MODULE 2: BASIC ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Qualitative: identity of the sample or determination of the

chemical composition of a sample

Basic Analytical Chemistry Concepts
1. Analytical Chemistry is a measurement science Qualitative analysis can tell you whether an atom, ion,
consisting of a set of powerful ideas and methods that functional group, or compound is present or absent in a
are useful in all fields of science and medicine. sample. This usually describes an observation; color
change, bubble production, precipitation, etc.
2. Qualitative vs Quantitative Analysis
Qualitative Analysis- reveals the identity of the For example, confirmatory tests. Such tests are done to
elements and compounds in a sample verify whether the sample belongs to a group (Experiment:
Quantitative Analysis- indicates the amount of each Classes of Organic Compounds)
substance in a sample
Quantitative: tell you how much of that substance is
3. The Role of Analytical Chemistry present in the sample

The relationship between analytical

chemistry, other branches of chemistry, and the
other sciences. The central location of analytical
chemistry in the diagram signifies its importance
and the breadth of its interactions with many other
disciplines.

4. Important Chemical Concepts Analytical results are obtained from experiments; therefore
In a statistical data, it is it is inevitable to be from errors such as instrumental,
IMPOSSIBLE: the analytical results are free of errors personal, theoretical errors, etc.
or uncertainties Although it is possible to minimize these errors through
POSSIBLE: minimize these errors and estimate their various techniques to obtain a more ACCURATE set of
size with acceptable accuracy data.

5. Precision vs Accuracy Precision: closeness of the obtained results from one

Precision- describes the reproducibility of another
measurements; the closeness of results to each other For example, you have performed 3 trials for an
-determined by repeating the experiment. Precision of your data would tell you how close
measurement on replicate samples your obtained results from these trials are.

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 Accuracy- indicates the closeness of the
measurement to its true or accepted value and is Accuracy: closeness of measurement to the true value;
expressed by the error. meaning how close your obtained result is to the
theoretical value

This illustration is a very good example to show the

difference between precision and accuracy. The center
area of the dashboard would represent its true or accepted
value, while the blue dots represent as the number of trials
in the experiment.

All the blue dots were scattered meaning the values of the
trials among one another is far from each other = low
precision, there are only 2 dots out of many that are close
to the center = low accuracy.

The blue dots are very close to each other= high precision,
but they are all far from the center = low accuracy.

The blue dots are scattered/ away from each other = low
precision, but they are almost close to the center = high
accuracy.

The blue dots are very close to each other = high precision,
This is an illustration of accuracy and precision using and are all placed on the center = high accuracy.
the pattern of darts on a dartboard.

In the early years of chemistry, most analyses were carried

6. Classifying Quantitative Analytical Methods out by separating components of interest in a sample by
A. Gravimetric methods- determine the mass of the precipitation, extraction, or distillation. For quantitative
analyte or some compound chemically related to analyses, the separated components were then treated
it with reagents that yielded products that could be
recognized by their colors, boiling points or melting points,
B. Volumetric methods- determine the volume of a their solubility in a series of solvents, their odors, their
solution containing sufficient reagent to react optical activities, or their refractive indexes.
completely with the analyte
These 2 are called the classical methods:
Gravimetric Methods: the mass of the analyte or some
C. Electroanalytical methods- involve the compound produced from the analyte was determined.
measurement of such electrical properties as Titrimetric Methods: the volume or mass of a standard
voltage, current, resistance, and quantity of reagent required to react completely with the analyte was
electrical charge measured.

D. Spectroscopic methods- are based on Modern:

measurement of the interaction between Electroanalytical: or also called Potentiometry, involves
electromagnetic radiation and analyte atoms or measuring the voltage of a cell
molecules or on the production of such radiation
by analytes Spectroscopic: techniques that employ electromagnetic
radiation are typically classified by the wavelength region
of the spectrum and include microwave, terahertz, infrared,
near-infrared, ultraviolet-visible, x-ray, and gamma
Stoichiometry

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1. The Mole and the Avogadro’s Number
A mole defines a quantity, which contains 6.02 × 1023
items—usually atoms, molecules, or ions. (Your notes here! J)
Analogy: 1 dozen = 12 eggs
1 case = 24 bottles
1 mole = 6.02 × 1023 atoms/molecules/ions
Basis: # of atoms that there is in exactly 12g of Carbon-12
isotope
This number is called the Avogadro’s number.
It is abbreviated as mol.

1 mol of anything is equal to the Avogadro’s Number which

is 6.02 × 1023. For example:
1 mol of C atoms = 6.02 × 1023
1 mol of CO2 molecules = 6.02 × 1023
1 mol of H2O molecules = 6.02 × 1023
1 mol of vit. C molecules = 6.02 × 1023

2. Atomic Weight vs Molecular Weight vs Formula

Weight vs Molar Mass

Atomic Weight- mass of an atom Try it this time!

Molecular Weight- mass of the whole compound Determine the formula weights of the following:
(referring to covalent compounds) 1) FeSO4
Formula Weight- mass of the whole compound (for
both ionic & covalent comppunds)
Molar Mass- mass of 1 mol of that substance
*Both atomic and molecular weights have amu as
their units, molar mass has g/mol as its unit.
*Both the atomic weight and molar mass can be
obtained from the periodic table (with similar values,
they just vary on units) 2) CH3COOH

For example, determine the molecular weight of H2O.

STEP 1: Know how many atoms there are per

element.
-There are 2 Hydrogen atoms
-There is 1 Oxygen atom

STEP 2: Get the atomic weight found in the periodic 3)

table.
-H: 1.01 amu
-O: 16.00

STEP 3: Do the solution and compute.

H: 2 x 1.01 = 2.02 amu
O: 1 x 16.00 = 16.00 amu
H2O = 18.02 amu

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Example 2: Determine the formula weight of Mg3(PO4)2.
4) (NH4)2SO4
STEP 1: Determine the number of atoms per element.
Mg: 3
P: 2
O: 8
*There are 2 phosphorous and 8 oxygen atoms since the
whole phosphate ion is enclosed in a parenthesis with a
subscript of 2, meaning everything enclosed in that
parenthesis should be multiplied to 2.

STEP 2: Get the atomic weight found in the periodic table.

Mg: 24.31 amu
P: 30.97 amu 5) Ag(ClO3)3
O: 16.00 amu

STEP 3: Do the solution and compute.

Mg: 3 x 24.31 = 72.93 amu
P: 2 x 30.97 = 61.94 amu
O: 8 x 16.00 = 128.00 amu
Mg3(PO4)2. = 262.87 amu

3. Conversions
Two possible conversion factors:
Try this conversions!
1) How many carbon atoms are contained in each of the
6.02 x 10!" molecules/atoms/ions following number of moles?
1 mol 1) 2.00 mol

OR
2)
1 mol
6.02 x 10!" molecules/atoms/ions

Know which one is needed!

In computing either for the molar mass or the number of 2) 6.00 mol
#$%&'$#
moles we use: given x ()#$%&'$#
*The given and the undesired should come in similar units

Example 1: How many molecules are contained in 5.0

moles of CO2?
STEP 1: Determine the given and the unknown
Given: 5.0 mol of CO2
Unknown: # of molecules
STEP 2: Know what conversion factor to use. In 3) 0.500 mol
determining this, go back to the give, what is the unit?

If the unit is mol, use conversion factor #2, so that the units
will cancel.
If the unit is # of molecules/atoms/ions, use CF #1.

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 Unknown: grams of H2O
In this example, we will use TRY THIS!
How many moles of water contain in each of the following
6.02 x 10!" molecules molecules?
1 mol
1) 6.02 × 1025 molecules
STEP 3: Do the solution then compute.

6.02 x 10!" molecules

5.0 mol of CO! x
1 mol

Answer: 3.0 x 1024 molecules of CO2

Example 2: How many moles of aspirin contain 8.62 × 1025

molecules?

STEP 1: Determine the given and the unknown

Given: 8.62 × 1025 molecules
Unknown: moles 2) 9.0 × 1024 molecules
STEP 2: Write out the conversion factor.
1 mol
6.02 x 10!" molecules

STEP 3: Do the solution then compute

1 mol
8.62 x 10!* molecules x
6.02 x 10!" molecules
Answer: 143 mol of aspirin

4. Mass to Mole Conversions

Relating Grams to Moles
Calculate the number of grams contained in each of the
*REMEMBER: Getting the molar mass is same as getting
following number of moles.
the formula weight, they only differ in units.
1) 0.500 mol of NaCl
In relating grams to moles, we also use:
desired
given x
undesired

With also two possible conversion factors:

+
, ./0
to be used when converting moles to mass

, ./0
+
to be used when converting mass to moles

*NOTE: the coefficient of mole is always equal to 1, while

2) 3.60 mol of KI
the grams vary depending on the identity of the substance

Example 1: How many grams does 0.25 moles of water

weigh?

STEP 1: Determine the given and unknown

Given: 0.25 mol of H2O

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STEP 2: Write out the conversion factor How many moles are contained in the following?
+
We will use , ./0, but this conversion factor is not 1) 100 g NaCl
complete yet. We still don’t know the grams of water.
(Determine molar mass from the periodic table)

H: 2 x 1.01 = 2.02 g/mol

O: 1 x 16.00 = 16.00 g/mol
H2O 18.02 g/mol
,1.3! +
The correct conversion factor is , ./0
.

STEP 3: Do the solution then compute

desired 18.02 g
given x = 0.25 moles x
undesired 1 mol

Answer: 4.5g of water 2) 25.5 gl CH4

Example 2: How many moles are present in 100. g of

aspirin (C9H8O4, molar mass 180.2 g/mol)?
STEP 1: Determine the given and the unknown
Given: 100 g aspirin, 180.2 g/mol aspirin
Unknown: moles of aspirin
STEP 2: Write out the conversion factor

1 mol
180.2g
STEP 3: Do the solution then compute
desired 1 mol
given x = 100. g x
undesired 180.2 g aspirin
Answer: 0.555 mol of aspirin

Relating Grams to Number of Atoms or Molecules

In relating grams to these numbers, we also use:
desired
given x
undesired
Understanding the conversion factor,
Since 1 mol = 6.02 x 10!" molecules/atoms
We can use the molar mass to show the relationship
between grams & number of atoms/molecules.
For example, the molar mass of aspirin is 180.2 g/mol

Therefore, generally, the two conversion factors are:

6.02 x 10!" molecules/atoms
g
OR
g
!"
6.02 x 10 molecules/atoms

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*NOTE: Again, value of grams is dependent on the identity How many molecules are contained in two 500.-mg tablets
(molar mass) of the substance. Use the conversion factors of penicillin (C16H18N2O4S, molar mass 334.4 g/mol)?
appropriately.

Example 1: How many molecules are contained in a 325-

mg tablet of aspirin (C9H8O4, molar mass 180.2 g/mol)?

STEP 1: Given & unknown

Given: 325 mg aspirin, 180.2 g/mol aspirin
Unknown: number of molecules
STEP 2: Appropriate conversion factor
The given is in mg meaning, the CF to be used is
the first one to cancel the units. Although we will be
needing another conversion factor to cancel the mg.
Also, the molar mass of aspirin is already given, so the CF
should be

6.02 x 10!" molecules

180.2 g
1g
1000 mg

STEP 3: Solve
1g 6.02 x 10!" molecules
325 mg x
1000 mg 180.2g

Answer: 1.09 x 1021 molecules of Aspirin

Example 2: How many molecules are contained in two

500.-mg tablets of penicillin (C16H18N2O4S, molar mass
334.4 g/mol)?

STEP 1: Given & Unknown

Given: 500 mg penicillin, 334.4 g/mol penicillin
STEP 2: Conversion factors

6.02 x 10!" molecules

334.4 g
1g
1000 mg

STEP 3: Solve
1g 6.02 x 10!" molecules
500 mg x x
1000 mg 334.4 g
Answer: 9.00 x 10 molecules of penicillin
20

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5. Calculations in Chemical Equations
Mole Calculations
A balanced chemical equation also tells us the number
of moles of each reactant that combine and the number
of moles of each product formed.
Example:

The significance of coefficients: Coefficients are used

to form mole ratios, which can serve as conversion
factors
Example:

We can use these mole ratios to relate them with one

another (just make sure that the equation is balanced
before using these mole ratios).

From here we can convert the number of moles of one

compound (A) into the number of moles of another
compound (B).

Example: Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas Using the balanced equation,
that combines with hemoglobin in the blood, thus
reducing the amount of oxygen that can be delivered to
tissues. Under certain conditions, CO is formed when
ethane (C2H6) in natural gas is burned in the presence How many moles of C2H6 are needed to form 3.0
of oxygen. Using the balanced equation, how many moles of CO?
moles of CO are produced from 3.5 mol of C2H6?

STEP 1: Identify the original quantity and desired

quantity.
Original: 3.5 mol C2H6
Desired: moles of CO
We need moles of CO (product) from the given number
of moles of C2H6 (reactant).

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 STEP 2: Conversion Factors
Use the coefficients in the balanced equation to write
mole–mole conversion factors for the two compounds,
C2H6 and CO. Choose the conversion factor that places
the unwanted unit, moles of C2H6, in the denominator
so that the units cancel.

4 ./0 56
That makes the CF: ! ./0 5!78
The desired quantity is number of moles of CO
that’s why it is in the numerator, while the moles of C2H6
would be in the denominator so that when it is multiplied
to the given, their units will cancel.

STEP 3: Solve
4 mol CO
3.5 mol C2H6 x
2 mol C2H6
Answer: 7.0 mol CO

Example 2: Using the same equation, how many moles

of O2 are needed to react completely with 3.0 moles of
C2H6?
STEP 1: Original and Desired Quantities
Original: 3.0 moles C2H6
Desired: moles of O2
STEP 2: Conversion Factors (Mole Ratio)
5 mol O2
2 mol C2H6
STEP 3: Solve
5 mol O2
3.0 mol C2H6 x
2 mol C2H6
Answer: 7.5 mol O2

Mass Calculations (Converting Moles of Reactants to

Grams of Products)

The steps are same as before, but now there is an

additional step (and therefore, an additional conversion
factor)

Example 1: In the upper atmosphere, high-energy

radiation from the sun converts oxygen (O2) to ozone (O3).
Using the balanced equation, how many grams of O3 are
formed from 9.0 mol of O2?

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STEP 1: Original and Desired Quantities Using the balanced equation,
Original: 9.0 mol O2
Desired: grams of O3
STEP 2: Convert the number of moles of reactant to the
number of moles of product using a mole–mole conversion
How many grams of ethanol are formed from 0.55 mol
factor.
of glucose?
• Mole ratio of O3 to O2:
2 mols O"
3 mols O!
• Multiply the number of moles of starting material
(9.0 mol) by the conversion factor to give the
number of moles of product. In this example, 6.0
mol of O3 are formed.

STEP 3: Convert the number of moles of product to the

number of grams of product using the product’s molar
mass.
• Use the molar mass of the product (O3) to write
a conversion factor. The molar mass of O3 is
48.0 g/mol (3 O atoms × 16.0 g/mol for each O
atom = 48.0 g/mol).
48.0 g O" How many grams of carbon dioxide are formed from
1 mol O" 0.25 mol of glucose?
*This is molar mass, the mass of the
ozone for every mole (that’s why the
denominator is 1 mol, and will always be
1 mol)

• Multiply the number of moles of product by the

conversion factor to give the number of grams
of product.
48.0 g O"
6.0 mol O" x = 288 g of O"
1 mol O"

Example 2: Wine is produced by the fermentation of

grapes. In fermentation, the carbohydrate glucose
(C6H12O6) is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide
according to the given balanced equation. How many
grams of ethanol (C2H6O, molar mass 46.1 g/mol) are
produced from 5.00 mol of glucose?

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STEP 1: Original and Desired Quantities
Original: 5.00 mol of glucose, 46.1 g/mol ethanol
Desired: Grams of ethanol
We need to get the grams of ethanol (molar mass is given),
which is a product, from number moles of glucose, a
reactant.
STEP 2: Convert the number of moles of reactant to the
number of moles of product using a mole–mole conversion
factor.
• Use the coefficients in the balanced chemical
equation to write mole-mole conversion factors for
the two compounds- one mole of glucose (C6H12O6)
forms two moles of ethanol (C2H6O)
• Multiple the number of moles of reactant (glucose)
by the conversion factor to give the number of moles
of product (ethanol).

STEP 3: Convert the number of moles of product to the

number of grams of product using the product’s molar
mass.

• Use the molar mass of the product (C2H6O,

molar mass 46.1 g/mol) to write a conversion
factor.
• Multiply the number of moles of product by the
conversion factor to give the number of grams of
product.

46.1 g c! 𝐻8 O
10.0 mol c! 𝐻8 O x
1 mol c! 𝐻8 O

Answer: 461 g C2H6O

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 Mass Calculations (Converting Grams of Reactants to
Grams of Products)

grams of reactant molar mass CF mole-mole CF MM CF g of P

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑅 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃 𝑔𝑃
𝑔𝑅 x 𝑔𝑅 x 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑅
x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃 =
gP

Example 1: Ethanol (C2H6O, molar mass 46.1 g/mol) is

synthesized by reacting ethylene (C2H4, molar mass 28.1
g/mol) with water. How many grams of ethanol are formed
from 14 g of ethylene?

Original & Desired Quantities

Original: 46.1 g/mol ethanol (MM of ethanol)
28.1 g/mol ethylene (MM of ethylene)
14g ethylene (mass or g of ethylene)
Desired: grams of ethanol

grams of
molar mass CF mole-mole CF MM CF g of P
reactant
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 46.1 𝑔 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 23 g
14𝑔 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 x 28.1 𝑔 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 x 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 = ethanol
Example 2: How many grams of aspirin are formed from
10.0 g of salicylic acid using the given balanced equation?

Original: 10.0 g salicylic acid

Unknown: MM salicylic (138.1 g/mol)
MM aspirin (180.2 g/mol)
grams of aspirin
grams of
molar mass CF mole-mole CF MM CF g of P
reactant
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑐 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛 180.2 𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛 13.0 g
10.0𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑐
132.1𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑐 x
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛 = aspirin

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Hello everyone!

Sorry, I posted this late, medyo challenging gawin yung

module kasi ang daming computation. Anyway, I hope
you use this for our Stoichiometry topic.

I will not give problem sets, baka ma-overload na kayo. I

understand that you have many MOOOOOORE online
classes aside from my class, therefore you have
deadlines to meet. Nevertheless, I gave you some
practice problems that will help you assess yourself if you
have really understood the lesson.
I hope you don’t disregard the practice problems, it would
be a great help to you.

With our topic (computation kasi!!), it would really help if

you answer more practice problems, and I hope you do
so!

I will schedule our online long quiz, so please stay tuned

to my announcements!

As always, I hope you are all well!

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