝜌 = 1.0606701 ; 𝐶 = 1.0088152375 ; Pr = 0.696; 𝑘 = 0.02896
𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑫 𝟑𝟒
=
𝑳 𝑹𝒂𝟏/𝟒
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 𝑹𝒂𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟗 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Horizontal Plate:
• The rate of heat transfer to or from a horizontal surface
depends on whether the surface is facing upward or
downward.
• For a hot surface in a cooler environment, the net force
acts upward, forcing the heated fluid to rise.
• If the hot surface is facing upward, the heated fluid rises
freely, inducing strong natural convection currents and
thus effective heat transfer.
• But if the hot surface is facing downward, the plate will
block the heated fluid that tends to rise (except near the
edges), impeding heat transfer.
• What happen for a cold plate in a warmer environment? Cold surface facing up

Cold surface facing down

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Horizontal Plates at Constant Temperature TS
• Here, the characteristic length to be used in expressions for Nu and Gr is:
𝐴
𝐿 =
𝑃
where, A is the surface area and P is the perimeter.
• Property values are evaluated at film temperature, Tf. Hot surface facing up
(a) Upper surface of a hot plate (or, lower surface of a cold plate):
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 … (𝟖)
Cold surface facing down
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑹𝒂𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟕 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟗)

(b) Lower surface of a hot plate (or upper surface of a cold plate):
𝟏
Hot surface facing down
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟏𝟎)

44
Cold surface facing up

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Horizontal Plates at Constant Heat Flux
• Here, the characteristic length to be used in expressions for Nu and Gr is:
𝐴
𝐿 =
𝑃
where, A is the surface area and P is the perimeter.
• For a circle, 𝐿 = 0.9𝐷, and for rectangle, 𝐿 = .
• Property values (Except β, which is evaluated at 𝑻𝒂 ) are evaluated at film temperature,
𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝒔 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂 )
(a) Upper surface of a hot plate (or, lower surface of a cold plate):
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. . 𝟏𝟑 𝑹𝒂𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 … (𝟏𝟏) Hot surface facing up

𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝑹𝒂𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟏𝟐)
Cold surface facing down
(b) For heated surface facing downwards:
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 𝑹𝒂𝟎.𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟔 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 … (𝟏𝟑)
45
Hot surface facing down

A hot, square plate, 50 cm × 50 cm, at 100°C is exposed to atmospheric air at 20°C. Find the heat loss from both the
surfaces of the plate: (i) if the plate is kept vertical (ii) if the plate is kept horizontal.
𝒌𝒈
Properties of air at mean temperature of 60°C are given below: 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝟑 , 𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝑲, 𝝑 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟕 ×
𝒎
𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝒎𝟐/𝒔, Cp = 1.008 kJ/(kg.K).
Following empirical relations can be used:
Case (i): 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 𝑮𝒓. 𝑷𝒓 𝟏/𝟑
Case (ii): 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏 𝑮𝒓. 𝑷𝒓 𝟏/𝟒 for the upper surface, and 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝑮𝒓. 𝑷𝒓 𝟏/𝟒 for the lower surface.

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Ra C n
Horizontal Cylinders at Constant Temperature TS
10 − 10 0.675 0.058
• Here, D, diameter of the cylinder is the characteristic dimension.
• For heat transfer from (or to) a horizontal cylinder, Morgan 10 − 10 1.02 0.148
recommends following correlation for fluids with (0.69 < Pr < 7): 10 − 10 0.85 0.188

𝑵𝒖 = 𝑪 𝑹𝒂𝒏 10 − 10 0.48 0.25

10 − 10 0.125 0.333
• Also, the following correlation of Churchill and Chu may be used for the complete range of
Prandtl numbers: (𝟎 < 𝑷𝒓 < ∞) and for a wider range of Rayleigh numbers:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑹𝒂 𝟔
𝟓
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟕 𝟏𝟔
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 … (𝟏𝟒)
𝟗 𝟗
𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟗 𝟏𝟔
𝟏+
𝑷𝒓

47

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Horizontal Cylinders at Constant Temperature TS
• Only for the laminar range:
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝟔
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟒
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟏𝟓)
𝟗 𝟗
𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟗 𝟏𝟔
𝟏+
𝑷𝒓
• Properties in the above equations are evaluated at film temperature, D is the characteristic dimension.
• Churchill and Chu recommend that above two eqns. may be used for constant flux conditions too, with the
temperature TS being half way up the cylinder at the 90 deg. angle from bottom.
• For thin wires: (D = 0.2 mm to 1 mm): Rayleigh number is usually very small and a film type of flow
pattern is observed. Following correlation is used:
𝟏
𝑵𝒖𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝑹𝒂𝑫 𝟖 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟓𝟎𝟎 … (𝟏𝟔)

• Heat transfer from horizontal cylinders to liquid metals may be calculated from:
𝟏
𝑵𝒖𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝑮𝒓𝑫 . 𝑷𝒓𝟐 𝟒 … (𝟏𝟕)
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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Free Convection From Spheres
Sphere diameter D is the characteristic dimension.
Properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
Yuge recommends following correlation for average Nusselt number for free convection between a sphere and
air.
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟓 , 𝑷𝒓 = 𝟏 … (𝟏𝟖)
For higher range of Ra
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝑹𝒂𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 , 𝑷𝒓 = 𝟏 … (𝟏𝟗)

49

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection over Surfaces

Simplified Equations For Air
Simplified equations for free convection to air at atmospheric pressure (constant wall temp.)

For pressures other than

atmospheric, multiply the
RHS of above expressions
as below, where p is in
bar:
𝒑 𝟏/𝟐
Laminar:
𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐

𝒑 𝟐/𝟑
Turbulent:
𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

• Enclosed spaces may be formed by horizontal plates or vertical plates; also, enclosed spaces may be filled
with air or any other fluids.
• Typical example is a double-plane window, or a vacuum flask or a cryogenic container involving concentric
cylinders or spheres. Correlations for convection heat transfer for such situations are given below.
For Horizontal enclosure:
For air:
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟓 𝑮𝒓𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 … (𝟐𝟎)
And
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟖 𝑮𝒓𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 … (𝟐𝟏) Horizontal Enclosure
And, for Gr < 1700, Nu = 1 (T1 > T2)
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 … (𝟐𝟐)

For liquids (water, silicone oils and mercury) suggested by Globe and Dropkin:
𝟏
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗. 𝑹𝒂𝟑 . 𝑷𝒓𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟒 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 … (𝟐𝟑)
The space between the plates, ‘b’ is the characteristic dimension. Properties are evaluated at the average of two
plate temperatures.
53

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

For Vertical enclosure:
For air:
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 … (𝟐𝟒)
Jacob has given following correlations:
𝟏
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖. 𝑮𝒓𝟒
= 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 < 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 … (𝟐𝟓)
𝒌 Vertical Enclosure
𝑳 𝟗
𝒃 (T1 > T2)
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 = effective thermal conductivity
And
𝟏
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟓. 𝑮𝒓𝟒
= 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑮𝒓 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 … (𝟐𝟔)
𝒌
𝑳 𝟗
𝒃
• Note that for above two relations, aspect ratio, > 3 . If < 3 , each vertical surface is treated independently.

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

For Vertical enclosure:
If the enclosed vertical layer contains fluids with Prandtl numbers between 3 and 30,000, following correlation
due to Emery and Chu may be used:
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 … (𝟐𝟕)
And
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟐𝟖. 𝑹𝒂𝟒
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 < 𝑹𝒂 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 … (𝟐𝟖)
𝑳 𝟒
𝒃
Vertical Enclosure
• Layer thickness ‘b’ is the characteristic dimension used in Nu and Ra.
(T1 > T2)

55

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

Other geometrical cases:
𝑳
1. Inclined Spaces: This configuration has been investigated for large aspect ratios < 𝟏𝟐 by Hollands et.al.
𝜹
Following equation correlated experimental data at tilt angles 𝝉 less than 70 deg.:

For tilt angles between 70 deg. and 90 deg., Catton recommends that the Nusselt number for a vertical enclosure
(𝝉 = 90 deg.) be multiplied by (sin 𝝉)1/4 .

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

Other geometrical cases:
2. Inside Concentric Cylinders and Spheres

57

Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

Other geometrical cases:
2. Inside Concentric Cylinders and Spheres

3. Cooling of turbine blades

4. Rotating cylinders
5. Rotating disk
6. Rotating sphere

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Empirical Relations for Natural Convection in Enclosure

Other geometrical cases:
3. Cooling of turbine blades
4. Rotating cylinders
5. Rotating disk
6. Rotating sphere

59

Derivation of Differential Equation

 At each point in the fluid, conservation of mass, momentum, and energy must be
satisfied.
 Equations representing these requirements are derived by applying the laws to a
differential control volume situated in the flow.
 Assumptions:
 Body forces are negligible,
 No thermal energy generation in the fluid
 Steady state, 2 – D incompressible flow
 Gradient normal to the object’s surface are much larger than those along the
surface.
 X-direction diffusion of momentum and thermal energy are neglected.
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
≪ ; ≪ 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚

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Derivation of Differential Equation

Continuity Equation

Rate of mass flow into the control volume = Rate of mass flow out of the control volume
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
𝝆𝒖 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗 𝒅𝒙. 𝟏 = 𝝆 𝒖 + 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 + 𝝆 𝒗 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙. 𝟏
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
+ = 𝟎 … (𝟏)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
This is known as the continuity equation, or mass balance for steady two-dimensional flow
of a fluid with constant density. 61

Derivation of Differential Equation

Momentum Equation
Newton’s second law is an expression for the conservation of momentum, and can be
stated as
“The net force acting on the control volume is equal to the mass times the acceleration of the
fluid element within the control volume, which is also equal to the net rate of momentum
outflow from the control volume.”
Mass Acceleration in a specified direction = Net body or surface force acting in that direction

Body forces: Act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such as gravity, electric,
and magnetic forces) and are proportional to the volume of the body, and
Surface forces: Act on the control surface (such as the pressure forces due to hydrostatic
pressure and shear stresses due to viscous effects) and are proportional to the surface area.

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Derivation of Differential Equation

Momentum Equation
Mass Acceleration in a specified direction = Net body or surface force acting in that direction
𝜹𝒎. 𝒂𝒙 = 𝑭𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆,𝒙 + 𝑭𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒙 … (𝟐)
𝜹𝒎 = 𝝆 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 … (𝟑)

Flow is steady and two-dimensional and thus u = u(x, y), the total differential of u is
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
𝒅𝒖 = 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 … (𝟒)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒅𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝒅𝒙 𝝏𝒗 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
𝒂𝒙 = = + =𝒖 +𝒗 … (𝟓)
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒚 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

63

Derivation of Differential Equation

Momentum Equation
 The forces acting on a surface are due to pressure and
viscous effects.

 In two-dimensional flow, the viscous stress at any point on

an imaginary surface within the fluid can be resolved into
two perpendicular components:

 one normal to the surface called normal stress (which

should not be confused with pressure) and

 along the surface called shear stress.

 The normal stress is related to the velocity gradients and

, that are much smaller than , to which shear stress is
related.
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Derivation of Differential Equation

Momentum Equation
Neglecting the normal stresses for simplicity, the surface forces
acting on the control volume in the x-direction
𝝏𝝉 𝝏𝑷
𝑭𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆,𝒙 = 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙. 𝟏 − 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝝉 𝝏𝑷
= − 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝑷
𝑭𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆,𝒙 = 𝝁 − 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 … (𝟔)
𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒙
Substitute the eq. 3, 5, and 6 in eq. 2, we get
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝑷
𝝆 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝝁 𝟐− … (𝟕)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
This is the relation for the conservation of momentum in the x-
65
direction, and is known as the x-momentum equation.

Derivation of Differential Equation

Momentum Equation

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝑷
𝝆 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝝁 𝟐−
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

• In a boundary layer, 𝑢 ≫ 𝑣, and and are negligible.

• Also, u varies greatly with y in the normal direction from zero at the wall surface to nearly the
free-stream value across the relatively thin boundary layer, therefore, ≫ .
• Similarly, if the fluid and the wall are at different temperatures and the fluid is heated or
cooled during flow, heat conduction will occur primarily in the direction normal to the surface,
and thus ≫ .
• These simplifications are known as the boundary layer approximations. 66

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Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
Change in the energy content of a system during a process is equal to
the difference between the energy input and the energy output.
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 = ∆𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 … (𝟖)
During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control
volume remains constant.
∆𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟎
The amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms must be
equal to the amount of energy leaving it.
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎
The energy balance for a steady-flow control volume is
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
+ 𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
+ 𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
=𝟎 … (𝟗)
67

Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
Mass flow rate of the fluid entering the control volume from the left is 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦. 1 , the rate of energy
transfer to the control volume by mass in the x-direction is:
𝝏 𝒎̇𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒙
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎̇𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒙 − 𝒎̇𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏 𝒎̇𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒙
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− 𝒅𝒙
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏 𝝆𝒖 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 𝑪𝑷 𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− 𝒅𝒙
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝑻 +𝒖 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝑻 +𝒗 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
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Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
Net rate of energy transfer to the control volume by mass is
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝑻 +𝒖 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 − 𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝑻 +𝒗 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝑻 +𝒖 +𝑻 +𝒗 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒖 +𝒗 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 … 𝟏𝟎
𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

69

Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
The net rate of heat conduction to the volume element in the x-direction is
𝝏𝑸̇𝒙
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑸̇𝒙 − 𝑸̇𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙
𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕,𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝑸̇𝒙 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− 𝒅𝒙 = − −𝒌 𝒅𝒚. 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌 𝟐 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕,𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 =𝒌 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚
𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕,𝒚 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 =𝒌 + 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 … (𝟏𝟏)
𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

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Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
+ 𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
+ 𝑬̇𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
=𝟎

• The work done by a body force is determined by multiplying this force by the velocity in the direction
of the force and the volume of the fluid element, and this work needs to be considered only in the
presence of significant gravitational, electric, or magnetic effects.
• The surface forces consist of the forces due to fluid pressure and the viscous shear stresses.
• The work done by pressure (the flow work) is already accounted for in the analysis above by using
enthalpy for the microscopic energy of the fluid instead of internal energy.
• The shear stresses that result from viscous effects are usually very small, and can be neglected in many
cases.
• This is especially the case for applications that involve low or moderate velocities.

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Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
Then the energy equation for the steady two-dimensional flow of a fluid with constant properties
and negligible shear stresses is
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
−𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒖 +𝒗 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 + 𝒌 + 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝒌 + … (𝟏𝟐)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

The net energy convected by the fluid out of the control volume is equal to the net energy
transferred into the control volume by heat conduction.

For the special case of a stationary fluid, 𝑢 = 𝑣 = 0 and the energy equation reduces, as
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝒌 + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
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Derivation of Differential Equation

Energy Equation
 When the viscous shear stresses are not negligible, their effect is accounted for by expressing the
energy equation as
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝒌 + + 𝝁𝚽
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
 Here, 𝚽 is viscous dissipation function, and given as
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
𝚽=𝟐 + + +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
 Viscous dissipation may play a dominant role in high-speed flows (high-speed flights), especially
when the viscosity of the fluid is high (like the flow of oil in journal bearings).
 This manifests itself as a significant rise in fluid temperature due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy of the fluid to thermal energy.
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Solution of Differential Equation

• Consider laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate.
• When viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity,
momentum, and energy equations reduce for steady,
incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant properties
over a flat plate to
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
𝝆 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝝁 𝟐
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝝆𝑪𝑷 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝒌 +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
Boundary Conditions:
At x = 0: u 0, 𝑦 = 𝑢 ; 𝑇 0, 𝑦 = 𝑇
At y = 0: u 𝑥, 0 = 0 ; 𝑣 𝑥, 0 = 0; 𝑇 𝑥, 0 = 𝑇
At y → ∞: u 𝑥, ∞ = 𝑢 ; 𝑇 𝑥, ∞ = 𝑇
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