ary 1A GRAMMAR BANK modal verbs (1): will, would, should uses of will 1 Flloften do my homework in front ofthe television. Children who receive encouragement will ually respond wel He will keep interrupting ~ it's so annoying! 2 That'll be Aimee - she said she was going to phone at six. You'd better go she'll be waiting for you. You'll have met Sam, | suppose? 3 Il accept her apology, but | won't sit next to her. ‘The car won't start - can you give me a hand? 4 Will all passengers please remain in their seats until the plane has finaly stopped. ‘A Won't you come in? B No, actually | can’t stop. I've got an appointment. 5 Many animal species will mate for life 1 We can use will/ won't with dynamic verbs to describe habits and typical behaviour, often witha frequency adverb (e.g. ‘occasionally, normally). + Inspoken English, if we stress wilt expresses annoyance. * Ifthe typical / annoying behaviour was in the past, we use would, e.g. You would say that, wouldn't you? 2 We can use will/ won't to indicate that we believe something is fr was true, often because itis expected or typical. 3 We can use will/ won't to express a degree of willingness, a promise, offer, threat, or refusal to do something. often use (not) be going to + infinitive as an alternative to will/ won't, eg. Ill accept her apology, but m not going to sit ext to her, ‘+ We sometimes use won't (= refuses to) with objects to express ‘annoyance, when we frst discover things aren't functioning correctly 4 We can use will as a formal way of requesting people to do something. ‘+ We also use won't to invite people to do something, often when they appear reluctant or in a hurry 5 We can use wil to talk about the natural behaviour of properties of things. D willor shail We can use I/We shall / shan’ for: = suggestions or offers. ~ ith future meaning, e,Ishant sey @ word ather formal) ~ asthe question tg for Let's eg. La's go fora drink, shall we? uses of would 1. My ideal home would be a top-floor flat with a huge terrace. 2 Asa child, I'd often walk to school to save on bus fares. 3 No wonder she was tired: she would have been working for tenhours. 4 Itwould appear that we don’t see eye to eye on this I don't know for sure, but I'd imagine she's not coming tonight. 5 Would you rather eat out or stay in? I'd much sooner stay at hom I'd have thought it would take an hour to get there by bus. 11 We can use would to express a hypothetical present or future situation. 2 We can use would with dynamic verbs to describe past habits and typical behaviour, often with a frequency adverb. This has a similar meaning to used to + infinitive; however, unlike with used to, we only use would when it has already been | testablished that the time frame is in the past. We don't use ‘would with stative verbs, e.g, love, understand, feel 3 We can use would have + past participle (as an alternative to ‘must have) to make an assumption about the past. 4 We can use would to be more tentative, tactful, or polit 5 We use would in a number of fixed expressions, e.g. would rather, would sooner / would just as soon + infinitive, to express hypothetical or future preferences. ‘+ We use 'd have thought / said to express that we believe or calculate that something is true, uses of should 1 I:don’t think schools should force pupils to do sports. Children should look after their parents when they are older, I don't think you should mention it to her until she comes back from her holidays. You shouldn’t have cooked the chicken for so long; that's wy it's s0 dry. 2 She should pass the exam ~ she's spent ages revising They should have arrived, unless the train was delayed. 3 tisvital that you should choose your subjects carefully, ind it strange that he should have said that. He suggested | should see a careers counsellor. 1 We can use should to say that we think something is desirable ‘or a moral duty, or to give advice. + We also use should/ shouldn't have to express regret or criticism, or to say that somebody didn't do the right thing. 2 We can use should to express a feeling that something i probably true, Ths is similar to use 2 of wil, but is more based ‘on reasonable expectation, 3 We use shouldin certain more formal structures, such as ‘expressing importance (e., It fs important /vital/ necessary that + clause), emotional reactions (e.g. Iti surprising / shocking / sad that + clause), or suggestions (e.g | suggest / propose that + clause). structures after modal verbs 1 My ideal holiday would be a city break in Budapest. 2 You shouldn't have said that 3. This time next week''ll be moving house. 4 They'll have been travelling for three days. '5 The form should be signed by a referee, The building work won't have been completed yet. ‘+ Modal verbs are always followed by an infinitive (without to except for ought). 1 a simple infinitive: go 2 a perfect infinitive: have gone 3 a continuous infinitive: be going 4 perfect continuous infinitive: have been traveling Ope1B GRAMMAR BANK noun phrases SELL ee words where a main noun (edition) is qualified by words before it (anew) or after it (oF the book. compound nouns 1. When teenagers get good exam results, it improves their self-confidence. Many modern classrooms now have a smart board instead of ‘anormal whiteboard, We need to invest in job ereation to tackle youth unemployment, Good time management isan essential sil for university students 2 Air pollution is a major cause of respiratory ines. ‘The use of corporal punishment has declined in recent decades. 11 Two nouns together are called compound nouns. They are either written as separate words (e.g, exam results) or a single word (e.g classroom). Sometimes the nouns are hyphenated (e.g. self-confidence). Note that the first noun is singular. NOT exams results. + The second noun is the main noun, and the first noun describes it. The first noun functions lke an adjective. 2 Compound nouns express a single, well-established idea (e.9, air pollution, climate change, tax increases). H the idea is new, specific, or less well known, we usually express this with a longer phrase (e.g. the use of corporal punishment NOT The corporal punishment vse) using gerunds and infinitives 1. Not being able to play the piano isa source of great regret Having studied English is a great advantage when it comes 10 job-seeking, 2 Alot of people commented on you / your missing the meeting Would you mind me / my interrupting you for a moment? Emma / Emma's not knowing anyone made her fee! uncomfortable, 2 Smoking e-cigarettes is now banned in all public places. ‘The smoking of e-cigarettes is not permitted on public transport. 4 To listen is better than to speak. Not to have responded would have been seen as impolite. 1 Gerunds often act as nouns as the subject of a sentence. To ‘make the negative form, put not before the gerund, 2 We can use pronouns or nouns (e.g. you, me, him, Emma) if we ‘need to make it clear who or what isthe subject of the gerund. We can also use possessive forms (e.g. your, my, Emma's), but, this is more formal 3 Ifthe gerund has an object, it can either come directly after the gerund, or, in more formal English, in a phrase with the + gerund + of + noun, 4 lnfinitives with to can also act as nouns as the subject of ‘a sentence, They are less common, and more formal and ‘abstract, than gerunds in this use. To make the negative form, put not before the infinitive. using a noun phrase instead of a verb phrase 3n has resulted in job losses There has been a decrease in meat consumption 2 Fallure to arrive on time will mean disqualification from the examination. lack of money discourages many young people from applying to university 3 The introduction of modern farming methods has led to a change in land use. The purchase of new equipment has led to an increase in productivity 1 In more formal and academic English itis common to use a ‘noun phrase instead of a verb phrase (Because employers have introduced more machines, many workers have lost their jobs. Poople are eating less meat.).A noun phrase sounds more impersonal, and sometimes more authoritative, often because the subject ofthe verb is lost. 2 We can express some negative ideas with failure to + infinitive or lack / shortage of + noun, e.g. he didn’t notice the time ~ his. failure to notice the time; not enough time - a shortage of time. 3 When making 2 noun phrase, we often use the corresponding noun from the verb, e.g. introduce - introduction, change = change. In other cases, we use another noun, e.g. buy ~ purchase, like - fondness + If no corresponding noun exists, we use a gerund instead, e.g, The reading of print newspapers has declined in recent years. We thought the acting in the play was brilliant. D Nouns followed by different prepositions + of closure, constuction, consumption, destruction, disappearance, discovery, introduction, knowledge, prevention, production, reduction + in: change, decrease, delay, fal, growth, improvement, increase, investment, eduction, rise + for: admiration, affection, appreciation, demand, desire, fondness, need, preference, respect Opsz2ry 2A GRAMMAR BANK modal verbs (2): can / could / be able to, may / might can/ could / be able to 1. She can /is able to speak ten languages fluently. ‘She couldn't / was unable to speak until she was three years old, A Have you been able to get tickets for the concert? B No, but we should be able to buy them at the door. 2 Weran out of milk, but luckily, was able to find 2 supermarket that was open, We couldn't find / weren't able / were unable to find 2 supermarket 3 Itean rain here at any time of the year. We didn’t have central heating in those days, so it could get very cold ‘There's someone at the door. It could be my Amazon delivery 4 Itcould rain tomorow. We could go for a walk, or we could watch TV. What would you prefer? '5. The person you saw can't be / couldn't have been Peter, because he's in Canada. He's very late. I suppose he could have missed the bus. 1 We use a form of can / could / be able / unable to to describe ability, possiblity, and permission. be able / unable to are more formal than can / could. 2 We use was / were able to (= managed to) NOT could in a positive sentence to describe something that was possible ‘on a specific occasion in the past. Ina negative sentence, we normally use couldn't. wasn't / weren't able to or was / were ‘unable to are also possible, but more formal 3 We use can or could to describe general possibilities or characteristic occurrences. However, we use could (not can) to describe a specific possibilty. NOT Itcanbemy Amazon delivery. We can also use may / might in this context, but it is more formal 4 We use could (not can) to make a positive prediction about a possible future event. NOT ft-can-ain tomorrow. For negative predictions, we use might / may not. We also normally use. ‘could rather than can for suggestions. '5 We use can’t / couldn't have + past participle when we want to express certainty (based on evidence) that something is or was untrue. We use could have + past participle to say that something was possibly true. may / might 1. We may not have time to visit you next week. That might well be possible, but ljust have to check. 2 it may be an old car, but the engine is stil in top form. He may have burned the dinner, but at least he tried, 3 t's obvious he isn't coming, so we may as well go home. You might as well take the job I don’ think you'll get a better offer 4A What wonderful weather! B Yes, long may it last! ‘May all your dreams come true! 5 You might have warned me you'd be late! 11 We can use both positive and negative forms of may and might to express uncertainty about the past, present, or future. There, is no real difference of meaning between the two forms. We ‘ean add wellto increase the possibility, e.g. It may / might well + We don’t usually contract the negative form of may or might. cir Y : + We can also use could well withthe same meaning, e4. Itcould well ain tomorrow. 2 We can use may before a clause with but to describe a strong contrast in areal situation. ft may be an old car = Even though (admit it is an old car... He may have burned the dinner = ‘Although he (in fact) burned the dinner... (It is possi ‘might in a similar way, but may is more natural.) 3 We use may / might as well+ infinitive to make an Lunenthusiastic suggestion, e.g. when itis the easiest or most logical course of action, of there are no good reasons not to do it, or there is no better option. 4 may'is sometimes used rather formally and in fixed expressions ‘to express a strong wish for something to happen. '5 We can use might have + past participle (with stress on might) ‘to criticize @ person's behaviour. Iti similar in meaning to should have. + The phrase | might have known... often expresses disapproval We use it to say that we are not surprised ata situation or someone's behaviour, because we expected it, e.g. !might have known they'd be late ~ they always are. D Register of can / could / may/ might Inrequest,cansaitle more rect than could 9. Can/ Could you answer the phone? To ak for permission, going from last to mos formal, we ea ete ney ene Cat ee er acre iBomow your pen? might 3 vtuay archaic form) When we give permission, may more formal, eg. Guests aa raiiae ne besten rectal tiene setae tre tend to use may not/ must not or are not alowed 9, 129, Guests may not/ are not allowed to diy washing inthe Patera Oris2B GRAMMAR BANK participle clauses Participle clauses give more information about the subject of the ‘main clause. We can use the following forms: Present participle ‘Stepping onto the train, | scanned the carriage for an empty seat fect participle (active) Having missed the train, we decided to calla taxi, Perfect participle (passive) Having been warned of the danger, they stayed at home, Past participle (passive) Hidden in the bushes, the fox glanced hungyily atthe chicken. ‘We mainly use participle clauses in writing, to make the style Use not or never before the participle to make it negative: Not having caught the trai, ‘The participle clause often comes before the main clause, but can come after it: We decided to calla taxi, having missed the tran. The subject ofthe participle clause must be the same as that in ‘the main clause. NOT Heving-missed-the-rain, Jack gave usaf: 1 Travelling to the station, we heard the news about the Prime Minister's resignation, ‘Smiling shyly, she handed me a bunch of roses. 2 Picking up her briefcase, she left the room. 3 Not having heard the bell, the children continued playing. 11 We can use a present participle to describe two actions happening at the same time, similar to the use of a clause with the past continuous, ¢.g. While we were traveling to the station, we heard the news about the Prime Minister's resignation 2 Apresent participle can also describe two actions happening close together in tim 3 To stress that one action was finished before another one, we use a perfect participle. Not knowing anyone at the party | didn't stay very long, Boing a child at the time, I didn't understand what was going Not having brought a map, we got completely lost. Having been offered two jobs, | am unsure which one to take. ‘We can use participle clauses to describe the reason for the event inthe main clause, e.g. As I didn’t know anyone, | didn't stay very long at the party result The fire spread to the second floor of the building, causing widespread damage. Grants are offered on the basis of family income, thus making it, possible for poorer students to afford a university education, ‘current is sent through the material, thereby polarizing the electrons. ‘We can use a present participle cause to explain the result of an action or situation in the main clause. The result clause comes, after the main clause. This is common in formal or academic writing, and is often introduced with thus or thereby. after conjunctions 1. While sorting through my drawer, | came across this, newspaper cutting, ‘Once planted, the tree should be watered regulary. If disturbed, this animal can bite 2 if) Served with ico, itis a refreshing drink in hot weather. (if Given the chance, | would love to go pony-trekking 1 We can use participle clauses with certain conjunctions (eg. if unless, when, while, after, before, once, and although). 2 If can be omitted in participle clauses, as a past participle on its own often has a (passive) conditional meaning: Served with ic its served withice,.. reduced relative clauses 1. The woman sitting next to me had never flown before. Hllhave a word with the people working in the shop. ‘The languages spoken in Switzerland are French, German, Italian, and Romansh, The route chosen for the race went alongside the river. 2 love to feel the sun shining on my face. 1eard people shouting and laughing in the distance. 1 Relative clauses containing participles ar often shortened, specially in spoken or mare informal style. Prsert participles have an active meaning: the woman sitting next to me =the ‘woman who was sitting next to me: the people working inthe shop =the people whe work nthe shop, Past participles have 8 passive meaning the languages spol =the languages that {Which are spoken the route chosen = the route wich that had been chosen 2. Alter verbs ofthe senses, 0.9 see, hear, fel, we can use reserl parties ts deseo es trcustcterei Horeser tre use aninfintiv to describe a completed action: I watched hercrons the road, Ops n92) 3A GRAMMAR BANK determiners: articles and quantifiers Determiners come before nouns, or at the beginning of noun phrases before any adjectives, and show how a noun 1 articles (9/ an, t help to show ‘which ones’ we are talking about. ‘being used. The f are two main groups of determiners: ), possessives (my / yours, etc), and demonstratives (this / that, ete) 2 quantifiers (all, some, most, etc) show ‘how much / many’ we are talking about. ‘The focus of this Grammar Bank is on articles and quantifiers (possessives and demonstratives have been covered thoroughly elsewhere). articles: making a generalization 1 Aerobic fitness is less important than a combination of, strength and experience ‘Adults are better at mental maths than young people. 2 The cow is sacred in many parts of India, The brains a complicated organ. 3 Acaris a necessity if you live ina remote rural area ‘A drink of honey and lemon can relieve the symptoms of a cold. 1 To make a generalization about an uncountable noun or a plural noun, we don't use an article. 2 We can make a generalization about @ whole group using the + 2 singular noun. This is more formal and abstract than using a plural noun (Cows are... This type of generalization is common, With inventions (the bicycle / the electric light bulb, parts of the body (the heart / the stomach, animals (the tiger / the bee), and musical instruments (the violin / the piano). 3 We can also use a / an to make a generalization about a group by focusing on one example, We can't use this structure to talk ‘about all members of a group together. NOT Acowis sacred inmany ports of lade. articles: other uses 1. There's a screwdriver on the shelf behind the door. He left university after getting into trouble, and now unfortunately he's in prison. 2. Humans first reached the moon in the 1960s. ‘The press are rarely unbiased these days. She was refused a visa because she had been @ communist in her youth. 4A There's a Brad Pitt to see you. B Not the Brad Pitt? 11 A singular noun must normally be preceded by an article fr another determiner. NOT There's screwdriver on shelf. Exceptions are meals when there is no adjective (have dinner BUT ‘have a nice dinner with friends), transport (go by car / on foot), and certain places after a verb used in a non-specific sense. (start school/ university / college, goto court / hospital prison bed). 2 We normally use the with decades and centuries (the 19th century, the 1980s), global features (the sun / earth/ sky / countryside / sea / beach / mountains), national or global institutions (the press / media / government / army), and unique phenomena (the weather / climate / internet / economy). * We also use articles with named mountain ranges, rivers, 035 canals, deserts, and island groups, but not wth streets, parks, ‘and individual mountains or lakes, 3 We use 2/ an with religious or political affiliations. 4 We use a /an + name to mean ‘someone called...: We use the i “+ name to clarify whether it is someone special or famous. quantifiers 1 You'l find some bananas and some bread in the fridge, but there isn’t any butter. They've just opened a new bakery near me which makes fantastic bread, 2 There's no telephone in my room, and | haven't got a mobi There are no good films on at the moment, and there aren’t any good series on TV either. 3 You can cash the cheque in any branch of the bank. Who's she meeting? Oh, some guy the met on holiday. 4 ve got lots of things to tell you. We haven't got much on this week There has been much /a great deal of debate about this topic. 5 mere for three more days / another three days. The cinema shows many more films every other Saturday. The boss was watching my every move. 1 We use some and any before plural and uncountable nouns when we are talking about a limited number or quantity. When there is no limit, we often use no artic 2 We use no, or not + a/ an, before a singular noun and no, or rot any, before an uncountable or plural noun. We commonly Use no to say that something doesn't exit or is not present, especially after there is/are or have. 3 any before a singular noun means ‘it doesn’t matter which one’ some before a singular noun often indicates a lack of interest oF low opinion. 4 Ininformal English, we tend to use a lot of / ots of instead ‘of much or many in positive statements. In more formal or academic positive statements, and in questions or negative statements, we often use much and many. We can also use @ (large / small / growing, etc.) number of + plural noun and a great deal of a large / small, etc) amount of + uncountable '5 We can sometimes use double determiners before a noun, ‘Common combinations are: another + number / few, number + ‘more; every + lttle/ few / other; the + many / few/ litle; many / several / lots + other / more; possessive adjective + every / many. Ops3B GRAMMAR BANK word order We can focus attention on one part of a sentence by changing the normal position of the words we want to emphasize, often to the beginning of the sentence. This frequently changes ‘the grammar of the sentence, 1. Never have | felt so disappointed with a production. 2 Under no circumstances should you leave the door unlocked, 3. Only in the lat few years have such high temperatures been recorded. Only with sustained practice will you master a musical instrument. 4 So loud were the trumpets that they drowned out the rest of the orchestra Such is the demand that we have issued new tickets '5- No sooner had I sat down to eat than there was a knock at the door & Not only did she win the race, but she also set a new record, 7 Little did we know that this would be our last evening together. 8 Only when / Not until the baby had gone to sleep could she work on her novel + When we start a sentence with certain words or phrases for ‘emphasis, we need to invert the verb and the subject, adding an _aunliary vero where necessary (2. as when making a question. This use is formal and literary, and mainly occurs in written language. Common sentence openers that require inversion are 1 negative frequency expressions: never /rarely/ seldom / hardly 2 other negative expressions, e.g. under no circumstances, by no means, inno way, at no time, nowhere. 3 Only followed by adverbs or adverbial / prepositional phrases, e.g. Only in Africa... Only after the exam..., Only by ‘studying... Only recently. 4 50+ adjective / adverb or Such + be in different tenses) + ‘noun...that+ clause. 5. No sooner..than.., and Hardly..when actions happening close together. but also... to emphasize that there are two important points 7 Little... think know / realize, et. Little does he realize =he certainly does not realize 8 in sentences beginning Not until or Only if/ when / after + clause, the inversion isin the second claus to describe two cleft sentences 1. What / All wanted was a quiet place to stay fora while What Susan suggested was that we look fora hotel 2. What happened was that all the hotels were closed for the 3. Itwas then that we came across an advertisement in a shop indow. twas Susan who spotted it irs. 11 We can make some sentences more emphatic by beginning with What / All+ clause + be and then the part of the sentence we want to emphasize 2 To emphasize an event or sequence of events, we can begin with What happens is (that... or What happened was (tha) 3 We can also use It is/ was + the emphasized part of the sentence + a relative clause, fronting 1. Happy though I am to see you, | wish you'd let me know you. were coming, ‘Much as I like musi, | object to my neighbour playing the drums after midnight. 2 Sitting outside the café was her old friend Jemima ‘Attached to this emails an application form, 3. We opened the cage and out flew the parrot / out it flew. [At the top ofthe hill stood a big caste. Init lived an evil slant. SE See ee ee eee eee ey ee ee ae 1 We can front adjectives or adverbs followed by though or as + eS cee eee eames a er ae ea ace ae ies Eas ter meee pwcepaeeree scape torcer [fear alee ac earrart mamta prea raaecart ee eee en eee Ee ee eee eet eee eles sare Se meen eee ergs Orr 1212) AA GRAMMAR BANK cause and effect introducing a cause or reason ‘We can describe a cause or reason using a prepositional phrase {followed by @ noun phrase, or a conjunction followed by clause. prepositional phrases 1. Because of the weather, we have unfortunately had to cancel the barbecue. There has been arise in imports on account ofthe lifting of trade restrictions 2 Given / In the light of /In view of the short time available, the project will have to be scaled back. 3 Thanks to your generous donation, we have been able to continue our charitable work. 4 He applied for early retirement on the grounds of ill health, ‘+ A prepositional phrase followed by a noun phrase can come tither atthe start or at the end of a sentence. 1 because of s common in everyday language; on account of, a= 2 result of, due to, and owing to are more formal. 2 given, in the light of, and in view of mean ‘taking (something) into consideration’ rather than the one direct cause, but they are often used interchangeably 3 thanks to's used with a positive cause, e.g. thanks to your hard ‘work / helpful advice, «+ It can also be used with a negative cause when you want to ‘express sarcasm, e.g. Thanks to your snoring, | haven't slepta wink 4 on the grounds of describes a justification given for a particular ‘action. conjunctions 1 She went to see the doctor because she was feeling run down, ‘As | hadn't heard from him, | decided to give him a call 2 Seeing that the exhibition closes on Sunday, why don't we {90 today? ‘She refused to pay the parking fine on the grounds that the ticket machine was broken, ‘+ We often introduce a cause or reason using the conjunctions 45, since, because, givon that, seeing that, and on the grounds that followed by a clause. It can come before or after the clause describing the effect. 1 Clauses with because often come in the second part of a sentence, and clauses with as or since often come at the beginning: since i more formal than as or because. 2 seeing that or given (the fact) that / in view of the fact that ‘mean taking (something) into consideration. on the grounds that describes a justification. introducing an effect or result We can describe an effector result using an adverb, adverbial phrase, of a conjunction followed by a clause, Ths is sometimes ed fo the previous reason clause with and, or with a semicolon, and sometimes written as a separate sentence. 1. The bus didn't come, so had to calla taxi You didn't answer the phone; that's why I thought you were out. 2 Trade restrictions have been lifted. Asa result, there have. been more imports Winters are very harsh and for this reason most houses are tiple-glazed. The company has bean losing money; we have therefore been forced to make redundancies. The prosecution could not provide sufficient evidence. Accordingly, the case was dismissed, 3 The results were inconclusive; hence, it was necessary to repeat the experiment. I read three different explanations, hence my confusion. 1 Ininformal language, the most common way to describe an c’ffect is to use the conjunction £0 (or and £0, or £0 that) or ‘that's why / which is why. 2 asa result, consequently, for this / that reason, accordingly, ‘thus, and therefore are more common in written and formal or academic language. * thus and therefore can come atthe start of a sentence or clause, but are often used in mid-sentence position. 1ccordingly is mostly used in academic or legal texts to describe ’ consequence that is appropriate for a particular situation. 3 hence as an adverb + clause is very formal and is mostly used in ‘academic and specialized fields. + hence + noun is a common way to describe an effect. It always comes at the end of a sentence, after 8 comma, sentence patterns to express cause and effect. ‘One reason why people get into debt is because they overuse credit cards /is because of bad spending habits ‘The main cause of much social unrest is rising poverty. Early maths education can play an important role in helping people manage their money. The improvement in health was largely due to better public + These sentence frames lnk cause and effect: + One/ The eason why + CLAUSE is because that + CLAUSE Of is because of + NOUN PHRASE + The (main principal oot cause of + NOUN PHRASE is + NOUN PHRASE One ofthe main reasons fr. ‘Animportant key factor in NOUN PHRASE + can play plays an important / vita role in “NOUN PHRASE + NOUN PHRASE + is (largely / partly / entirely) due to / down to+ NOUN PHRASE Ops4B GRAMMAR BANK aspect: perfect and continuous tenses ‘Aspect means the form ofa verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed, ori still continuing. There are three aspects in English: simple, Continuous (or progressive), and perfect. When we choose the aspect of a verb its because we want to emphasize different ‘things, such as the duration of an activity or state, or the sequence of events. cor uous aspect 1. What are you reading at the moment? When | arrived, she was still cooking su | won't phone you tomorrow because I all day. 2 I'mliving with fiends for the time being, untill can find a flat ‘of my own. 3. I'm practising the piano a lot at the moment. I've been playing alot of tennis recently. 4} More.endimore people are tao early retirement nowadays ‘These days it's getting increasingly difficult to buy a house, 5. I'm loving this weather! You're being very obstinate today. What's got into you? 6 She's always going on about her problems. It drives me mad! be travelling almost ‘+ We can use the continuous aspect: 1 to describe an action in progress at or around a point in time. 2 to describe a temporary state with limited duration. Compare: Hive in a flat. (= permanently) 3 to describe a repeated activity. Compare: | practise the piano 2 Tot. (= usually) 've played tennis recently (= maybe only once) ‘+ We don't use the past continuous to describe repeated past activities; we use the past simple tense, used to + infinitive, or ‘would + infinitive, e.g. When I was ten, J used to ride a horse. NOT Has viding a horse: 4 to describe what we see as new trends and developments. f we consider them to be established facts, we tend to use the present simple, e.g. A lot of people take early retirement nowadays. 5 with some stative verbs (e.g. love, be, want, sound) for dramatic effect, especially in informal speech. However, some verbs are never used in the continuous, e.g. know, believe, hhave (= possess), (dislagree, contain, include. 6 with always / forever / constantly to indicate an emotional reaction (often annoyance). perfect aspect 1 I've passed my driving tes. had prepared a lot of questions to ask atthe interview. 2 When we arrived, the film had already started, By the end of the summer, the tourists will ll have left. 3A Have you finished cleaning the kitchen yet? B No, but I've emptied the dishwasher and I've put away the shopping. 4 They had known each other for over 40 years. + We use the perfect aspect: 1 to describe an event or action where the time is unknown, oF Unimportant, or less important than the result. ve passed my driving test. (= | can drive now, it doesn't matter when | took ‘the test). Compare: | passed my driving test when | was 17. (=| ‘am telling you about my teenage years) 2 to place one event or action before another, or before a point in time, especially when the order of events is unclear. ‘Compare: When we arrived, the film started. (= the film started after we arrived) 3 to stress that an action is complet 4 to describe an action or state continuing up to another point in time, continuous and perfect aspects together 1. A What have you been doing today? B I've been catching up with some emails and doing the crossword, 2 it’s been raining, 20 the roads are abit slippery. \When the bus finaly arived, we'd been waiting for over an hour. 3 How long have you been trying to fix the computer? He'd been practising kung fu ever since he saw bis first Bruce Lee fim. By the end of December ll have been living he whole year fora ‘+ We can use continuous and perfect aspects together: 1 to focus on process or activity, not resut. Compare: 've done. the crossword. (= the crossword is finished), 've been doing the crossword. (= the crossword may or may not be finished, 'm telling you about how I've been spending my time) 2 to stress the duration of an action, especially one that has or had only just stopped. 3 to describe an action continuing up to another point in time, + Note that we do not usually use a stative verb in the continuous form in this construction, NOT i've been knowing her for ten years. + With certain verbs, such as study, ive, work, we can use a simple ‘or continuous form (He had lived / had been living there since ‘January). Although there i little difference in meaning, the Continuous gives a slight extra suggestion of impermanence. Orns or)cra SA GRAMMAR BANK prepositions and sentence patterns prepositions in relative clauses and questions 1. Who should I speak to? What are you saving up for? The girl I sat next to at school was from Australia, ‘The house he lives in was built in the 1930s. 2 To whom should I speak? ‘The house in which he lives was built in the 1930s, 1 Ininformal speech and writing, we normally put prepositions: ‘+ at the end of questions (using who rather than whom) ‘+ at the end of defining relative clauses (commonly, without the relative pronoun). 2 Informal style, we put prepositions before whom or which. prepositions after adjectives and verbs 1 I'm not used to getting up so early. When you reach 65, you are eligible for a bus pass, He is incapable of looking after himself. ‘Are you upset about your exam results? 2. look forward to hearing from you. hope you succeed in persuading her to come. 3 Sorry, I mistook you for someone else. ‘The company provided the staff with the equipment they needed. The school prides itself on its academic record, 1 Adjective + preposition: (unaccustomed addicted allergic committed +10 devoted ented equivalent (unfaithful identical inferior linked preferable (unrelated resigned (insensitive superior used eligible famous (unfit notorious prepared + for (unqualified ready (unsuitable afraid appreciative ashamed (unlaware (incapable + of conscious critical devoid terified ted (intolerant ‘angry annoyed anxious apprehensive excited ervous upset about ‘+ Many of these are past participles used adjectivally, e.g. devoted, resigned, annoyed. 2 Verb + preposition: consent contribute look forward object +10 confide engage invest result specialize succeed + in agree count decide depend elaborate insist rely + on abetain refrain + from consist tof 3 Verb + noun / pronoun + preposition: blame excuse forgive mistake + for Sas wae ‘accuse remind Saeed Erof] charge provide + with compliment congratulate rm pride (oneself) prepositional phrases 1. Lam writing in response to /in connection with your advertisement for a teacher. 2 Noone apart from / other than Laura took a gap year after leaving school 3 With regard to / As for transport, we willneed ta hire a car, 4 They bought a plot of land with a view to / with the aim of building a house. ‘She chose her words carefully, for fear of offending him. 5 On top of /In addition to the expense, we don't have room for anew sofa, + The following preposi noun phrase: 1 connection in connection with, in response to, with reference 10, with regard to 2 exception apart from, except for), other than, with the ‘exception of itroducing a topic as for, as regards, with reference to, with regard to, with respect to 4 purpose in the hope of, with the sim of, with the intention of, With a view to, for fear of 5 addition along with, as wel a, in addition to, on top of nal phrases are followed by @ noun or 3 sentence patterns with nouns 1 [have no intention of getting a car. We were on the point of leaving when the doorbell rang. He takes no interest whatsoever in his children, 2 thad no reason to mistrust him, ''m afraid | have no alternative but to refuse your application, You are under no obligation to buy the product, should it prove unsatisfactory They are within their rights to ask you to leave. 1 Verb + noun + preposition + noun (phrase): have be take no cbjectionto in danger of pride / pleasure / ro/ every intention at isk of Satisfaction in of ‘onthe verge /brink/——_2n/ no interestin nohesitationin point of. advantage of omemory ef inthe process /middle of account of no hope of inneed of ‘seve with 2 Verb + noun + to + infinitive: the capecity use / point + the /n right aT i ene What's the use / the /ne opportunity / chance in oF tying? eamermielseeEM EN | Trevercue, ‘under no obligation Pe ONG) be under pressure within one's rights Orr5B GRAMMAR BANK advanced structures for comparing and contrasting comparatives and superlatives 1 The Japanese are far more safety-conscious than most other ationaites. Can you play the first part again, a bit more slowly? Congratulations, your score was significantly higher in the second test. ‘Are you feeling any better today? 2 The population of the US is considerably larger than that of. Canada, Your presentation was way more interesting than Tom's 3. Footballs by far the most popular sport in my country, 4 The loss time we have, the more likely we are to make mistakes. ‘The quicker we walk, the sooner we'll get there. ‘To modify the meaning of comparative adjectives or adverbs, wo.can use words Ik far, much, or 9 ito, + The expressions a bit and alot/ way more etc) are more informal, nd sight, somewhat, marginally, considerably, vast, "Sgnicentl are more formal or academic + For emphasis, we can use any before the adjective or adverb in questions and negatives, or no in positive statements, eg. He thas feling no better today. 2 Informal language, to avoid repetition after than, we can use that/ those of + noun, or the anes e.g, These shoes ae nicer than the ones law earlier. n informal language, we tend to use the possessive pronoun thers, yours, my father’, etc) 3 To1emphasize a superlative adjective or adverb, we can use by far farand away, or easy 4 We canuse the more/ less + verb, or the + comparative adjective / adverb, to describe how when something chang it causes something els to change atthe sometime + With better this is sometimes shortened, The bigger the better The sooner, she beter equatives 1. You speak italian just as fluently as she does. Rome is every bit as beautiful as Paris. 2 Itwas nothing like as interesting as Id expected. ‘The remake was nowhere near as good as the original film. 3 Acup of coffee here costs twice as much asit does in my ‘country. ‘A cheetah can run about 2.7 times as fast as the fastest human being ‘Ahouse in London costs three or four times the price of fone in the north. ‘The land ares of India is roughly half that of Australia, 1 To emphasize similarity, we can use just or every bit before as + adjective / adverb + a8. 2 Ina negative sentence, we can use nowhere near, or nothing like instead of not for emphasis before as + adjective / adverb 3 To make exact numerical comparisons, we use words ike half [twice / three times + as + adjective / adverb + as + noun phrase. Alternatively, we can use a noun or noun phrase followed by of, e.g. twice the speed of, ten times the value of, 9 quarter of the price of other ways of comparing and contrasting 1. Whereas in England people drive on the left, in the US they drive on the right. 2 The cost of food and clothing has come down in recent years. Similarly, fuel prices have fallen considerably. By contrast, ‘accommodation prices have skyrocketed. 3. Compared with /In comparison to her sister, she is very talkative Vt A 4 He's very like his father Unlike you, | need to work for a living ‘As a musician, | found the concert disappointing {As in French, nouns can be masculine or feminine in Spanish. We often drink tea with a meal, as like they do in China, 5 Sweden and Finland are similar in terms of climate. They differ in that Sweden has a constitutional monarchy, whereas inland isa repul 11 We can use the conjunctions whereas or while (or whilst, more: formally) to join two contrasting clauses. 2 The adverbs similarly or likewise introduce a fact that is similar to the one in the previous sentence. To introduce a contrasting fact, we use by contrast, by /in comparison, however, or on the ‘other hand, 3 To compare two nouns, we can use compared with / to, or in ‘comparison with / to + noun, 4 Tike and as are often confused. lke / unlike + noun describes whether something is the same or different. as + noun means ‘inthe role of. + We use as, not lke, before a preposition + We can use both as and like before a verb ike is more informal 5 Another way to state a comparison isto say that two things differ or ae similar, followed by in terms of + noun, or in that + clause. Opi126 6A GRAMMAR BANK position of adverbs ‘There are three sentence positions for adverbs: intial position, 1mid-position, and end position. Not all adverbs can goin all positions, Most adverbs have a normal postion, but we can Sometimes vary this for emphasis. Adverbial phrases (groups ‘of words that function as an adverb, e.g. from time to time, in general, at the moment) normally come in initial or end position. initial-position adverbs 1. Fortunately, the fre services managed to put out the forest fire. 2. However, vast areas of woodland were completely destroyed, 3. Maybe such events will become more commonplace a5 global temperatures rise. ‘Surely itis time we took action to protect our ancient woodlands? ‘+ These adverbs are normally in initial position: 11 comment adverbs: Fortunately, Clearly, Surprisingly, Bascal, etc. 2 connection adverbs: Similarly, However, Consequently, etc. 3 adverbs expressing degrees of cartainty: Perhaps, Maybe, Surely ete + After comment and connection adverbs, we normally use ‘comma in written English, We can also put these adverbs '8 word or phrase we want to emphasize. (Vast areas of ‘woodland, however, were completely destroyed. = emphasizing vast areas of woodland) or in end position for the same reason (Vast areas of woodland were completely destroyed, however. = ‘emphasizing were completely destroyed). mid-position adverbs 1 Inormally take a packed lunch to school ‘Occasionally ll go to the canteen. Never had I seen such a spectacular sight. 2 The trains never arrive on time and they are generally too crowded. He would normally have cycled to work, but his bike had been stolen. He doesn’t usually forget my birthday, but he hasn't always ‘got me a present. 3 I've just been to Cuba and I'm also planning another trip. 4 Ill probably go to the party, but I definitely won't stay long. 1 Adverbs of frequency (e.g in mid-position + Sometimes we put the adverb at the beginning of the sentence instead for emphasis. However, we never start a sentence with lays. NOT Always she-orives late + If we start a sentence with never, hardly ever, seldom, or rarely, we invert the verb. 2 When the verb has only one part (e.g. arrive, came), the adverb ‘comes between the subject and the verb. When there is an auxiliary verb (e.g. have, can) or be used as a main verb, the adverb goes after if there i ‘more than one. + Innegative sentences, the adverb usually comes after the negative auxiliary. 3 These other common adverbs also normally come in mid- position: also, already, just, nearly, almost, currently. ways, often, rarely) normally come 4 Many adverbs expressing degrees of certainty (e.g. probably, possibly, definitely) come in mid-position. In negative sentences, these adverbs normally come before the contracted negative auxiliary verb. NOT won't definitely stay long. end-position adverbs ‘A Have you finished making supper yet? Or shal help, too? B ve nearly finished — it wll be another half hour, though. * yet, t00, and though normally come at the end of a sentence. variable-position adverbs 1 Lwent the again Everywhere | looked I saw piles of rubbish 2 Only Jean speaks French. Jean only speaks French. "ove classical music, Mozart in particular. The concert was biliant; | especially iked the guitar solo. 3 don’t really understand physics, and I really don’t understand chemistry. 4 aw Ellie yesterday, actually —| her 5 He listened attentively. He placed the bag carefully on the table yesterday. Tomorrow I'm planning to go ther but | didn’t actually speak to 1 Time adverbs (e.g. yesterday, then, soon) and place adverbs (c.g outside, upstars, everywhere) normally come in end position, but can alzo come in intial postion for emphasis. 2 Focusing adverbs (.9, ony, mainly, simply, even) normally come before the word they refer to; in particular, particularly, and especially can come before o aftr it. We dont start a h especialy or particularly. NOT Especial liked the guitor solo. 3 Innegative sentences, really + isn't/ doesn't, ete. i stronger in meaning than isn't docsn®+ really 4 actualy in initial or end position signals something interesting, Surprising, o cffcut in mid-positon it stresses whether or not something happened in reality. 5 Adverbs of manner (e.g. confidently, carefull) normally come attr the verb or verb phrase. They can also somet ‘ther positions without changing the meaning, expecially atthe Beginning ofa phrase followed by e comma for emphasis, e.9, Careful he placed the bag on the table. adverb combinations 1 She worked hard in the laboratory yesterday. 2 We moved to a flat in Paris. 3 We sat down on a bench in the park 4 They arrived at five o'clock in the morning, * Advert combinations normally goin the following order: 1 manner place - time 2 place: direction — location 3 place: smaller —larger 4 time: more specific less specific ps76B GRAMMAR BANK singular and plural agreement nouns followed by a singular verb 1. Measles is becoming more widespread in many counties I'm afraid the news is not good 2 The United States isthe world's third most populous ‘county. 3. Fifty kilometres is too far to walk in one day. 4 Every student has his or her own locker. + These categories normaly take a singular ver 11 Certain uncountable nouns ending in-s. These include sports (e.g, athletics, gymnastics, academic subjects (e.9. economics, linguistics), illnesses (e.g. measles, diabetes), and news. 2 Countries ending in -s(e.9 the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates) 3 Plural expressions of quantity (e.9. fity dollars, ten kilos, three anda half hours). 4 everyone / everybody and each / every + noun (e.g. every term 7 each one). nouns followed by a plural verb 1. Fifty per cent of secondary school students go on to university, A significant number of people have difficulty telling right from left. The vast majority of women go out to work. 2. The criteria for selection are set out in the job application. ‘The formulae are quite complex. ‘+ These categories normaly take a plural verb: 1 some quantity expressions with a singular noun that refer to @ plural ides, 0.9: + a quarter/ a third, otc. 15/ 25% (per cont) + of + noun ‘+ a small / large / considerable / growing, etc) number + of + + a minority/ the vast/ overwhelming) majority, a large percentage / proportion + of + noun + one in ten / four out of every five, ete. + noun 2 Greek and Latin plural forms, ie, ending it ‘+ -a(plural of -on/ -um) eg, eriteria/ phenomena, curicula *+ 05 (plural of -is/ in), e.g, analyses / crises / diagnoses / hypotheses, appendices + -i(plural of us), e.g cacti/ fungi/ stimuli + -2€ plural of 2), 9. algae / antennae / formulae nouns followed by a singular or plural verb 1. My family are coming to stay next weekend, [My family isthe most important thing in the world to me. England is / are playing in the cup final! 2 The worst part of the course is the exams. Verb tenses are a difficult feature of English What | like most about him is/are his good manners. 3 Neither Tom nor Luke was / were able to attend the meeting. None of the students speak / speaks Japanese. 4 Nowadays, there are many more means of communication than inthe past. The most common means of transport in the city is the Underground, 5 That pair of sunglasses has been reduced in the sal. 6 Mass media perform / performs an important function in society, The data is/are inconclusive. 1 With many collective nouns (eg. army, audience, las, committee, family, government. jury, orchestra, press, police, public tam, the younger generation), we can use ether Singular or poral verb, We often use 9 pra verb f we are sewing the group a2 collection of invidual ete goverment are debating the stun) srl sangule verb ivr are seeing it sa singlo unite. the government has passed alu). + With police, we almost always use a plural verb, 9. The police have made several rests 2 In English, avert nornally agrees with the subject ofthe Sentence, not wit a following objector complement, 69. The best thing about the jb s the holidays NOT are the holidays. After structures wth what, we can use 8 singular lial verb. 3. We can ute a singular or pra vrb after neithe..nor.. or ‘theron. and after other nether/ ay none + of plural ttoun / pronoun. A singular verb sourda more formal 4 With some nouns ending ins (¢g. means, species) and nouns with the same singular and pra form (e.g. deer, fh salmon, Sheep, offspring), we se singular verb when they refer to ‘one unit, and a plural verb when they refer to more than one. 5 Some plural words (e.g. olassos, pants, pyjamas scissors, short tights, trousers) ake singular verb with pair and @ Plural verb without par (e-, Those sunglasses have been feduced.) 6 media and data are technically plural words, but they can take tither a singular or purl verb Ops27 ra7A GRAMMAR BANK complex passive forms passive forms of gerunds, infinitives, and modal verbs 1 The prisoner is looking forward to being let out on parole. I resent having been forced to do sports at schocl 2 He's hoping to be released in the autumn, We would have liked to have been informed of the changes 10 04r flight 3 Dogs must be kept on a leash at all times. ‘The building work should have been finished by now. 1 Tho present form of the pasive gorundis beng + past participle, and the past form is having been + past participle. 2 The present form ofthe passive infinitive is to be + past participle, and the past form is ta have been + past participle. 3 The passive structure after modal verbs is be + past participle, ‘and the past form is have been + past participle. passive forms with prepositions ‘The children were taken good care of while their parents were: away. {can't stand being lied to. This parcel needs to be signed for. ‘The patient should have been checked up on every 30 minutes. + Inpassive structures with prepositions, including multi-word verbs, we put the prepositions) after the verb. passive forms with two objects ‘The letter was handed to me (by the postman) | was handed the letter (by the postman) ‘+ When a verb has both a direct object and an indirect object, there are two possible passive forms: = the direct object (the letter) becomes the subject of the sentence, and the verb is followed by the indirect object (me) and sometimes by + the agent (by the postman. ~ the indirect object () becomes the subject, and the direct ‘object (the letter) comes after the verb and sometimes before by+ the agent (by the postman). This is the more common of the two structures ‘+ Common verbs used in this way are: ask, bring, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pay, send, show, teach, and tel. get with passive forms 1 The playground got (was) vandalized lastnight. | got (was) stopped by the police for using my phone while was driving Ben is always getting (being) told off by his teacher. The recycling bins get (are) emptied every Tuesday. 2 Wewere playing football and a window got broken I'm afraid the computer screen has got a bit scratched 3. How often do you get have) your hair cut? | got (had) the car checked over by a mechanic before | bought it. 1 We can use get instead of be in passive forms, in informal style ‘and spoken language. We use it most commonly for things ‘which are unplanned or unexpected, or for things which are habitual or part of a routine. + We don't use get for planned actions, e.g. library and another laboratory will be built over the next two years. NOT Alibrary and another loboratory will got built. 2 get can also suggest that someone is trying to avoid being Blamed for something. 3 We can also use get instead of have in have + object + past participle to describe something that we ask another person to do for us, usualy for payment. We normally use have, rather than get, when we use this structure, to talk about something bad happening to a person, ‘especially when it was not their fault, e. She had her wallet stolen while she was on holiday. Any students bringing mobile pphones to schoo! will have them confiscated. passives in reporting structures 1 Itis hoped that the judge will make an announcement shortly. It is known that humans language. thas been reported that the first human cloning has been carried out. 2 The thief is thought to be hiding in London. The result is expected to be announced at the end of the day. The Incas are believed to have practised human sacrifice, The leader of the protest is rumoured to have been arrested. People are supposed to be given atleast a month’s notice for jury service. 3. Iwas asked to wait here until the doctor could see me. fe've been told to expect more information about the flight in 30 minutes. All guests are requested to leave their valuables in the safe ly capable of learning a + To express a fact impersonally, we can use the passive form of verbs lke say think, etc. to introduce them, 11 We can use It + passive verb + that + clause. 2 We can use subject + passive verb + to + an infinitive form. * Verbs commonly used with pattern 1 or pattern 2 above are: accept, agree, allege, announce, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, expect, fea, fee, find, know, prove, report, rumour, say, show, state, think, and understand. + hope, suggest, and recommend are only normally used with it + suppose is only used with to + infinitive. NOT itis supposed that. 3 We often use a passive verb + to + infinitive when we are reporting orders, requests, and permission. Verbs commonly used inthis way are: advise, allow, ask, persuade, remind, request, tell, urge, and warn. D consider, regard, think of, deem With these verbs, we can also use the following passive reporting structures: He is considered (to be) trustworthy. He is regarded as being) the inventor of the computer. ‘She was thought of a (being) the best candidate. She was deemed (to be) a genius by her peers. Opie7B GRAMMAR BANK special uses of tenses present tenses 1 In Act 2, Scene 2, Romeo hides beneath Juliet’s balcony and ‘overhears her talking about him, ‘The child is amazed as she has never seen an alien before. 2 I's October 1962, and the world is on the brink of nuclear Vincent van Gogh is born on 30th March in the small village of Groot-Zundert, Holland. While he is stil living in Zundert, Vincent attempts his first drawings 3. Sol'm sitting on a train and suddenly this man comes up to me and asks forthe time, 4 The manager has requested that she repre: conference, Itis important that everyone be aware of the new legislation. Itis our recommendation thatthe vietim not be identified nt him at the 11 We often use the present simple to describe the events in the narrative of a novel film, or play. 2 We can use the ‘historic present fa range of present tenses) to describe past events. Its so-called because itis typical of historians when they relate a series of events, and is used to create an effect of immediacy. 3 We can also use present tenses in personal anecdotes or jokes, for dramatic effect. 4 The present subjunctive is avery formal and slighty old- fashioned structure. The form is the same as the infinitive without to, 30 there is nos in the third person. The negative is not + infinitive, e.g. He spoke to the media on condition that he not be identified. ‘+ The present subjunctive can be used in a that clause expressing 2 desire, instruction, or request. * The following verbs and expressions can be used with the present subjunctive: advise, ask, command, demand, dese, Insist, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, urge; it is best/ crucial / desirable / essential / imperative important / vital / recommended | a good (or bad) idea, on condition that past tenses 1 Those shoes are getting very worn down ~it's time you got . igh time the government took action on the state of prisons 2 Vd rather we went by tran My parents would rather | went to university I'd rather you didn’t park here, if you don't mind, ‘Can | borrow your car tonight? B Sorry, 'd rather you didn’t. 3 He spends money as if he had a never-ending supply. He spoke to me as if| were a servant. 4. Al was wondering if you had any mugs? B Yes, cortainly - what sort of mugs did you have in mind? Iwas rather hoping they might offer us alift. Never mind. 1 The past simple is used after it’s (high / about) time (that) with 4 future meaning. It often suggests that something needs to be done urgently, and should already have been done. Compare: It's time to go. = it's the right time to go) Its time we went. (= we should have gone before now) 2 We can use would rather + noun / pronoun + past simple witha fature meaning to express a desire or polite request {or someone ee to do something. When the pronoun inthe second cause is we, the meaning ssimilart Father + infinitive, e.g. I'd rather go by train. {rather you did't polite way to refuse permission, This use ofthe past tense fr a hypothetical future (also asin 1 after it's tie, and in second conditional alo known athe past subjunctive. 3 We use asf and as though often withthe verbs feel and Jook) te describe how a situation appears or feels, orto make 2 comparison. To emphasize theta Camparzon isnt tre, we often use the past tense, e.g. 38 fhe hada never-ending ‘Supply he does nt infact have a never-ending supply). a trove servort (but Hm nota servant) 4 We can ute the past simple or past continous with a present rearing in some expressions or request, tobe less cect for politeness or respect. Th past continuous often suggests that ings are stil negotiable + Verbs commonly used inthis way ae: | wondered was ree er ere ee ected ee gerund, and questions suchas id you want.2, What did you ave in mind? reported speech 1. He says he is French, but he has lost his ID. He said he was French, but he had lost his ID. 2 John was telling me they're going to open anew supermarket 3. hear there's been a problem with the computer system, 1 When a reporting verb isin a present tense (e.g. she says, he's asking, they've told us) Because something is being reported shortly after it has been said, we do not change the tense of the verbs we are reporting. Ifthe reporting verb i in the past tense, we normally use past tenses to report the words, 2 Certain reporting expressions in the past continuous tense are common in conversation, e.g. She was saying / telling me (that) + reported clause. This i less direct and factual than She said / told me (that, and it implies that something came up in conversation amongst other things. 3 We can use certain fixed expressions in the present tense, ¢.g I gather / hear/ see / understand (that) + claus8A GRAMMAR BANK expressing conditionality K 2 Totalk about a possible future eal conditional sentences 1 you haven't been to New York, you haven't lived. If we were late for class, our teacher used to get really angry. 2 itrains, we may have to hold the ceremony indoors. If you've finished the essay, let’s go out fora walk You'd better lie down if you're not feeling wel. 3. Hyou happen to have / should have a moment, could you post these letters? 4 Should you experience any problems, please contact the manufacturer. In conditional sentences where one thing is always the consequence of another, we use any present or past form of, the verb in both clauses, usually either two present forms or two past forms. ation and its result, we can Use any present tense inthe clause, and any future form, modal verb or Imporatvein the other clase. 3 To make a future possibilty more tentative, we can use happen 10+ infinitive, oF should + ini 4 The inverted form should + subject + infinitive, without if is often used in fixed expressions to give advice about what to do in particular situation. unreal conditional sentences 1 1H knew the answer,’ tell you. 2 If they were to offer you the job, would you take it? Were she to apologize, | would forgive he 3. Hyou'd been concentrating, you might have learned more, 4 Had | realized you weren't coming, | could have gone home. 5 fd got more sleep last night, | wouldn't be feeling so tired If didn’t like spicy food, | wouldn't have gone to an Indian restaurant, would 7? 6 Ifit weren't for / But for yourhelp, 'd be completely lost. To ak about a hypothetical or unreal situation in the present ‘or future, we use the past (simple or continuous) or couldin the ifeclause, and would, could, or might + infinitive in the other clause. 2 With dynamic (= action) verbs with a future meaning, we can use were to + infinitive instead ofthe past simple to express 3 ‘more remote possibilty. In more formal styl, we can invert this form (were + subject (+ not) + f+ infinitive) na clause without ® To talk about a hypothetical station in the past, we use the past perfect (simple or continuous inthe if-clause and would, ould, or might + have + past participle inthe other clause. Inmore formal style, we can use the inverted form ofthe past porfect, without i | we want to refer tothe past and present in one sentence, we can mix tenses from two different types of conditional. 3 past event or situation hat a consequence inthe present, we Le the past perfect in tho ifclause and would, could, or might ‘Pinfnitive in the other clause. Ifa present event or situation had a consequence in the past, we ure the past (simple or continuous) in the i-lause and would, could or might + have + past participle inthe other clause. 6 We can use ifit wasn't / weren't for, iit hadn't been for, or ‘but for + noun to say who or what prevented something from happening. alternatives to ifin conditional sentences 1. We may as wel finish here, unless there are any more questions. 2 Weld better hurry up, otherwise we might miss the bus. 3 Inthe event of a breakdown, you can contact the roadside 4 Assuming everything goes according to plan, we should arrive by 8 pa. '5 You can borrow my bicycle, as long a you bring it back this evening. 6 Do that again, and Ileal the police. 1 unless similar to if.not’ or “except if. 2 otherwise or of after an order or suggestion, indicates what the result willbe if someone does not follow that order oF sugge 3 Inthe (unlikely) event of/ In case of + noun, or Inthe event thot + present tense, are formal ways to introduce a possible future event, followed by whet should be done if that happens. 4 (Always) assuming (that) stresses that we cannot be certain whether something will hoppen. 5 as long as, only if, on condition tht, proving (that), or provided that impose specific conditions or set limits on 2 Etvation, {6 andis sometimes used to express the direct result ofa condition: Ask him, and hel ignore you. = if you ask him, hel ignore you! expressions with if 1 Ifyou'll take / If you wouldn't mind taking a seat, the doctor will see you shortly I you could just sign here, please. 2 We're going to go for a walk even ift starts to rain Even if| knew, | wouldn't tll you, 3 only | knew / had known! 4 ‘fin doubt, speak to your manager. Is that clear? If not, please ask now. 1 We can use If you'l. If you'd like to... Ifyou wouldn't mind. or Ifyou could (just). to give a polite order. 2 Even if means ‘no matter whether’ It can also be used to add femphasi to if 3 If only + past simple (or past perfect) introduces a strong wish for the present (or past) to be different. 4 We can use the following shortened phrases with if: * ifnecossary, if possible, ifin doubt + ifs0/ if not to refer back to something previously mentioned Opie8B GRAMMAR BANK adjective order Most adjectives can goin two postions ina sentence 2 with 2 noun atibutive position e.. beautiful flowers, kind paras b “after be and verbs such as become, get, s0@m, appear, look feel, sound, smell and taste preccstive postion) e.g. That ‘Was vory kind of you. The flowors smell beautiful 1 Oliver is asleep — he should be awake soon. I'm not normally afraid of insects, but I'm glad that spider hhas gone. Poor Alan ~it must be terrible knowing that you're about to lose your job. Matt was very poor when he was a student, but now he has @ top job in banking, 2 That's my elder brother - he's two years older than me, 3 Let's go somewhere nice next weekend, The river is ten metres deep in places. I'm afraid there were no good seats left - the only on available were at the back. ‘There was food galore at the party He's an old friend, but he’s not at al old ‘She has beautiful long red hair. ound this gorgeous French solid oak dining table in an antiques shop. We stayed in a picturesque 200-year-old thatched cottag ‘Some adjectives are normally only used in predicative position. These include: some adjectives beginning with a e.g. alone, awake, asleep, afraid, alike, alive, aware), glad, content, ready, ‘sure, sorry, upset, alright, well, and il. We don’t usualy say, for ‘example, an asleep person, an awake baby, a glad woman, an afraid child Sometimes an adjective has a different meaning depending on whether we use it in predicative or attributive position, e.g: + that poor man = either ‘I eel sorry for him’ or he has litle money’ The man is very poor. = He has litle money. He's an old fiend. = I've known him for along time. My bestfriend is very old. = He's not young. He was a perfect stranger. = He was a complete stranger. The meal was perfect. = There was nothing wrong with it. ‘A few adjectives are normally only used in attrbutive position, e.g. mere (a mere child), total (total madness), ttle (a litle gir, sheer (sheer madness), and elder NOT Hes elderthen-me. Most attributive adjectives come before a noun, but they come afte some, any ‘everywhere ‘measurement nouns, lke metres, years et. The following adjectives also usually come after nouns: available, capable, concerned, galore (= very many), left, involved, required, responsible, e.g, The person responsible for the damage will be punished, ‘Sometimes an adjective has a different meaning depending on, whether we use it before or after a noun: the present situation = the situation which exists now the people present = the people who are here / there: 2 responsible student = a person who is sensible / reliable the student responsible = the student who is to blame or has responsibilty for something ‘When we use more than one adjective before a noun to describe here ar principles tat govern the order they 90 subjective comment: nice, interesting, depressing size; large, tiny, enormous age: middle-aged, foursyear-old, 20th-contury shape: round, oblong, pear-shaped colour: dark brown, yellow nationality / origin: German, Chinese, Andalusian material woollen, meta, plastic compound element: dining (table), birthday (present), frozen (Wood) We hardly ever use more than three or four adjectives together. we use the adjectives in predicative position, we use and before the final adjective: She was feeling cold, hungry, and ‘miserable. Before a noun, we only join the adjectives with and if ‘they are the same type, eg. a black and white film, Indian and ‘Mexican food. we use two or more ‘subjective comment’ adjectives together, we put the strongest one at the end, e.g. an unusual, well-made, and totally fascinating documentary film. Ops , and no- words, ike something, anyone, nothing,1 Use your instinct to do the exercises. Then check back with the rules in the relevant Grammar Bank. 4A 1B a Girclethe the correct option. Tick (/) if both are a Complete the sentences using a positive or negative form of will, would, shall, or should and the correct form of the verb in brackets. Sometimes more than one answer is possible. you leave now, youl get (get) tothe station on time ~ isnot far 1 I don’t know what's wrong with my scanner, butt (connect) to my wii. 2 don’t really want to work n finance. | think | {find) it too stressful 3 Ben (leave) his dirty dishes inthe sink = it's realy irritating. 4. Im assuming everyone (40) the homework = Tara, what did you get for question 1? 5 When | was at primary school, anyone arriving late (send) to sce the headmistress. 6 Many thanks for your kind invitation. | (be) there, although unfortunately | (be able to) stay long 7 It'sno.use phoning Mimi now ~she (take) her driving test. 8 find it astonishing thatthe old theatre (demolish. It was such a beautiful building! 9 ts vital that your password to anyone else, 10 assumed the rules when you joined the gym. 11. Labsolutely make me, tt (seem) that your partner is not very well. Perhaps you should take him home. 13. Most migrating birds (return) to the same habitat year after year isclose} (explain) to you (apologize). Please don't b Complete the sentences using a verb from the list and will, would, shall, or should. choose deny (not) getup provide walk Do you think the state should provide free healtheare to its citizens? 1 generally before ten o'clock at weekends nowadays, 2 My teacher suggested (that) | a eer aaan 3 Ofcourse fed yard ot 4: Tank forthe or of abut to be hone, 5! you could ford tbuya cri you rer Ors screwing up. She'd get possible and explain any difference in register. Giving / To give is better than receiving / to receive. 7 1 Would you mind me/ my opening the window a litte? 2. The flower vase / flowers vase isn the kitchen cupboard {cupboard kitchen. 3. Not knowing / To not know the rues isno excuse for bad behaviour 4. Sending money! The sending of money abroad is @ complicated process. 5. Joe apologized for missing / his missing the appointment. 6 regret not studying / not having studied more languages at school 7 im surprised at Harry / Harry's not being s play in the team, 8 Bins are provided for the disposal of used plastic cups / used plastic cup disposal. 9 To have seen / Seeing Mount Fuji would have been magica. Rewrite the highlighted phrases as noun phrases to complete the sentences. Fewer people own cars, so roads are less congested. ‘A.dectease in the number of car owners has led to roads boing less congested. 1 They will introduce @ new system which will peed up the process. scted to The will speed up the process. 2 which means that they are increasingly out of touch, Their ‘means that politicians are increasingly out of touch. 3 Weare building @ new library, which will improve the schools facilites. The will improve the school’s facilities. 4 They are reducing entrance fees to attract a younger audience, The should attract a younger audience. 5. Many small shops are closing, which will ultimately give consumers less choice. The will utimately give consumers less choice. 6 People want e-magazines, which has forced many print magazines to disappear. The has forced many print magazines 10 disappear. 7 They are monitoring the use of social media, with an aim to protect young people. The is aimed at protecting young people. 8 There are not enough nurses, so hospital waiting lists are getting longer. Thi is resulting in hospital waiting ists getting longer Orn2 GRAMMAR BANK Practice exercises 2A Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first, using the correct form of be able to. Hopefully have the opportunity to visit you. Hopefully, Ube able to visit you. 1 Thank you so much for the opportunity to stay in your flat. do appreciate inyour fat. 2 imo sorry couldn't help you. Fl love you 3 wish I could go to the ball. Fonly | to the ball 4 Hfonly we could have stayed alittle longer! I wish we alittle longer. 5 isa pity | didn't have the chance to meet your father before he died. | regret your father before he died. 6 His passport was out of date, so he wasn’t allowed to tenter the country. If his passport hadn't been aut of date, he the country. Cross-out one wrong option in each sentenc There might/ could / ean be a thunderstorm this evening, s0 I'd prefer not to go out. Students may / might / can use the kitchen, as long as it is left clean afterwards. ‘May / Can / Could you speakea little more slowly, please? ‘She's clearly not going to change her mind, so you right / may / could a8 well let her do it. 4 tried my best, but 'm afraid | mightn't /couldi't /was ‘unable to save her. \s that my phone? It can/ could / might be Joe, calling to tell me his exam results. 6 We'd better eat now, because there may not / might not / cannot be any restaurants open when we arrive. 7 When Mum fell of the ladder, she could / was able to / ‘managed to get to her phone to call me. That's @ good point - you could well/ might well / may as well be right. 9 You might have / may have / should have told me that you'd invited Fiona ~ you know I can’t stand her. 10. Where do you faney going on holiday? | think we can / ‘could / might try Turkey for @ change. 11. Gary can‘t/ couldn't / may not have forgotten the ‘meeting because he texted me an hour ago to say he was on his way. Right (7) or wrong (x)? Correct the mistakes. knowhe mears well but he might often be very annoying. Xl he means well, but he ean often be very annoying. 1 Excuse me, might | use your phone? Ive left mine at home. 2 Hero's to the bride and groom! Might you have a long and happy lfe together! 3. might have know you'd forget your wallet: Now I'l have to pay for everything 4 My grandfather had a short temper and he could shout atme fl disturbed him 5. She can only be 12, buther musical ability is outstanding Ors 2B Put the verb in brackets in the correct participle form. ‘She walked home, (think) about what she would do that evening. She walked home, thinking about what she would do that evening, 1 The cold air mixes with the warmer ai formation of clouds. 2 Once (build), the complex will house 20 families. 3 The fire alarm (stop), we were able to go back into the building 4. Any lost property (not / claim) will be sent to a charity shop. 5 The experiment (complete), the scientists started analysing the data. 6 If (eat, the plant can cause nausea, blindness, or even death. 7 (Reject) by his first-choice university, he started looking for alternatives, 8 | tiptoed up the stars, (try) not to wake the baby. 9. Anyone (not / wish) to attend the outing should speak to the tour guide. 10 (Not / show} how to operate the printer, he consulted IT support 11 (See) a mouse run from under her bed, she started screaming uncontrollably. 12 (Leave) schoo), | enrolled on a language course. 13. (Come) rom England, she drinks her tea with milk thus result) in the b Gross out any words that could be left out in the highlighted phrases to create participle clauses. (In some sentences, no words can be left out). Do not operate the equipment unless yourare asked to ‘do so by your supervisor. 1 Although it was rejected by its mother, the young chimpanzee grew up to be healthy. ‘reception, Bruckner set about revising it 3 fits grown in the right conditions, the plant wil flower inthe spring, 4. Inthis photo, the woman who is arguing with the driver is my mother. 5. As she was feeling dizzy, she sat down in the shade. 6 If were offered the choice, | would defintely opt to work from home. 7 Aswe were approaching the roundabout, a car pulled ut infront of us 8 The government has promised financial aid to 9 Ihave spent many hours watching the birds as they were ‘building their nest ‘10 When you are preparing for an exam, make sure you get plenty of sleep, 11 Once the paint has died, you can apply another coat. Or2rer explain why they're wrong, ‘My cousin has a high-powered job in the government / ‘media / edueation / police. 1. His wife is @ biologist / Spanish / Buddhist / lawyer 2. The invention of the internet / bicycle/ wheel/ money changed lives al ver the world 3 | think he's gone to supermarket / bed / school/ hospital 4 love going for long walks in the mountains / St James's Park / forest / countryside. 5 Every moming after I get up, | have a breakfast / cup of coffee / shower fong walk 6 He's written several books about the economy/ climate / brain / birds. 7. My neighbour's son went to prison / court/ station / college today. Correct 15 mistakes with articles and quanti text. iers in the IMy grandfather became,fuccessful doctor, but life was not always easy fr him. He was born in the Great Depression (of 1930s, and his father struggled to earn enough money to support his many children. The unemployment was a big problem at that ime, and the few jobs that were available were badly paid. His father had to take any job he could find, and litle money he eamed went on food and basic necessities, so that there was any money lft over for books cor school uniforms. However, my grandfather was bright student, and he and his best friend Joe Perkins studied so hard that they were both awarded scholarships to study medicine atthe university. My grandfather did his degree in London and Joe studied abroad, and they lost touch, After graduating, my grandiather spent more thee years doing dactorate. He funded himself he tld me he took some parttime job in a café! think, and spent other every weekend cleaning people's houses so there wasnt a great deal of ime to study. Eventually, he got his doctorate and found job ina London hospital. He worked there for several more years. One day, as he was preparing to go home, his secretary sid, There's the Joe Perkins to see you! was his old childhood friend, who was now working as surgeon in London. t made my grandfather so happy to see that they had both succeeded in ther careers, despite the huge amount of obstacles they had had to overcome. My

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