Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1-1

1. SIMULATION OF SHIP HANDLING

1.1 Scaling down the ship’s geometry
Model tests are widely used for solving problems of ship's manoeuvrability. The
behaviour of a model and a full-scale vessel will be the same only when so called similitude
criteria are satisfied.
First of all the geometric similitude criteria must be satisfied. It means that the ratio of
all linear dimensions of the full-scale vessel to the corresponding dimensions of the model
must be satisfied and equal to scale (fig, 1-1):

Lship Bship X ship

scale
Lmodel Bmodel X model

Fig. 1-1

It results from the above figure that corresponding angles for the model and the full-
scale vessel have the same value.
Of interest will be also the knowledge of relationship between any surface for a model
and a ship. For example, a full-scale vessel rudder area is: ARS H S ˜ C S and a model rudder
area is: ARM H M ˜ C M (fig. 1-2).

Fig. 1-2: Comparison of rudder areas for a ship and a model

Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1-2

HS CS
From the geometric similitude criteria, we have: scale and scale .
HM CM
Hence the following ratio of ship and model rudder areas:
ARS H S ˜ CS
scale ˜ scale scale 2
ARM H M ˜ CM
The same procedure can be extended over calculation of corresponding weight.

A ship weight is: 'S U S ˜ C BS ˜ LS ˜ BS ˜ TS

A model weight is: 'M U M ˜ C BM ˜ LM ˜ BM ˜ TM
'S U S ˜ C BS ˜ LS ˜ BS ˜ TS
Then we can write:
'M U M ˜ C BM ˜ LM ˜ BM ˜ TM

US ,UM - salt and fresh water densities;

Where:
C BS , C BM - block coefficients for a ship and a vesel

Assuming that C BS C BM (geometric criteria- the same form of hulls for a full-scale
ship and a model) and neglecting differences in salt water and fresh water densities we obtain:
'S LS ˜ BS ˜ TS
scale ˜ scale ˜ scale scale 3
'M LM ˜ BM ˜ TM

1.2 Scaling down forces acting on the ship

When a ship is moving through the water, a characteristic flow pattern is creating. This
flow pattern can be observed as a system of waves generating by moving hull, and so called
boundary layer along the hull.
It is obvious that for a good reproducing of ship's behaviour, flow patterns for a model
and a full-scale vessel must be similar (fig. 1-3). The above requirement is called kinematic
criteria and is satisfied when forces acting on a ship are similar.

Fig. 1-3
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1-3

When analysing manoeuvrability of ships, two kinds of forces have to be taken into account:
x Frictional forces
x Gravity forces

Frictional forces are proportional to velocity-squared, wetted surface and friction coefficient.
Governing law: REYNOLD'S law

REYNOLD’S law: Reynolds numbers for the ship and its model have to be equal:
V S ˜ LS V M ˜ LM
QS QM
where Q is kinematic viscosity coefficient.
Re SHIP Re MODEL

Gravity forces are proportional to mass of the ship and velocity-squared.

Governing law: FROUDE'S law

FROUDE'S law: Froude's numbers for the ship and its model must be equal:
VS VM
g ˜ LS g ˜ LM
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Fn SHIP Fn MODEL

Neglecting differences between viscosity for sea and fresh water (for ship and model),
we get for Iława models:
VM VS ˜ Scale VS ˜ 24 according to Reynolds identity
and
VS VS
VM according to Froude identity
scale 24

From the above formulas results that only modelling of dynamic similitude according
to Froude’s law is possible. Reynolds law cannot be satisfied. This results in “scale effect”,
which is very small and can be neglected or very easy compensated if models are large.
Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1-4

Table 1: relationship between geometric and kinematic parameters for Froude identity

Item Value of ship / model ratio

Length, Beam, Draft, Turning,

Diameter, Stopping, Distance, and scale
other linear dimensions

Windage, Rudder area, etc scale2

Volume, Displacement, Force scale3

Speed scale1/2

Angle 1

Rate of Turn 1/scale1/2

Time scale1/2

Fig. 1-4 History of rudder deflection for a ship and a model

Chapter 1- Simulation of ship handling 1-5

Fig. 1-5 Comparison of a turning manoeuvre for a model and a ship it reproducing

Fig. 1-6 Reversing of engine for a ship and a model

Chapter 2. Forces acting on manoeuvring ship 2-1

2 FORCES ACTING ON THE MANOEUVRING SHIP

2.1 Longitudinal and rotational motion
When the ship is moving on straight course – longitudinal motion - at constant speed there
are two forces acting – thrust of the propeller and resistance of the water. They are equal
and act in opposite directions (fig. 2.1a).
Pure rotational motion with no forward speed could be executed by using stern and bow
thrusters acting in opposite directions. Ship then turns around the pivot point located
approximately amidships (fig. 2.1b).
Turning at speed could be executed by using rudder. When moving ahead the ship rotates
around the pivot point located in the front part of the ship. When moving astern, the pivot
point is close to the stern (fig. 2.1c).
Sideway motion could be executed by using bow and stern thrusters acting in the same
direction (fig. 2.1d). Similarly, tugs pushing at bow and astern may create similar forces.

Fig. 2-1
When the ship is moving headway, the centre of lateral resistance is moving forward.
Bow thruster (or tug) is less effective, because it is pushing against greater opposite force.
This also creates rotational motion. (Fig. 2-2). When the ship is moving sternway, the
opposing effect is created and the stern thruster (or tug) is less effective.

Fig. 2-2
Chapter 2. Forces acting on manoeuvring ship 2-2

2.2 The pivot point

Pivot Point “PP” is the point around which the ship rotates – it is the point of application
of the hydrodynamic forces acting on the ship’s hull.
With no forward speed, pivot point coincides with the centre of gravity that is
approximately amidships.
When the ship is making headway, pivot point moves forward.
When the ship is making sternway, pivot point moves aft (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2-3

Position of the pivot point depends on the form of the hull. Its position when moving
ahead is between (0.12 to 0.25) L from the bow. In full-bodied ships, pivot point is closer
to the bow, in slender ships farther from the bow (fig. 2.4).

Full bodied ship CB≥0.8 Slender ship CB<0.6

PP close to the bow PP farther from the bow

Fig. 2-4

The position of pivot point is very important from the point of manoeuvring. If it is close
to the bow, the ship has better turning ability (smaller turning circle). (See chapter 3).
Chapter 2. Forces acting on manoeuvring ship 2-3

2.3 Transverse thrust of the propeller

In single-screw ships the turning propeller creates non-symmetrical pressure field at ship’s
stern. The pressure difference created on both sides causes that transverse force is induced
that is called transverse thrust of the propeller.
If the propeller is right handed, then when making headway, transverse thrust is directed to
starboard, when making sternway, it is directed to port (fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2-5

With left-handed propeller, the situation is reversed.

x When ahead motion: transverse thrust to port;
x When astern motion: transverse thrust to starboard.

Generally, transverse thrust is small when making ahead, much larger when making
astern.

Simple formula for calculation of transverse thrust when making astern:

P
Roughly: Transverse thrust TT ( 0.05 to 0.10 ) ˜ A
100
Where: PA = astern power of the ship (in shp).

Example: Main engine power: P=20000 shp

Assuming engine power available: PA= 60% P =12000
Transverse thrust according to formula: TT= 12 tons
Chapter 2. Forces acting on manoeuvring ship 2-4

2.4 Effect of the transverse thrust of the propeller

The effect of the transverse thrust of the propeller is much more significant when making
sternway than when making headway (fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2-6

Swing due to transverse thrust of the propeller in ahead and astern motion:

Fig. 2-7
Chapter 2. Forces acting on manoeuvring ship 2-5

2.5 Forces acting on the ship when turning

When the ship is making a turn, then apart of the propeller thrust and water resistance,
also rudder force and transverse hydrodynamic force are active.

Fig. 2-8

Ship is moving along the curvilinear path with the centre at point O. The distance between
the centre of curvature and the centre of gravity of the ship is radius of instantaneous turn.
Ship’s centreplane deviates from the tangent to the path of the centre of gravity by the drift
angle. The line perpendicular to the ship’s centreplane through the centre of rotation,
marks pivot point (PP). At this point, there is no transverse velocity in turning; for people
on board it appears that the ship rotates around this point (Fig. 2.8). Transverse velocity is
greatest at stern.
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-1

3 MEASURES AND CRITERIA OF MANOEUVRABILITY

MANOEUVRING TESTS

3.1 Measures of manoeuvrability

The following measures of manoeuvrability are recognized:

3.1.1 Course keeping ability – dynamic stability

Course keeping ability is the ability to sail on chosen course without excessive
deviations from this course and without using rudder corrections to often.
Course keeping ability is related to dynamic stability on straight course. Ship is
dynamically stable if after small disturbance will remain on the new straight course slightly
deviated from the previous one without using rudder. There is, however, no force that can
bring the ship to the original course without using rudder. Dynamically unstable ship will
make a turning circle with rudder amidships
Ships can be dynamically stable or dynamically unstable. Dynamically unstable ships
are more difficult to handle, and if the amount of dynamical instability is large, they might be
dangerous.

Fig. 3-1

3.1.2 Turning ability – initial turning ability

Turning ability is assessed by the dimensions of the turning circle executed after the
rudder is deflected to the maximum angle to starboard or to port (usually 35 deg) and kept in
this position. The smaller is diameter of the turning circle the better is turning ability.
Initial turning ability is assessed by the deviation from the original course caused by
small deflection of the rudder (e.g. 10 degrees). The larger is deviation the better is initial
turning ability.

3.1.3 Yaw checking ability

The measure of the yaw checking ability is the response of the ship to counter rudder
during the initial phase of turn. This is measured by the amount of the “overshoot” angle. Yaw
checking ability is related to dynamical stability – the dynamically unstable ships have worse
yaw checking ability.

3.1.4 Stopping ability

Stopping ability is the ability to stop the ship on the shortest possible distance. It is
assessed by the head reach from the point where the command “full astern” is given to the
point where the ship stops.
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-2

3.2 Recommendations of IMO related to manoeuvrability

The International Maritime Organisation (United Nations Agency responsible for safety at
sea, having its headquarters in London) adopted the following recommendations related to
manoeuvrability of ships:
1. Interim Guidelines for Estimating Manoeuvring Performance in Ship Design, adopted by
MSC/Circ. 389, 10 January 1985
2. Provision and Display of Manoeuvring Information on Board Ships, adopted by
Resolution A.601 (15) on 19 November 1987
3. Interim Standards for Ship Manoeuvrability, adopted by Resolution A.751 (18) on 4
November 1993
4. Explanatory Notes to the Interim Standards for Ship Manoeuvrability, adopted by
MSC/Circ.644 on 6 June 1994
MSC/Circ.389 defines specific manoeuvring characteristics, which quantify manoeuvrability
and recommends estimation of these characteristics during design both for the fully loaded
ship and test condition in deep water. They also outline full-scale tests to be performed in
view of estimating manoeuvring performance of a ship. The specific manoeuvres include:
1. Turning circle test
2. Yaw checking ability- zigzag test
3. Initial turning test
4. Course keeping information tests
1.1. The pull-out test
1.2. The direct spiral test
1.3. The reverse spiral rest
5. Stopping tests
Resolution A.601 (15) recommends to require that the following manoeuvring information is
on board available to navigators:
1) Pilot card
2) Wheelhouse poster
3) Manoeuvring booklet
Resolution A.751 (18) recommends application of the interim standards for ship
manoeuvrability specified below for ships longer than 100 metres and for all gas carriers and
chemical tankers. The standards comprise
1. Turning ability
2. Initial turning ability
3. Yaw checking and course keeping abilities
4. Stopping ability
MSC/Circ. 644 is intended to provide Administrations with specific guidance on unified
interpretation, application and consistent evaluation of the standards for ship manoeuvrability
adopted by Resolution A.751 (18).
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-3

3.3 Manoeuvring tests

3.3.1 Turning ability – turning circle test

Turning circle test to be performed to both starboard and port with 350 rudder angle or
the maximum design rudder angle permissible at test speed.

Test speed is estimated according to the formula: VT C B ˜ VD

Where: VT - test speed; VD- design speed; CB- block coefficient
The ship is making a turning circle. A turning circle of at least 5400 should be
completed to determine the main parameters of the manoeuvre and allow correction for
any drift caused by a steady wind or current. Characteristics of the turning circle are:
Advance, at 900 change of heading;
Tactical diameter at 1800 change of heading;
Transfer at 900 change of heading as additional measure of some interest.
Advance, tactical diameter, and transfer are given as multiplicity of ship’s length.

Fig. 3-2
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-4

3.3.2 Yaw checking ability, zig–zag test

Yaw checking ability is a measure of the Standard zigzag tests:
response to the counter rudder applied in x 10/10 deg (shown below)
certain state of turning Standard zigzag x 20/20 deg
test is used in order to assess yaw- Non-standard: 5/5 deg or 5/10 deg
checking ability.

Fig. 3-3

IMO standard – Res. A 751(18) 1993

Applicable to all ships over 100m in length and all chemical tankers and gas
carriers
In 10/10 deg zigzag test
- First overshoot angle should not exceed 10 deg, if L/V is< 10s; 20 deg if L/V is
>30s (linear interpolation for L/V between those values)
- Second, overshoot angle not more than 15 deg above those values
In 20/20 deg zigzag test
- The first overshoot angle should not exceed 25 deg
Large tankers are dynamically unstable. If the amount of instability is large then
zigzag test 5/5 deg, 5/10 deg (or sometimes even 10/10 deg) cannot be performed,
because first (or second) or second overshoot angles are infinite. (Counter rudder
limited to 5 or 10 deg is not enough to bring back the ship)

Fig. 3-4
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-5

3.3.3 Initial turning test

Initial turning ability is a measure of the
reaction of the ship to small angle of
rudder. Is defined by the distance
travelled before realizing certain
heading deviation when rudder is
applied. Usually in initial turning test
100 rudder and 100 degrees rudder
deviation is used.

IMO standard:
With 100 rudder angle and 100 heading
deviation, Fig. 3-5
distance travelled <2.5L

3.3.4 Stopping test

Stopping test should be performed from the test speed with maximum astern power.
As indicated in figure, the ship’s track and heading after astern order are plotted
versus time. Head reach and lateral deviation are presented in terms of the number of
ship lengths.
The time lag between issuing the astern order and the moment when the propeller
stops and reverses should be measured.
Test speed:

VT= CB x VD

VT : test speed
VD : design speed
CB : block coefficient

IMO standard:
Track reach < 15L

Fig. 3-6
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-6

3.3.5 Course keeping information tests

A. Pull-out test
The pullout test gives a simple indication of ship’s dynamic stability on a straight
course. The ship is first made to turn with a constant rate of turn in either direction,
upon which the rudder is returned to midship. If the ship is stable, the rate of turn will
decay to zero for turns to both starboard and port. If the ship is unstable, then the rate
of turn will reduce to some residual rate of turn.
The pullout tests should be performed to both port and starboard side to show possible
asymmetry (see figure). Normally, pullout tests are performed in connection with the
turning circle tests, zigzag tests or initial turning tests.

Fig. 3-7
Tankers and other full-bodied ships are, as a rule, dynamically unstable
B. Spiral tests direct and reverse
The amount of dynamic instability could be established by spiral test. The spiral test
is an orderly sequence of turning circle tests to obtain a steady turning rate versus
rudder angle relation.
With the ship on initial straight course, the rudder is put to about 200 starboard and
held until the rate of change of heading is constant. The rudder angle is then decreased
by 50 and again held until steady conditions of turning have been obtained. This
procedure is repeated until the rudder has covered the range from 200 on one side to
200 on the other side and back again. Over a range of rudder angles of 50 to 100 on
either side of zero or neutral rudder angle, these intervals should be reduced to 10.

Fig. 3-8
¾Width of instability loop is a measure of the amount of instability
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-7

3.4 Effect of ship size on turning performance

Turning characteristics depend on the ship size. The tactical diameter is not
proportional to the displacement of the ship but relative tactical diameter D/L is equal
for ships geometrically similar of different size as well as for full-scale ship and its
model.

Fig. 3-9 – Turning ability for tank vessels (deep water)

Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-8

3.5 Effect of ship parameters on turning performance

Fig. 3-10 Comparison of turning characteristics of full and slender ship

¾Two ships of the same length have nearly the same transfer
¾Tactical diameter for both ships is almost the same
¾Radius of the steady turning circle is much smaller for tanker
¾Drift angle is much larger for tanker
¾Pivot point is closer to the bow in tanker
Chapter 3. Measures and criteria of manoeuvrability 3-9

3.6 Effect of ship parameters on turning and course keeping

Manoeuvring performance depends on ship form and proportions. Table below shows
the effect of ship performance on manoeuvring characteristics.

Fig. 3-11
Normally in calm water fully loaded ship at speed about 5 knots with rudder hard over
(35 deg) will turn round 180 degrees in less than 4 ship’s lengths. With smaller rudder
angle the ship will make longer turning circle and gain more speed.
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-1

4 STOPPING OF SHIPS
4.1 Acceleration and stopping characteristics

4.1.1 Forces acting when accelerating and stopping

Acceleration
" mv $ # " R( v ) ! TE ( v , n )

Inertia stopping
$
" mv # " R( v ) ! TE ( v , n )

Stopping with engine reversed

" mv $ # " R( v ) ! TE ( v , n )

Fig. 4-1 Symbols: m - mass of the ship

V - velocity
R - resistance
TE - effective thrust
Acceleration is the period from the moment when order of starting the engine is given
to the moment when nominal speed of the ship is reached.
Inertia stopping is a manoeuvre of stopping of the ship sailing at nominal speed when
the main engine is stopped by closing down fuel supply.
Active stopping (crash stopping) is a manoeuvre of stopping of the ship using main
engine working in astern condition.

4.1.2 Acceleration

Fig. 4-2
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-2

4.1.3 Inertia stopping

Fig. 4-3

4.1.4 Active stopping – crash stopping

Fig. 4-4
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-3

4.2 Effect of engine characteristics on stopping of ships

Fig. 4-5 Power available in astern motion

Remark: Turbine propulsion develops much less power in astern motion than diesel
propulsion. Stopping distance is large.

Fig. 4-6 Curves of stopping characteristics of inertia stopping

Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-4

Fig. 4-7 Stopping distance for 210000 tdw tanker

Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-5

4.3 Effect of different stopping techniques on stopping distance

4.3.1 Stopping using rudder cycling procedure

Fig. 4-8
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-6

4.3.2 Fairway stopping procedure

Fig. 4-9
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-7

4.3.3 Comparison of different stopping techniques

Fig. 4-10

Fig. 4-11
Chapter 4- Stopping of ships 4-8

Fig. 4-12 General effect of ship size on stopping head reach (Crane, 1973)
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-1

5. SHIP–TUG INTERACTION

5.1 Ship-tug cooperation

The ship-tug interaction is a function of many factors and depends mainly on:

x Type of tug co-operating with a ship, where the main difference results from the
location of tug’s propulsion and towing point. The choice is between conventional
single or twin-screw tugs very often fitted with nozzles and tractor type tugs. The
ASD (azimuth stern drive) tugs are the compromise linking some of the benefits of
conventional and tractor tugs type.

Fig. 5-1 Conventional and tractor type tugs – difference in location of tug’s propulsion
and towing point is shown (from “Tug Use In Port”, The Nautical Institute, 1997).

x Assisting methods are mainly used: tugs towing on a line and tugs assisting at the
ship’s side.

Fig. 5-2 Schematic presentation of towing on a line and assisting at the ship’s side
(from “Tug Use in Port”, The Nautical Institute, 1997)

5.2 Dangers related to ship-tug cooperation

When assisting a ship, tugs operate in her close proximity in disturbed water pressure
regions surrounding a ship’s hull. This is the source of interaction phenomenon, especially
dangerous for relatively small tugs when comparing with the size of assisted ships.
Consecutive positions of a tug when approaching a ship to be assisted are shown in fig.
5-3. When the tug approaches the aft part of the ship (position 1), an increase of her speed
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-2

may occur due the incoming flow velocity. In the close proximity of ship’s hull, a low
pressure starts to move the tug towards the hull. For ships in ballast condition or for ships
having particular overhanging stern, the tug can easily come to position 2, which creates
danger of damages to the tug’s hull and superstructure.
Proceeding further along the hull (position 3), the tug is under important suction force
oriented towards the ship’s hull and outward turning moment due to tug bow-cushion. Once
sucked alongside it is very difficult to get off again and to continue the way.
Tug in position 4 enters the high-pressure area. Arising outward turning moment must
be eliminated by appropriate use of rudder and engine. When arriving to position 5 close to
the bow, very strong “out force” acting on the stern tries to bring the tug to position 6
broadside under the bow with risk of capsizing. Immediate action of rudder and use of
available power (full astern) can correct the position. Tractors type tugs are less vulnerable in
such a situation.

Fig. 5-3 Schematic representation of possible tug ship interactions when preparing
passing or taking a towline

The main source of danger for a tug when assisting a ship is ship’s too high speed.
Classical tug accidents (so-called “girting”) are presented in next three figures. In fig. 5-4, a
tug working on a line is assisting a ship making a turn to starboard (position 1). Ship is
suddenly accelerating for example to improve turning abilities in order to realise the turn
correctly. The speed after few moments becomes too high and the consecutive tug positions
are more and more aft with high tension in the towline (positions 2 and 3). The danger of
capsizing is then real.
The above-described situation is less dangerous for tractor tugs because their towing
point lies at the aft. So-called “gob rope” (fig. 5-5) for conventional tugs can improve much
the situation by shifting the towing point more to the stern, but on other hand it limits the
manoeuvrability of the towing tug.
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-3

Fig. 5-4 an example of girting due to excessive ship’s speed, tug is working on a line.

Fig. 5-5 the gob rope – principle of use (“ The ship handler’s guide”, The Nautical
Institute, 1997)

Girting may occur not only when ship is making turn, as it was shown previously. In
the case of straightforward motion with too high speed for a given tug, her master starts to
steer out towards the position more aside to avoid contact with ship’s bow. If ship’s speed will
not be quickly reduced, in next few instants a girting may occur.
In figure 5-6, another example of girting situation discussed in many manuals is
shown. Due to misunderstandings between a pilot and a tug master, a tug continues the
straightforward motion (position 1), even when the ship starts to swing starboard. As the
result of it, the dangerous situation to the tug may develop (positions 2 and 3). To avoid this,
the tug master always should be informed about ship’s intention.
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-4

Fig. 5-6 An example of girting due to misunderstanding between manoeuvring ship and
a tug, tug is working on a line.

Of course, girting phenomenon occurs also in the case of stern tugs, as it is shown in
fig. 5-7. Too high ship’s speed being often result of sudden increasing of propeller revolutions
makes working positions 1 and 2 difficult to keep, and the tug moves more and more towards
position 3, where it will be exposed to a risk of girting.

Fig. 5-7 Girting a conventional tug being in aft position

Some other dangers affecting frequently tug’s safety are listed below:

x Bulbous bows are not visible when they are underwater and because of their important
dimensions the stern of the tug may touch the bow when passing or taking a towline. Short
towlines can also create similar danger for tugs. This situation is especially dangerous in
the case of excessive forward speed of ships to be assisted.

x An inexperienced ship’s crew may not be able to release tug’s towline when needed. After
slacking off the towline by a tug, when ship’s speed increases, the tension simultaneously
increases in the towline dragged through the water. The releasing of the towline becomes
very difficult, if not impossible.
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-5

x When the bollard pull of assisting tugs is not sufficient to counteract all external forces
acting on a ship (underestimation of wind force, current velocity increases), tugs can be
jammed between the ship and the berth as the result of drifting ship’s motion.

x When passing or taking a towline, the ship’s speed and heading must be constant. Any
change in values of the above parameters creates additional danger to the tug. If such a
situation will occur, the assisting tug must be immediately informed to anticipate expected
manoeuvres.

5.3 Required number and total bollard pull of tugs

There is no general rule describing relationship between ship’s size and required tug’s
number and bollard pull. Each harbour has its own calculations based on port layout, berth
construction, local environmental conditions, available tug characteristics and method of
assistance, parameters and equipment of a ship to be assisted, and experience of local
authorities.
For a given port layout and berth construction and for a given ship, the required bollard
pull is a function of wind, current and eventual waves. The resulting force acting on a given
ship must be compensated by bollard pull of assisting tugs.
To the above assessment of required bollard pull, special allowance should be added. It
takes into account special power reserve:

x For pushing or pulling a ship up against wind and current;

x For elimination the eventual longitudinal motion when berthing without use of propeller;

x For elimination undesirable interaction effects ( for example Coanda effect);

x For taking into account true power actually available which can differ from original
bollard pull tests.
Equal forward and aft tug power is not always the case. The ship is very often under the
influence of wind and current yaw moment due to specific ship’s profile above the water and
to the form of underwater part of the hull. Actual loading conditions are very important factor
in planning of number of tugs and the tug position along the hull.
An example of calculation of required bollard pull and number of tugs for different ship
types based on their length and deadweight is given below (“Tug Use In Port”, The Nautical
Institute, 1997).
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-6

Fig. 5-8 Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for container and general cargo
vessel in function of ship’s length

Fig. 5-9 Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for tankers and bulk carriers in
function of ship’s length

Fig. 5-10 Total pollard pull and average number of tugs for tankers and bulk carriers in
function of ship’s deadweight
Chapter 5- Ship-tug cooperation 5-7

5.4 Tug effectiveness

5.4.1 Ship dead in the water

Pivot point at midship.

Two tugs pulling or pushing
sideways.
Ship is shifting to one side
without swing if both tugs
develop equal pulling or
pushing forces and levers are
the same.

Fig. 5-11

5.4.2 Ship making headway

Pivot point shifts forward.

Stern tug working on large
lever is more effective.
Ship has a tendency to swing
to port.
Fig. 5-12

5.4.3 Ship making sternway

Pivot point shifts aft.

Stern tug working on small
lever (less effective).
Bow tug working on large
lever.
Ship has a tendency to swing
Fig. 5-13 to starboard
Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-1

6. HANDLING TWIN SCREW SHIPS

Twin-screw ships have generally excellent manoeuvring qualities at zero and low speed,
especially in the case of twin rudders and propellers well spread (fig. 6-1a). Additional turning
moment improving manoeuvring qualities is created by:
x Difference of propeller thrust directions (for example one propeller going astern, one
propeller going ahead or one propeller going ahead and the second stopped);
x Transverse thrust of propellers;
x Cross-force created by difference of pressure on the deadwood of the ship.
On the other hand, ships with very small distance between shafts (fig. 6-1b) or ships
equipped with single rudder situated on the centre line between the two propellers (fig. 6-1c)
are well known because of their poor steering qualities. This is the case of many warships or of
old generation of container ships.
Appropriate settings of pitch for ships equipped with C.P. propellers or appropriate settings
of propeller revolutions in the case of F.P. propellers, together with appropriate rudder
deflection or bow thruster setting, allow the twin-screw ship to move in any direction - from
pure turn to pure transversal motion (fig. 6-2 and 6-3).
Many factors influence the value of this additional turning moment. The most
important are:

6.1 Shaft convergence:

In the case of parallel shafts (fig. 6-4a) the maximum available turning moment is:

N T0 ˜ d
where : T0  max. thrust at zero speed
d  distance between shafts

In the case of converging shafts (fig. 6-4b) the maximum available turning moment is:
d
N 2 ˜ T0 ˜ ( cos D  l p ˜ sin D )
2
where : D  angle between axis of the shaft and center line of the ship
l P  distance between the propeller plane and the main section of the ship
In the case of diverging shafts (fig. 6-4c), the maximum turning moment is
d
N 2 ˜ T0 ˜ ( cos D  l p ˜ sin D )
2
From analysis of the above figures, it is clear that the case of diverging shafts is less
favourable.
Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-2

Fig. 6-1 Configuration of twin screw propulsion

Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-3

Fig. 6-2 Approaching a quay STBD and PORT side

Twin- screw vessel
Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-4

Fig. 6-3 Turning of a twin-screw vessel

Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-5

Fig. 6-4 Twin screw propulsion

Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-6

6.2 Sense of propeller rotation and type of propeller:

It is well known, that rotating propellers create also transversal thrust. The source of this
force is non-uniform field of water velocities. The orientation of this transversal force is the
function of propeller's type and sense of rotation. The explanation of the way the above factors
influence the value of additional turning moment, is shown in figures 6-5 and 6-6.

Fig. 6-5 Transversal propeller force for F.P. propeller-sense of rotation: outward

Fig. 6-6 Transversal propeller force for C.P. propeller - sense of rotation: inward
Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-7

6.3 Presence of deadwood:

In fig 6-7, visualisation of the distribution of water pressure on the deadwood for
different sense of propeller rotation when working astern is shown. This figure and fig. 6-8
clarify reasons for which more useful is outward sense of rotation for F.P. propeller and
inward sense of rotation for C.P. propeller.

Fig. 6-7 Pressure distribution on the deadwood of a twin screw container ship
(Source: J.Brix “Manoeuvring Technical Manual”)
Chapter 6- Handling of twin screw ships 6-8

Fig. 6-8 Influence of sense of propeller rotation on creation of additional transversal

force on the deadwood.
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-1

7. RESTRICTED WATER EFFECT

7.1 Effect of restricted depth of water on ship resistance and powering
Shallow water is when h | ( 4 y 5 )T where : h - depth of water, T - draft of ship
Shallow water has considerable effect on ship behaviour:
x Resistance of the ship is increasing causing reduction of speed
x Draft of the ship is increasing (squat), trim is changing
x Manoeuvring characteristics change
Critical speed in shallow water:
vcrit gh | 3.13 h [m/s] 6.1 h [knots]
Normally ships cannot sail faster than about 75% of the critical speed (except high speed craft)

Fig. 7-1 Diagram showing influence of water depth on effective power and trim
[Example ship: RO-RO, L=210m, T=9.05]
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-2

Fig. 7-2 Effect of restricted water on drag (resistance) force

Fig. 7-3 Effect of shallow water on lateral force and moment

Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-3

7.2 Effect of shallow water on manoeuvring

Shallow water affects considerably manoeuvring characteristics of ships
x Turning circles become larger in shallow water
x Course keeping ability is in shallow water better
x Stopping ability is slightly worsening in shallow water
The effect of shallow water on manoeuvring characteristics is illustrated on the example of full-
scale tests of a tanker 278 000 tdw in deep and shallow water.

Fig. 7-4
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-4

7.3 Wall or bank effect

7.3.1 Bernoulli’s law and continuity law

In order to understand the effect of a solid bank or wall on the behaviour of moving ship along
it, it is necessary to study pressure distribution around ship's hull and relevant basic laws
governing flow phenomena.

Fig. 7-5

Continuity law: Velocity x cross section = const

V1 x S1 = V2 x S2 = const.
Consequence: if cross section decreases, velocity increases and vice versa

Bernoulli’s law: static pressure + dynamic pressure = const.

Static pressure = atmospheric pressure + head of water
Dynamic pressure = C x velocity squared
Consequence: if velocity increases, dynamic pressure increases and static pressure and head of
water decreases and vice versa.
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-5

7.3.2 Suction force

When the ship is moving close to a solid wall or bank suction force is created drawing
the ship closer to the bank. This is because of reduced cross section, accelerated flow and
reduced pressure in the space between the ship and bank.

Fig. 7-6

Suction force is proportional to the speed of the ship squared and inversely proportional to the
distance from the bank. Suction forces calculated for example ship are shown below:

Suction force
(Tanker 148000 tdw)
Distance a Speed Force
[m] [kn] [Ton]
5 21
50
10 83
5 31.6
30
10 124.5
5 63
5
10 250

Fig. 7-7
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-6

Fig. 7-8

Suction force together with bow cushion effect make stern to move closer to the bank.
Rudder is to be used to counter this effect.

Fig. 7-9

Because of the proximity of the bank ship takes a sheer and suction force moves close to the
stern.
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-7

7.3.3 Using suction force to the advantage

Fig. 7-10

7.3.4 Passing through narrow passage

Fig. 7-11
Entering the passage closer to the bank helps turning to starboard as needed. If the ship is
entering closer to the island, suction is in the wrong quarters and opposes turning to starboard.
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-8

7.4 Squat

7.4.1 Definition
Squat is increased sinkage of the ship in shallow water. It causes reduced clearance
below the keel. Squat is caused because of accelerated flow and reduced pressure under the
bottom of the ship.

Fig. 7-12

Fig. 7-13
Squat -S- could be calculated using simple formulae developed by Barras.

7.4.2 Barras formulae:

V2 h
Shallow water: S CB ˜ valid for 1.1 y 1.2
100 T
V2 A
Ship in the canal: S CB ˜ valid for S 0.06 y 0.30
50 AC
Where : S - squat in meters
V - ship speed in knots
AS - cross - section of the ship
VC - cross - section of the canal
h - dpth of water
T - draft of ship
Note: these formulae provide approximate values of squat for the ship in even keel
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-9

7.4.3 Effect of heeling, trim and turning on squat

7.4.3.1 Effect of heeling:

B sin M
'T
2
M [deg] 'T [m]
1 0.41
2 0.85
3 1.26
4 1.67
5 2.09

Fig. 7-14

¾The calculated example is for Tanker with B=48 m

7.4.3.2 Sinkage when turning

Fig. 7-15

7.4.3.3 Effect of trim

Trim TS  TB
TS  TB
or t
L
L
'T t˜
2

Fig. 7-16
Chapter 7- Restricted water effect 7-10

7.5 Entering or leaving shallow bank

When the ship is entering a shallow bank then due to restricted cross-section and reduced
pressure under bow portion of the ship trim to bow may occur and the ship may hit the bottom
with the bow.
When the ship is leaving shallow bank and entering deep-water area, the opposite may
occur and the ship may hit the bottom with the stem.

Fig. 7-17
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Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-1

9. CONTROL DEVICES
9.1 Active and passive control devices
All control devices could be divided in two main categories: active and passive.
Active control devices: are devices actively fed by external energy.
Passive control devices: are devices absorbing energy from ship speed and propeller race.

Active Passive
Thrusters; rudders;
active rudders; stopping shields;
azimuthing propellers; fins;
Voith-Schneider propellers

Fig. 9-1
Application: effectiveness of active control devices generally is reduced with increasing ship
speed; effectiveness of passive control devices is increasing with ship speed.
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-2

9.2 Characteristics of rudder profiles

Rudders are the most common control devices. Rudder is a profiled foil or flat plane which is
developing lift when inclined to the flow. Profile (or flat plane) when at an angle S to
oncoming flow develops lift and drag force. Lift causes turning moment of the ship, drag
causes reduction of speed. Both depend on rudder deflection angle

Fig. 9-2

Fig. 9-3 Explanation of the stalling phenomenon at critical angle

Rudder is more effective if the lift developed is larger. The ratio of drag/lift is also important
and it has to be as small as possible.
Rudder effectiveness depends upon:
x profile (form, thickness)
x aspect ratio
x rudder outline
x rudder location
x special features (flaps, foils etc.)
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-3

9.3 Rudder effectiveness

9.3.1 Profile
All modern rudders have cross-section in the form of a symmetric airfoil profile. Some older
ships are fitted with the flat plate rudder. Profile is better than flat plate as it is seen from the
table below where values of lift and drag coefficients and their ratio are compared:

rudder plate rudder NACA 0015 Profile

angle
[deg] CL CD CD/CL CL CD CD/CL
10 0.323 0.132 0.409 0.289 0.042 0.145
20 0.654 0.311 0.437 0.622 0.135 0.217
30 0.915 0.593 0.648 0.926 0.320 0.346
40 1.000 0.873 0.673 0.685 0.605 0.883

Providing almost the same values of lift coefficients profile offers much lower values of
drag/lift coefficients. Difference between various profiled used for rudders is not very large,
but thickness has some effect.

9.3.2 Aspect ratio

Aspect ratio affects rate of change of lift coefficient with rudder angle and also affects the
critical angle

Fig. 9-4

9.3.3 Rudder outline

Rudder outline has small effect on profiler characteristics. Outline could be rectangular,
trapezoidal, rounded edges, etc.
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-4

9.4 Rudder force

Rudder force depends on the angle of rudder relative to the water velocity. When the ship is
moving on the straight course, this angle is approximately equal to the rudder angle (Fig.2-9).

Fig. 9-5

When the ship makes a turn, the direction of water velocity at the position of the rudder does
not coincide with the plane of symmetry of the ship.
The angle of attack of the rudder is reduced and is equal to the angle of rudder minus drift
angle at the position of the rudder.
(Drift angle at the position of the rudder is the angle between tangent to the ship’s path at the
rudder position and plane of symmetry of the ship).

Fig. 9-6
In fact, the so-called flow straightening effect due to propeller slipstream, diminishes influence
of the drift angle. Finally : D GEH
D effective rudder angle
G effective rudder angle
E drift angle
 H flow straightening effect
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-5

9.5 Effect of ship's wake and propeller race on rudder performance.

Rudder is located behind the hull and in the propeller slip stream. This is important from the
point of view of the lift force of the rudder.
1
Lift L C L ˜ UV 2 S
2

9.5.1 Effect of wake:

Fig. 9-7
Velocity of flow in the wake is considerably lower than ship speed - lift force is reduced!

9.5.2 Effect of propeller slipstream (race)

When the rudder is located behind the propeller, it is in the propeller slipstream where the flow
is accelerated

Fig. 9-8
Velocity in the propeller slipstream depends on the propeller thrust Load coefficient CT and
on the distance x between propeller and rudder. This is taken into account by the coefficient k
in the above formula:

x/D 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0

k 0.50 0.79 0.88 0.94 0.96
Wake effect and effect of propeller slipstream act in opposite directions.
W = 0.1 ~ 0.3 depending of the fullness of the hull. Velocity in the propeller slipstream
Vps=1.2 ~ 1.5 VSHIP, that means that this effect is stronger. If propeller is not working, the
effectiveness of rudder is very small. At rest, if propeller is kicked ahead the lift force of
rudder is large.
In twin-screw ships, rudders positioned behind propellers are effective. If there is one rudder
in the plane of symmetry, it is much less effective.
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-6

9.6 Rudder in the propeller slipstream in ahead and astern condition

The sketches show how rudder develops lift in different situations during manoeuvring with
the propeller in ahead and astern position

Fig. 9-9
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-7

9.7 Different ways to develop lift - Special rudders

Fig. 9-10
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-8

Fig. 9-11
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-9

9.8 Special rudders characteristics

Fig. 9-12 Comparison of turning circles

Fig. 9-13 Comparison of lift characteristics

Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-10

9.9 Active control devices: Thrusters

Fig. 9-14 Thruster types

Fig. 9-15 Transverse thruster with and without Anti Suction Tunnel (AST)
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-11

9.10 Thruster forces

Thrusters create forces perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the ship.

Fig. 9-16

Effectiveness of thrusters depends on whether the ship is moving ahead or astern.

Example: bow thrusters are more effective when ship is moving astern.

Fig. 9-17
Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-12

9.11 Differences in rudder and thrusters action

Very slow speed – swing to starboard

At the very slow speed the effect of using starboard rudder results in shift of the centre of
gravity to port, then swing to starboard. The position of pivot point is in bow quarters. When
using bow thrusters the pivot point is in the stern quarters and the centre of gravity mover to
starboard (fig.2-13)

Fig. 9-18
At speed – swing to starboard
At speed, the bow thrusters force may have an opposite effect on the centre of gravity, moving
it away from the swing when the pivot point comes between the resultant bow thrusters force
and the centre of gravity. However, the bow is meeting very strong underwater resistance,
leaving a small resultant force to push the bow over and to move the stern against the lateral
resistance abaft the pivot point. The bow thrusters force is exerted to close to the centre of
lateral resistance and in comparison with the resistance, is too small to have noticeable effect.
In addition, the water rushing past tunnel aperture reduces thrust of the bow thrusters (fig.2-
14).

Fig. 9-19
 Chapter 9- Control Devices 9-13

9.12 Lateral motion using rudder and bow thrusters

9.12.1 Lateral motion to port

Fig. 9-20
1. With short kicks ahead, full starboard rudder, right handed propeller. Moderate
amount of thrust of the bow thrusters to port to compensate swing to starboard. (Fig.2.15)
2. With astern power. Transverse thrust of the propeller pushing stern to port.
Moderate thrust of the bow thruster to port to compensate possible swing.

9.12.2 Lateral motion to starboard

Fig. 9-21
A. With short kicks ahead, full port rudder and use of bow thrusters to starboard no
problems in lateral motion to starboard.
With astern power, there might be problems as shown (fig. 2.16). The bow is likely to swing to
starboard because of the transverse thrust of the propeller to port. To control this thrust of the
right-handed propeller bow thruster force to port is used. This, together with transverse thrust
of the propeller may cause unintentional lateral motion to port, which, if much power is used,
might be of considerable magnitude.
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-1

10. EFFECT OF WIND FORCE ON MANOEUVRING

10.1 Wind force

Wind force depends on: windage, wind velocity (wind pressure), angle between apparent wind
and heading. Wind pressure is proportional to wind velocity squared.
Centre of wind pressure depends on distribution of windage alongside the ship.
Formula for calculating wind force:
1
F ˜ CW ˜ AW ˜ VW2
2
Where: CW = coefficient, depending on the configuration of super structures
(in average CW = 0.8 to 1.1)
AW = windage area;
VW = relative wind velocity;

Fig. 10-1 Windage area

Magnitude of wind force depends on wind direction:

Fig. 10-2 Wind velocities or force Fig. 10-3 Wind force coefficients depend on
components direction of apparent wind
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-2

10.2 Ship in beam wind

10.2.1 Ship stopped

x Wind force is large.

x There is no longitudinal component.
x Behaviour of the ship depends on the centre of wind pressure, which could be in front
or behind of the point of application of transverse resistance force (pivot point). This
point is approximately at midship.
x Ship is drifting and turning either way, depending on the relative position of these
points.

Fig. 10-4
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-3

10.2.2 Ship with headway

x Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.

x Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.

Fig. 10-5

10.2.3 Ship with sternway

x Point of application of wind force is in front of the pivot point.
x Ship has tendency to swing out of the wind line.

Fig. 10-6
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-4

10.3 Wind from bow quarter

10.3.1 Ship with headway

x Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.
x Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.

Fig. 10-7

10.3.2 Ship with sternway

x Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.
x Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.

Fig. 10-8
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-5

10.4 Following wind

10.4.1 Ship with headway

Fig. 10-9

10.4.2 Ship with sternway

Fig. 10-10
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-6

10.4.3 Effect of transverse thrust when backing

x Swing in both ways is possible.
x Behaviour of the ship depends on whether the moment of the wind force (Fa . a) is
greater or smaller than the moment of the transverse thrust (Tt . b). ]

Fig. 10-11
Chapter 10- Effect of wind force on manoeuvring 10-7

10.5 Behaviour of the ship in following wind

EXAMPLE: 70000 t tanker in 30 knots
wind sailing with the wind at 6 knots.
She has to be stopped.

Her successive positions:

1. The ship is moving ahead at speed 6

knots, engine is stopped;
2. Engine full astern. Transverse thrust of
the propeller working astern pushes
stem to port
3. With the wind on the starboard quarter,
both wind and transverse thrust cause
the ship to Swing to starboard

4. The transverse component of the wind

force increases as the ship comes more
beam to the wind. Pivot point due to
lateral resistance moves back
5. The ship is stopped in the water.
Transverse wind force at maximum.
The ship moves sideways to port
6. The ship starts moving sternways; the
pivot point is shifted towards the stern.
The ship moves astern as long as
transverse wind force and transverse
thrust balance
7. With the pivot point well aft of the
midship, a swing to port sets in. The
product of wind force and distance to
pivot point is more than the product of
transverse thrust and distance to pivot
point. Transverse thrust could be 10 %
of applied stem power (see sketch).
8. The more sternway the faster the Swing
to port, the moment of transverse wind
force increases and the moment of
transverse thrust decreases as the pivot
point travels farther aft.

Fig. 10-12
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-1

11. SHIP HANDLING IN CURRENT AND TIDE

11.1 Current forces:
When the ship is moored or held broadside to the current the area exposed to the current is
approximately equal to length x draft (L x T).
Formula for calculating current force (in SI units) is:
ρ
Fcurrent c ˜ ˜ L ˜ T ˜ VC2 [newtons]
2
where : c - coefficient
ρ - density of water [kg/m 3 ]
VC - velocity of current [m/s]
The practical formula for calculation of current force:

Fcurrent f ˜ L ˜ T ˜V 2 [tons]
where : V - velocity of current in knot
Coefficient f depends on the clearance under the keel, (due to restricted cross-section under the
keel, the pressure on the exposed side increases)

Fig. 11.1
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-2

11.2 Area exposed to current:

Due to different underwater profile of bow and stern, the forces at forward and aft
perpendiculars are not equal

Fig. 11.2

Because of smaller exposed area when at anchor, current forces are much smaller.

Current forces calculated (tons)

current velocity (knots)

ship deep water d/T=3 shallow water d/T=1.1

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

broadside 53 214 481 854 267 1068 2401 4272

VLCC Blue
Lady
at anchor 9 38 85 150 47 188 423 751

broadside 31 124 280 498 156 622 1400 2488

VLCC
ballast condition
at anchor 5 22 49 88 27 109 246 438

broadside 34 136 307 546 171 682 1535 2729

LCC Warta
at anchor 6 24 53 94 29 118 265 471

broadside 36 143 321 572 174 696 1567 2787

Container
7200TEU
at anchor 5 20 45 80 24 97 218 389
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-3

11.3 Manoeuvring in cross current

When the ship is manoeuvring in tide the water surrounding the ship is moving en masse
together with the ship throughout of this manoeuvre. During certain period of time the ship
together with the water is drifting relative to the ground and any fixed objects.

Example:
At 2 knots tide within 15 minutes
ship drifts 1/2 mile over ground

Fig. 11.3
When the ship is moving in cross current the speed over ground is resultant velocity of ship
speed and velocity of the current.

Fig. 11.4
In order to Maintain heading in cross current, the resultant speed has to be taken into account.

Fig. 11.5
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-4

11.4 Manoeuvring in current from ahead and astern

11.4.1 Ship in current from ahead

Low revolutions allow maintain low speed over the

ground into the tide. Pivot point is forward even the
ship is making very slow speed over the ground.
Good steering and positive control. When backing
pivot point is at stern and control poor.

Fig. 11.6

11.4.2 Ship in current from astern:

When moving with current in order to maintain the

controllability it necessary to run at speed higher than
current velocity, which may be to fast over ground.
To reduce speed astern order is given and then pivot
point is at stern and controllability lost.

Fig. 11.7

11.4.3 Berthing and unberthing in tide:

Fig. 11.8
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-5

11.5 Working in current in the river estuary with current

11.5.1 Working against the tide in restricted area (river estuary)

Fig. 11.9

11.5.2 Working with the following tide in restricted area

Fig. 11.10
Stronger current close to the outside bank causes the tendency to swing the ship with the stern
or bow towards the outside bank, which may create dangerous situation. This might be
particularly difficult to overcome when working in following tide because of the small
effectiveness of the rudder
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-6

11.6 Turning in tide

11.6.1 Turning against the tide in restricted area (river estuary)

Fig. 11.11

11.6.2 Turning in the following tide in restricted area

Fig. 11.12
Stronger current close to the outside bank causes the tendency to swing the ship with the stern
or bow towards the outside bank. Differences in current velocity are used top accelerate swing.
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-7

11.7 Inertia effects when manoeuvring in tide and current

11.7.1 Inertia effect when working in tide

Turning by 90 degrees when working against tide may cause dangerous situation:

Fig. 11.13

11.7.2 Inertia effect when working in non-uniform current

Fig. 11.14
 Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-8

Inertia effects when working against non-uniform current:

A ship proceeding against a current of 4 knots with a speed over water 5 knots makes over
ground 1 knot. If it comes to the area where the current is only 1 knot, it makes suddenly 4
knots over ground. If the engine is stopped, inertia is carrying the ship on.

Fig. 11.15

11.7.3 Side moments in head current:

In a head current, engine power is used for

steering at zero speed over ground if the
ship is proceeding over water at speed
equal to speed of current. The ship stays in
the same position over ground.
When the ship cants to either side, there
will be a transverse component of the
speed moving the ship sideways. After
some time inertia force is developed Fig. 11.16
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-9

11.8 Current force at anchor

11.8.1 Deep water

Fig. 11.17

11.8.2 Shallow water:

Fig. 11.18

The force exerted by current in a very shallow water is much larger than in deep water because
the flow under the keel is restricted.
The force of a very strong current at low water may exceed the holding power of the anchor,
especially when there is a strong wind as well.
Chapter 11- Ship handling in current and tides 11-10

11.9 Sailing in river

11.9.1 Sailing up the river

Fig. 11.19
In rivers water surface is sloped;
Slope is measured in meter per kilometre: 1000 X (m/ km)
Ship speed over ground is: VG = VS - VC
However VS is Smaller than in calm water because of additional resistance.

11.9.2 Sailing down the river - with current

Fig. 11.20
Ship speed over ground is: VG = VS + VC
VS is greater than in calm water because of additional thrust.
Even if there is no propeller thrust (ship without propulsion) additional thrust exists which
causes that the ship is moving faster than current.
 Ship Manoeuvring and Handling

1 In which of these vessel types is "squat" likely to be most pronounced?

2 Overshoot is an expression used when talking about a ship's steering ability. What does this mean?

3 Your ship is making sternway of about 1.5 knots, with rudder hard to starboard. Will this rudder position have any effect on the
ship's behaviour? Choose the most complete answer.

4 A ship turns around a point called the 'pivot point". What is the position of this point when the ship is stopped in the water?

5 A ship turns around a point called the 'pivot point". What is the usual position of this point when the ship is at full sea speed?

6 What will be the stopping distance of your ship when proceeding at 8 knots and reversing to full astern?

7 You want to stop your ship as quickly as possible without too much change in the heading. What can you do to achieve this?

8 Over what length of time should a diesel powered vessel be slowed down from full sea-speed to manoeuvring speed?

9 In which direction will the bow of a vessel move, with a single fixed pitch right-handed propeller which is turning astern?

10 Your ship is equipped with a single right-handed fixed propeller. While steaming full ahead you reverse the engine to stop the
ship. How will the ship react?

11 Your engine is going astern and you gather sternway. The rudder is amidships and you are operating on a single, right-handed
fixed screw. How will your ship react?

12 What would you say about a ship which is course unstable?

13 You are transiting a narrow channel. What can happen in this situation?

14 In relation to squat effect, which of the following statements is incorrect?

15 How should you minimize squat effect?

16 Who is responsible for the numbers and use of tugs during mooring?

17 What is most noticeable about a ship with good course keeping stability?

18 You are going to leave a crowded anchorage by making a 180 degrees turn. You ship has a right handed propeller and you can turn
either way. How can you make the turn using as little space as possible?

19 Your ship is on a course of 240° True. A person has fallen overboard on the port side and, after letting go smoke and light floats,
in order to carry out a Williamson Turn would you.....
20 What is "ship squat"?

21 In the diagram of a ship's turning circle, what is the distance B known as?

22 The position of the pivot point when making sternway is approximately....

23 In a narrow canal, a ship proceeding at half speed ahead swings towards the port bank of the channel. As the bow approaches the
bank, it would initially....

24 In the diagram of a ship's turning circle, what is point C known as?

25 How is shallow water effect felt by a vessel?

26 Does a ship's trim influence her steering abilities?

27 You are performing an overtaking manoeuvre in confined waters. What should you watch out for?

28 In ship handling terms, what is meant by "sinkage"?

29 In which of these vessel types is "sinkage" likely to be most pronounced?

30 How is bank effect felt by a vessel?

31 Your ship is equipped with a right handed propeller. As you go full astern from full ahead, the ship is sheering to starboard. Is
there anything you can do to reduce the change in heading?

32 You are meeting another ship in confined waters. What can happen as the ships approach each other?
33 In ship handling terms, which of these overtaking situations is the most dangerous?

34 In the diagram of a ship's turning circle, what is the distance A known as?

35 In the diagram, B represents the start of a turning circle of a power driven ship in deep water with 20 degrees starboard rudder. If
the ship was in shallow water, the turning circle with the same rudder angle would be...

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