Polynomials

Polynomials 3
Introduction of Polynomials
A polynomial is a mathematical expression consisting of variables, coefficients, and the operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents.
Below are some examples of polynomials:
x + 3, 3x2 - 2x + 5, -7 , 2a3b2 + 2a – 1, x2 - x +
Polynomials are an important part of the "language" of mathematics and algebra. They are used in nearly
every field of mathematics to express numbers as a result of mathematical operations. Polynomials are also
"building blocks" in other types of mathematical expressions, such as rational expressions.

Many mathematical processes that are done in everyday life can be interpreted as polynomials. Summing
the cost of items on a grocery bill can be interpreted as a polynomial. Calculating the distance traveled of a
vehicle or object can be interpreted as a polynomial. Calculating perimeter, area, and volume of geometric
figures can be interpreted as polynomials. These are just some of the many applications of polynomials.

Identifying Polynomials
A polynomial is a special type of mathematical expression.
A mathematical expression is a number represented by variables, constants, and the mathematical
operations performed on them.
Below are some examples of expressions.
3x2 − 2x + 5 x2 − x + 2x + x1/2
+2 6x2 + 2x− 3 x+3
Cos(x2 − 1) 2a3b2 −3b2 + 2a −1 −7

Some of the expressions above are polynomials (in blue), and some are not (in red). The polynomials can be
identified by noting which expressions contain only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and non-negative integer exponents. The non-polynomial expressions will be the expressions that contain
other operations.

Example: Explain why the non-polynomial expressions are not polynomials.

We can summarize the reasons as in the following table:
Non-Polynomial Expression The reason it is not a polynomial
2 +x
x 1/2 Polynomials cannot contain variable exponents. They also
cannot contain non-integer exponents.
x In general, polynomials can contain fractions. However, they
+ 2y
y cannot contain variables in a denominator.
6x-2 + + 2x – 3 Polynomials cannot have negative exponents on variables.
Cos(x2 – 1) Polynomials cannot contain non-polynomial functions
including trigonometric functions like cosine.

Polynomials are well-understood mathematical objects, so it is convenient for mathematicians to be able to

express mathematical processes as polynomials. Non-polynomial expressions tend to present more
challenges when solving mathematical problems. There is a concept in calculus, called a Taylor series
approximation, in which the goal is to approximate a non-polynomial expression as a polynomial
expression. This is done because of the many convenient properties of polynomials

We usually arrange the terms of a polynomial in decreasing power of the variable e.g 2x3+7x2+4x+3.
Sometimes, the terms can be arranged in ascending power of the variable, especially when the leading
coefficient is negative e.g 2+3x-x4
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Question: Terms and coefficients

Identify the terms and coefficients of the following polynomials
x+3 3x2 - 2x + 5 -7 2a3b2 -3b2 + 2a – 1 x2 - x +

Degrees of Polynomials
If an ≠ 0, then the highest power of x in the polynomial is n and it is called the degree of the polynomial. For
example,x3 + 5 is a polynomial of degree 3.

Question What is the degree of each polynomial in the above example.

In particular, state the degree of a
(i) linear expression,
(ii) quadratic expression,
(iii) non-zero constant polynomial.

Rigorous mathematical definitions

Definition 1: An expression a(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ··· where
(i) each of ai is a real number and
(ii) only finitely many of a i’s are non-zero is called a polynomial over real numbers.
Notation: The set of all polynomials over reals will be denoted by R[x].

Definition 2: Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let a(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ···.

If each ai is zero then a(x) is called a zero polynomial.

Definition 3:Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let a(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ···.

n∈ W is said to be the degree of a(x) if
(i) an ≠ 0 and
(ii) m ∈ N, ∀ m>n,am = 0.

Try to understand the above definition. Generally, this is how you write definitions in mathematics using
more mathematical symbols and fewer English words.

Question
Can any or all of the coefficients an, an-1, an-2, ..... a2, a1, a0 of
Polynomial be equal to 0? Explain your answer
In particular, if a0 = a 1 = a2 = a3 = . . . = an = 0 (all the constants are zero), we getthe zero polynomial, which is
denoted by 0. What is the degree of the zero polynomial? The degree of the zero polynomial is not defined.

Evaluating Polynomials
We can also denote a polynomial in x by P(x), Q(x), g(x) and so on,
To find the value of P(x) = 2x5 + 7x4 when x = 3, we substitute x=3 into P(x):
P(3)=2(3)5 + 7(3)4 = 1053.
What is the value of the polynomial function P(x) = 2x 5 + 7x 4 when x = -2?
For simplicity, we will just call P(x) = 2x5 + 7x4 a ‘polynomial’.

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Arithmetic on Polynomials

Addition and Subtraction

To find the sum and difference of polynomials, we add and subtract like terms.

Question
If P(x) = 2x 3 + x2 -4x + 5 and Q(x) = x2 - 6x + 5, find an expression for
(i) P(x) + Q(x), (ii) P(x) – Q(x).
State the degree of each expression

If P(x) = 4x 3 + 3x2 – 5x + 5 and Q(x) = 4x 3 – 2x +6, find an expression for

(i) P(x) + Q(x), (ii) P(x) – Q(x).
State the degree of each expression

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

1. How is the degree of P(x) + Q(x) related to the degree of P(x) and of Q(x)?
2. Can the degree of P(x) – Q(x) be less than the degrees of both P(x) and Q(x)? Explain your answer

Multiplication of polynomials:
Multiplication of two polynomials involves multiplying each term of the first polynomial with each term of
the second polynomial and then summing the resulting monomials. When multiplying terms, one must
remember the rule of product for exponents.
To multiply monomials, multiply the co-efficient and then multiply the variables using the product rule for
exponents.
Product rule: 23x22=2(3+2) = 25 OR The product rule: am. an=am+n

Example:
There are two polynomials: (x3 + 1) and (x2 + 1). What is the product of these polynomials?
The product is written as (x3 + 1) (x2 + 1).
To show that each term in the first polynomial is multiplied by each term in the second polynomial, re-
write it as x3 (x2 + 1) + 1(x2 + 1).
Now multiplying and combining like terms, x5 + x 3 + x2 + 1.
There are no like terms, so the resulting prodcut is x + x + x 2 + 1.
5 3

In general ,if P(x) and Q(x) are non-zero polynomials,then

Degree of P(x) × Q(x) = Degree of P (x) + Degree of
Q(x)

Rigorous definitions(optional)
Theorem 1
Let a(x),b(x) ∈ R[x].
Let none of a(x),b(x) be a zero polynomial.
Then a(x) + b(x) is either a zero polynomial or in other case deg (a(x) + b(x)) ≤ max {deg a(x), deg b(x)}.
Note: deg a(x) means degree of a(x)

Theorem 2
Define dn = (an – bn),∀ n ≥ 0. Let d(x) = d0+ d1x + d2x2 + ···. Then d(x) ∈ R[x]. d(x) is called the difference of a(x)
and b(x).

Theorem 3
Define en = kan,∀ n ≥ 0. Let e(x) = e0 + e 1x + e2x2 + ···. Then e(x) ∈ R[x]. e(x) is called the product of a(x) and k.

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Theorem 4
Let a(x),b(x) ∈ R[x]. Let none of a(x),b(x) be a zero polynomial. Then a(x) − b(x) is either a zero polynomial
or in other case deg (a(x) − b(x)) ≤ max {deg a(x), deg b(x)}.

Theorem 5
Let k ∈ R and a(x) ∈ R[x]. If k ≠ 0 and a(x) is not a zero polynomial then deg (ka(x)) = deg (a(x))

Equality of Polynomials
Two polynomials p(x) and Q(x) are equal if and only if the coefficients of the terms with the same power of
x are equal.
Given that Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D = 2x 3 + 3x 2 –x + 4 for all values of x, where A = 2 and B = 3,what is the values
of C and D?.

Question
Given that that 5x 2 – 7x + 3 = A(x-1)(x-2) + B(x-1) + C for all values of x, find the values of A,B and C.

Division of Polynomials
Before we learn how to divide a polynomial by another polynomial, let us recall the long division of
numbers, e.g divide 7 by 3:
Divisor → 3) 2 ← quotient
7 ← dividend
-6
1← remainder
We can express 7 terms of the divisor, the quotient, and the remainder as follows:
7 = 3 × 2 + 1
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder
This is called the Division Algorithm for positive integers.

Discuss with your classmates:

(a) When you divide always larger than or equal to the divisor? Explain your answer.
(b) is the remainder always smaller than the divisor? Explain your answer.
Example
1. Set up the problem in the long division from
with the dividend and division descending
order. If terms are missing use ‘0’ terms.
x2 - 2x – 1
2. Now we ask ourselves what we need to
multiply the divisor by to get the first term is the x+2 x3 + 0x 2 – 5x +6
dividend. = - (x3 + 2x 2)

= - 2x2- 5x
3 Multiply this result by the divisor and subtract = - (-2x2 – 4x)
the resulting binomial from the polynomial
= - x+6
4. The new polynomial is called the remainder. = -( -x- 2)
We continue the process until the degree of the
remainder is less than the degree of the divisor. = 8

dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder

x – 5x + 6 = (x+2)(x – 2x -1) + 8
3 2

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Note: Never make below mistake.
( )
In you can’t cancel the ‘x’ term and write the answer as 2.This is incorrect.
Take the below example to prove that canceling in such a manner is wrong.
( )
≠6, you can’t cancel 3 from numerator and denominator.
( )
= +

Question
1. Divide x 3 + 2x – 7 by x – 2 and state the remainder.

2 .express x 2 + 2x – 7 in terms of x – 2 using the division algorithm

When we divide a polynomial by using another polynomial,

(a) The degree of the dividend must be greater than or equal to the degree of the divisor. Why is this so?

(b) the degree of the remainder must be smaller than the degree of the divisor. Why is this so

(c) what is the relationship between the degrees of the dividend, divisor, and quotient?

3. (y3 +27) ÷ (y +3)

4. x4 + 3x 3 – 8x + 12 ÷ x2 + 2x + 1

In general, if polynomial P(x) is divided by another polynomial D(x), the resulting quotient is Q(x) and the
remainder is R(x), then the Division Algorithm for Polynomials states that

P(x) = D(x) × Q(x) + R(x)

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
dividend = divisor × quotient +
remainder

And the degree of R(x) <the degree of D(x).

Three examples of an algebraic fraction are

,– –
and
√
The numerator and denominator of the first two algebraic fractions are polynomials while the denominator
of the last algebraic fraction is not a polynomial.
In this section, we will study only algebraic fractions that are ratios of two polynomials P(x) and Q(x), i.e
( )
( )
, where Q(x) ≠ 0.

We have learned about proper and improper fractions.

For example, is a proper fraction because
The numerator < the denominator, while and are improper fractions
Because the numerator ≥ the denominator.
So how do we define a proper and improper algebraic fraction?

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Question
( )
The table below shows some examples of proper and improper algebraic fractions .
( )

No Proper Algebraic Improper Algebraic Fractions

Fractions
(a)

(b)

(c)

Compare the degree of P(x) and Q(x) in both the proper and improper algebraic fractions.
(i) What do you call an algebraic fraction if the degree of P(x) < the degree of Q(x)?
(ii) What do you call an algebraic fraction if the degree of P(x) > the degree of Q(x)?

We have learned that we can use the Division Algorithm for positive integers to express an improper
fraction, such as , as:
7 = 3 × 2 + 1
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder

We can also divide the above equation by the divisor 3, so another way to express is:
=2+
Which is the sum of a positive integer and a proper fraction.

Similarly, we can use the Division Algorithm for Polynomials to express an improper algebraic fraction as
the sum of a polynomial and a proper algebraic fraction.

Question
(i) is a proper or an improper algebraic fraction?
(ii) when x + 3 is divided by x – 1, then quotient is x2 + x +1 and the remainder is 4.
3

Use the Division Algorithm for Polynomials to express x3 + 3 in terms of x-1.

Hence write as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.

In general, another way to write the Division Algorithm is:

= Quotient +

Express as the sum of a polynomial and proper fraction.

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Solution
By long division, we have
x2 + x -1
x+1 x3 + 2x2 -3 (leave a space for the term in x)
– (x + x )
3 2

x2 + 0x (write 0x in the space)

-(x2 + x)
–x–3
–(– x – 1)
–2
∴ =x +x –1-
Factorization of polynomials
It is the process of expressing a polynomial with coefficients as the product of irreducible factors.

Example: Factorise 2x2 – 5x -3.

Method: 1. when you have a degree of a polynomial as 2. Then try to split the polynomial as below.
Step1: Find two numbers such that their products are equal to the product of the coefficient of x2 and x0
and their sum is equal to the coefficient of x.
So we want two numbers a and b such that a x b = (2 x - 3) = -6 and a + b = -5
So a = -6 and b = 1.
Step 2: Now split the co-efficient of ‘x’ using this new co-efficient.
So we get 2x2 - 6x + x – 3
Step 3: Take out common terms by combining one x2 and x terms and one x and constant term.
2x (x + 3) +1 (x +3)
Step 4 : Again take the common terms out
(x -3)(2x + 1)

Factoring Polynomials by Grouping

We often see the grouping method applied to polynomials with 4 terms. The idea is to pair like terms
together so that we can apply the distributive property to factorize them nicely.
Factor x 3 - 3x2 – x + 3.
We have
x3 – 3x2 – x + 3 = x2 (x – 3) – (x – 3)
= (x2 – 1) (x – 3)
= (x – 1)(x + 1) (x – 3)
Factor x 2 + 4x – y2 – 4y.
We have
x2 + 4x 2 – y2 – 4y = (x2 – y2) + (4x – 4y)
= (x – y) (x + y) + 4(x – y)
= (x – y)(x + y + 4)

Factoring by Substitution
If a polynomial is complicated, you can try substituting one of the complicated terms with a simpler term
to make it easier to factor.
Factor (x – y) (x – y – 1) – 20.
Let S = x – y. Substituiting S in for x – y for ease of computation, we get
(x – y) (x – y – 1) – 20 = (S) (S – 1) – 20
= S2 – S – 20
= (S – 5) (S + 4)
= (x – y – 5) (x – y + 4).
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Factoring Polynomials using Identities
Factor x 2 – 16
We have
x2 – 16 = x2 – 42 = (x – 4) (x + 4).

Factor 9x3y – 36xy.

We have
9x3y – 36xy = 9xy(x2 – 4) = 9xy(x2 – 22) = 9xy(x – 2) (x + 2).

Factoring binomials of the form x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) and x 3 – y3 = (x – y) (x 2 + xy + y2) :

This approach applies the sum and the difference of cubes identify.

Factor 27x3 – y3.

We have
27x3 – y3 = (3x)3 – y3
= (3x – y) ((3x)2 + 3xy + y2)
= (3x –y) (9x2 + 3xy + y2).

Factoring trinomials of the form x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2 and x2 – 2xy + y2 = (x – y)2 :

Factor x 2 + 6x + 9.
We have
x2 + 6x + 9 = x2 + 2(x . 3) + 32 = (x + 3)2
Factor 16x2 – 24xy + 9y2
We have
16x2 – 24xy + 9y2 = (4x2) – 2(4x . 3y) + (3y) 2 = (4x – 3y)2.

Polynomial Remainder Theorem

In the previous section, we have learned how to use long division to find the remainder when a polynomial
is divided by another polynomial. We will now another method to find the remainder when a polynomial
is divided by a linear divisor

1. Copy and complete the following table. The remainder R can be found by long division. For (a), the long
division has been done in worked Example 7.

No Dividend P(x) Linear Divisor x – c Remainder R P(c)

(a) x + 2x – 7
3 x-2 P(2)=
(b) 4x3 + 7x + 15 x+1 P(-1)=
(c) 3 - 8x + 4x3 + x4 x+3
(d) 2x3 – 4x2 + 2 x–1

2.What is the degree of the remainder?Why?

3.What is the relationship betweeen the remainder and the value of P(c)?
4.what can you say about the about the divisior when the remainder is zero

From the investigation, we observe that

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by a linear divisor x-c, the remainder is P(c)

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Question
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by a linear factor x-c, then Q(x) and R(x) represent the quotient
and remainder respectively. Using the Division Algorithm for Polynomials, express P(x) in terms of
x-c
1. State the degree of the polynomial R(x).
To find R(x), we need to eliminate Q(x).what value of x can be used to eliminate the term involving
Q(x)? Hence, evaluate the remainder.
2. If x-c is a factor of P(x), what can you say about the remainder? Using your result in Question 1,
state the value of P(c)

In general, the Remainder Theorem states that

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by a linear divisor ax + b, the remainder is p −

Question
(Using the Remainder Theorem to find the Remainder)
Find the remainder when 4x3 – 8x 2 + 9x -5 is divided by
(a) x + 2, (b) 2x -3.

Find the value of k if 4x 7 + 5x 3 – 2kx2 + 7k – 4 has a remainder of 12 when divided by x + 1.

Factor theorem
From the previous section, we have learned that if a polynomial P(x) is divided by a liner divisor x – c, then
the Division Algorithm for polynomial states that
P(x) = (x-c) Q(x) + R

And the Reminder Theorem states that the remainder R = P(c).

What if the remainder R = 0?
Then P(c) and P(x) = (x-c)Q(x),i.e x-c is a factor of p(x).
In other words,

x-c is a linear factor of the polynomial P(x) if and any if P(c)=0.

In general, the factor Theorem states that

ax + b is a linear factor of the polynomial P(x)

If and only if P − =0.

The Factor Theorem is a special case of the Remainder Theorem when the remainder = 0.

Question
Find the value of k for which x – 3 is a factor of f(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 – 9x + 2k. Hence,
find the remainder when f(x) is divided by x=2.

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Question
Given that 3x 2 – x – 2 is a factor of the polynomial 3x 3 + hx 2 – 5x + k, find the values of h and k. Hence,
factorize the polynomial completely.

Zero of a polynomial is the value at which the polynomial value gets to zero. It is also known as roots of a
polynomials For Eg: x2 – 4 = 0 has roots x = 2 and x = -2

Activity: Consider b(x) = x5+ x4− 10x3− 8x2+ 5x + 3.

Compute b(3). Express b(x) as (x − 3)c(x).

Graph of Polynomial Functions

One of the best ways to understand polynomials is to plot them on the Cartesian system. In this section, we
will study a simple method to sketch a rough graph of any polynomial.

Before plotting the polynomial we need to understand zeros, y-intercept, and behavior of the polynomial.
Zeros: For a given polynomial, zeroes are all values of x for which f(x) = 0.
Y – Intercept: It is the value attained by the polynomial f(x) when x = 0.
End behaviour: It is the behaviour of the polynomial when x →∞ and x → - ∞ i.e., f (∞) and f (-∞). Most of
the time, it depends on the term with the highest degree.
With these 3 points, we can draw a rough sketch of a polynomial function. To draw the graph precisely we
need to take many more intermediate values of x and its corresponding f(x).

Example 1: Sketch the graph of y = x2

Zeros: Y = f(x) = x2
f (x) = 0 , x 2 = 0 ⟹ x . x = 0
So, f (x) has 2 roots at x =0.
Y – Intercept: Y – f(x) = x2
f (0) = 0
Y intercept is also 0
End behaviour: Y = f(x) = x2
f (∞) = ∞ = ∞
f (−∞) =(- ∞) = ∞

First, plot the end behaviour i.e., value attained by f(∞) and f(−∞)

Plot the zeros of the polynomial. In this case, we have a

double root at ‘0’ that is f(0) = 0 and it has a multiplicity of
2.

If a root has a multiplicity of 2 then the graph will bounce

back after touching the x-axis.

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Y – Intercept

Y = f(x) = x2 has y intercepts of 0 i.e., f (0) = 0. Hence y – intercept is

(0, 0)

Now we have all the necessary things in our graph. Connect Y

– Intercept roots and are of end behaviour.

Example 2: f(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 3x 2

Zeros: f(x ) = x 4 – 4x3 + 3x2
= x2 (x2 -4 x +3)
f (x) = x2 (x -3) (x - 1)
f (x) = x2 (x -3) (x - 1) = 0
So x = 0, x. x =0, so x = 0 has a double root
2

(x - 3) = 0, x =3, single root

(x -1) = 0, x =1, single root
Y – Intercept: f(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 3x2
f (x) = x2 (x -3 ) (x -1)
f(0) = 0.
End behaviour:
f (x) = x4 – 4x3 + 3x2 = x 2 (x -3) (x - 1)
f ( ∞) = ∞
f ( −∞) = ∞

Example 3: f (x) = x2 (x -3) (x -1)

First plot the end behaviour.
Plot the zeros on the x-axis. Then plot the y-intercept. Then connect
the missing portion in the graph.
Note: Graph will bounce back on the x-axis if it has a double root at
the same x.
The graph will pass through the x-axis if it has a single root at the
same x.

Example 4: f (x) = -6x3 + 8x2 + 54 x – 72

f (x) = -2x2 (3x - 4) + 18 (3x - 4)
f (x) = - (3x -4) (-2x2+ 18)
Zeros: 3x – 4 = 0 → x = 4/3
-2x2 + 18 = 0 → x2 + 9
X = 3 or x = -3
Y – Intercept: f (0) = -72
End behaviour: End behaviour depends – 6x3
f ( ∞) = −∞ and f( −∞) = ∞
Note: Graph is not according to the scale.

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Example 5 : g (x) = -2x (x -3)3 (x +5)2
Zeros:
g(x) = 0 at x = 0 multiplicity = 1
x=3 multiplicity = 3
x = -5 multiplicity = 2
y – Intercept: f (0) = 0

End behaviour:
The highest power is -2x6.
So, f ( ∞) = ∞ f ( −∞) = ∞

End behavior, roots of the equations (zeros), and Y – Intercept

Note on graphs:

If f (x) has 3 common roots, then at that point of x graph will

be tangential to the x-axis.

If f(x) has 2 common roots, then at that point of the x

graph will bounce back after touching the x-axis.

If f(x) has a single root at the same x, then the graph

will pass through the x-axis at that point

Partial Fractions
Partial fractions are an extremely useful tool in Mathematics. It can be used to decompose complicated
fractions into simple and make them easily solvable. Telescopic sums are one application. You will also use
this lot in 11th and 12th for calculus etc. You must be comfortable with this topic then, and hence we are
introducing the topic right now.

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Partial fraction
Let us recall how to add subtract algebraic fractions. For example,
(a) 2 distinct liner factors
( )
+ = ( )( )
+ ( )( )

( ) ( )
= ( )( )

= ( )( )

(b) 1 linear factor and 1 repeated liner factor

( )
+( )
= ( )

= ( )

( )
= ( )
(c) 1 linear factor and 1 quadratic factor
( )( )
+ = ( )( )
= ( )( )

Case 1: Proper Fraction with Distinct Linear Factors in the Denominator

Question
The following shows two examples of combining two algebraic fractions into a single algebraic fraction:
(a) + = ( )( )

(b) − −( )( )
1. What is the relationship between the denominator of the fraction on the RHS and the denominators of
the two fractions on the LHS?
2. What are the degree of the numerator and the denominator of each of the two fractions on the LHS? In
other words, are the fractions on the LHS proper or improper fractions?
3. what are the degrees of the numerator and the denominator of the fraction on the RHS? In other words,
is the fraction on the RHS a proper or an improper fraction?
4. From the above observation, to do the reverse, we have( )(( )
= + , where A and B are
constants.

Express ( )( )
in partial fractions.
Solution
Let ( )( = + , where A and B are constant.
)

Multiplying throughtout by (x + 1)(2x – 5), we have

10x -11=A(2x – 5) + B(x+1)

Let x = 1: Let x = :
10(-1)-11 = A[2(-1)-5] + B(-1 + 1)
10 - 11 = A 2 −5 +B + 1
-21 = -7A
∴ =3 14 = B
∴ =4
∴( )( )
= +
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Question
Express as partial fractions
( )

Case 2: Proper Fraction with Repeated Linear Factors in Denominator

For case 1 where the two-linear factors in the denominator are distinct,
( )(
= + .
) .
We shall now consider the case where the liner factor in the denominator is repeated, such as in ( )

Question
The following shows two examples of combing two algebraic fractions into single algebraic fractions:
(a) +( ) =( )
(b) − ( )
=( )
1. what is the relationship between the denominator of the fraction on the RHS and the denominator of
the two fractions in the LHS?
2. From the above observation, to do the reverse, we have ( )
= + ( )
, Where A and B are
Constants.
Express in partial fractions.
( )
Solution
Let ( ) = + ( )
Multiply throughout by ( − 1 ) , we have
3x – 2 = A(x-1) + B
Let x =1: 3(1) -2 + A(1-1) +B
B=1

Let x=0: 3(0) – 2 = A (0-1) + B

A=3
∴ = +
( ) ( )

Question
Express ( )
in partial fractions

Express ( )( )
in partial fractions.

Express ( )( )
in partial fractions

Application of Partial Fractions

One reason for decomposing an algebraic fraction into a partial fraction is the original algebraic fraction to
manipulate. An application of partial fractions is dealt with later in chapter 14 on Integration. In this
section, we will look at another example.

Question
(i) Express ( )
in partial fractions.
(ii) Hence evaluate
×
+ × + × +⋯+ ×
+ ×

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Polynomials
(i) Express ( )( )
in partial fractions.
(ii) Hence, evaluate
+ + …+ +
× × × × × × × × × ×

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Additional Sections:
The following sections are not compulsory, but optional
Case 3:Proper Fraction with a Quadratic Factor in the Denominator that cannot be Factorised
We will only consider the case where the quadratic factor in the denominator of a proper algebraic
fraction is in the form x 2 + c 2, where c is a constant.
What happens if the quadratic factor in the denominator can be factorised?
(Quadratic Factor in the Denominator that can not be Factorised)

Question
Express in partial fractions.

Solution
The denominator x3 + 3x = x(x 2+3). (factorise the denominator)
Let = = + . Attention
( )
Multilpy throughout by x(x2+3), When th quadratic factor in the denominator
7x2 + x +15 = A(x 2+3) + x(Bx + C) cannot be factorised,the numerator of this
Let x=0: 15=A(0+3) + 0 partial fraction in liner, i.e Bx+c,where B and
A=5 c are constants
Let x = 1: 7 + 1 + 15 = 5(1+3) + 1[B(1) + C]
B + C = 3------------(1)
Let x = –1: 7–1+ 15 = 5(1 + 3)-1[ B (-1) + C]
B – C = 3------------(2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we have B=2 and C=1.
∴ = +

Question
1. Express ( )( )
in the partial fractions.
2. Express ( )
in the partial fractions.
Case 4: Improper Fraction
If an algebraic fraction is improper, we have to first express it as the sum of a polynomial and a
proper fraction (see worked Example 18), and then decompose the proper fraction into partial
fractions.
For example, to express in partial fractions, we use long division to divided
4x + 8x - 50x -132 by 2x + x - 28 to obtain the quotient 2x + 3 and the remainder 3x - 48, therefore,
3 2 2

=2x + 3 + .
Next, we decompose .into partial fractions using case 1 since the denominator can be
factorised into distinct linear factors:
.= ( )( )
Let ( )( )
= +

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Polynomials
Multiply throughout by (x+4) (2x-7).
3x-48=A (2x-7)+B(x+4)
Let x=-4: 3(-4)-48 = A[2(-4)-7]+B(-4 +4)
-60=-15A
A=45

Let x= : 3 - 48 = A 2 −7 + +4
- = B
B = -5
= +

Hence =2x + 3+ +

Question
1. Express in the partial fractions.

2. Express in the partial fractions.

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More Level 1 problem:
1) If a + b +c = 9 and ab + bc + ca = 26, find a2 + b2 + c 2.
2) Find a and b if the polynomial x 5 – ax + b is divisible by x2 – 4.
3) Determine the co – efficient a and b for the polynomial x 3 + ax2 + bx + 5 if it is divisible by x 2 +x+1
4) Calculate the value of a for which the polynomial x3 – ax +8 has the root x = -2. Also, calculate the
other roots of the polynomial
5) One of the zeros of the polynomial 2x2 + 7x – 4 is
a) 2 b) ½ c) -1/2 d) -2
6) If + = -1 (x , y ≠ 0 ) the value of x – y is 3 3

a) 1 b) -1 c) 0 d)
7) Factorise:
i) 1+64 x3 ii) a3 - 2√2
8) Factorise:
i) a3 – 8b3 – 64 c3 – 24abc
ii) 2√2 + 8b 3 – 27 c3 + 18 √2abc
9) If a, b, c are all non – zero and a + b+ c = 0 , prove that + + = 3.
10) Factorise each polynomial
a) 37x4 – 259x3 -222x2
b) 160x3 + 100x2 – 180x
c) 33x6 -99x5 -165x 5
d)396x3 – 108x2 + 108x
e)39x 5 – 195x4

11) when the expression 3x3 + px2 + qx + 8 is divided by x2 – 3x + 2, the remainder is 5x + 6.Find the
value of p and q.

12) when x2 + ax + b and x2 + hx + k are divided by x + p, their remainders are equal.Express p in terms
of a,b,h and k.

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Polynomials
13) It is given that x + 2 is factor of f(x) = a(x -1)2 +b(x – 1) + c.The remainders when f(x) is divided by x
+1 and x-1 are -11 and 9 respectively.Find the values of a,b and c.

14) Given that x+1 and x-3 are factors of the expression x 4 + px3 + 5x2 + 5x + q, find the value of p and of
q. Hence, find the other two factors of the expression.

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Advanced Problems:
(Students can take this as a challenge and work on this section at home. If needed, please ask teachers
help)

1. Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let n ∈ W. Let deg(a(x)) ≤ n. If a(x) = 0 has distinct (n + 1) or more real roots then
a(x) must be a zero polynomial.
Proof: If possible let a(x) not be a zero polynomial. Let deg (a(x)) = k ≤ n. Hence a(x) = 0 can have at
most k distinct real roots.
This contradicts that a(x) = 0 has (n + 1) > k distinct real roots. Hence a(x) must be a zero
polynomial.

2. Let a(x) ∈ R[x] such that a(x) = xn – kn where n ∈ N.

(i) Find a(k).
(ii) Use FT to deduce that (x − k) is a factor of a(x).
(iii) Let a(x) = (x − k)b(x). How do we find b(x)?
(iv) Find b(x) in case of n = 2, 3, 4.
x2 − k 2 = (x − k)(x + k)
x3 − k 3 = (x − k)(x 2 + kx + k 2 )
x4 − k 4 = (x − k)(x 3 + kx2 + k2 x + k3 )
Can you guess b(x) in the general case? Try proving this
xn − k n = (x − k)(x n-1 + kxn-2 + k2 xn-3 + · · · + kr xn-r-1 + · · · + kn-2 x 1 + k n-1 ).

Remark:
We note that in the second factor, the terms are of the type k u xv
where u + v always equals n − 1.
Carry out the multiplication to confirm that our guess is correct. For this, you must verify that

(i) Coefficient of xn = 1.
(ii) Coefficient of xm = 0 for 1 ≤ m < n
(iii) Coefficient of xm = 0 for 1 ≤ m < n

3. Let a(x) = x n + k n where k ∈ R and n is odd natural number≥ 3.

(i) Find a(−k).
(ii) Use FT to deduce that (x + k) is a factor of a(x).
Let a(x) = (x + k) b(x).
How do we find b(x)?
Find b(x) in case of n = 3, 5.
x3 + k 3 = (x + k)(x 2 − kx − k 2 )
x5 + k 5 = (x + k)(x 4 – kx3 + k2 x2 − k 3 x + k 4 )
Can you guess b(x) in the general case?
Xn + kn = (x + k) (x n-1 - kxn-2 - k2 xn-3 - · · · - · · · + kn-2 x 1 + kn-1 ).
Carry out the multiplication to confirm that our guess is correct.

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Polynomials
4. Let a(x) = x200 − 1. Find all possible divisors of the type (x k ± 1) of a(x).

5. Find the remainder when x 203 − 1 is divided by x 4 − 1.

6. Find the remainder when x 203 − 1 is divided by x 5 − 32.

7. Find the remainder when x 203 − 1 is divided by x 5 + 32.

8. Find the remainder when x 203−1 is divided by x 5+x 4+x 3+x 2+x+1.

9. Let a(x) ∈R[x].

When a(x) is divided by x − 2 the remainder is 5.
When a(x) is divided by x − 3 the remainder is 11.
Find the remainder when a(x) is divided by x2− 5x + 6.
We expect you to solve the problem though a(x) is not given.
Remark: We still do not know what q(x) is. But even then we have completed our task

10. Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · ·

If (1) an = 0 ∀ n ≥ 3.
(2) a[3] = 100.
(3) a[10] = 100.
(4) a[30] = 100.
Then find a(x).
11. Find the remainder when x 100 + 1 is divided by x6 + r.
12. Let p(x) = 2x 5 − x 4 + x 3 + 2x 2 − 1. Let k =
√
Find the value of p(k).
Hint: It seems that one will have to do a lot of long calculations. Suitable use of the Division
Algorithm (DA) will avoid these long calculations.
13. Factorise x10 + x 5 + 1 into two factors.
14. This problem is based on the following facts.
Let m, n ∈ Z.
(i) If m is odd and n is odd then m + n is even.
(ii) If m is odd and n is odd then mn is odd.
(iii) If m is even and n is even then m + n, mn are even.
(iv) If m is odd and n is even then m + n is odd.
(v) If m is odd and n is even then mn is even.
Let a(x) ∈ Z[x]. That is a(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 · · · and ∀ i ≥ 0 ai ’s are integers. If a(0) is odd and a(1) is odd
then prove that a(x) = 0 has no integral roots.

Higher level problems:

1. Consider the polynomials

P(x) = (x + √2)(x2 – 2x + 2)

Q(x) = (x – √2)( x 2 + 2x + 2)

R(x) = ( x2 + 2)(x8 + 16)

Find the coefficient of x 4 in P(x).Q(x).R(x).

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Polynomials

2. Let P(x) be a polynomial such that. when divided by x – 2,the remainder is 3 and when divided by
x-3, the remainder is 2. If when divided by (x-2)(x-3) the remainder is ax + b.find a2+b2.

3. How many real number are roots of the polynomial

x9 - 37x8 - 2x7 + 74x6 + x4 - 37x3 - 2x2 + 74x?

4. The polynomial P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ........ + a8x8 + 2009x9 has the property that P( ) = for
k=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. There are relatively prime positive integers m and n such that P( ) = . Find n-
10m.

5. For some constant k the polynomial p(x) = 3x2 + kx + 117 has the property that p(1) =P(10).Evaluate
p(20)

6. Let P be a Polynomial satisfying P(x + 1) +P(x-1) = x3 for all real number x. Find the value of P(12).

7. For real number a , b and c the polynomial p(x) = 3x7 – 291x6 + ax5 + bx4 + cx2 + 134x - 2 has 7 real
roots whose sum is 97. Find the sum of the reciprocals of those 7 roots.

Olympiad practice

8. Let x1, x2 ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ x2014 be real number different from 1, such that x1+x2 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙ + x 2014 = 1

And

+ + ……. + = 1.

What is the value of

+ + +……. + = 1. [PRMO 2014]

9. Let P(x) be a non-zero polynomial with integer coefficients. If P(n) is divisible by n for each
positive integer n, what is the value of P(0)? [PRMO 2015]

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