* Uncertainties and Errors in

Measurement and Results

Measurement and Data Processing

*What is the difference between qualitative and
quantitative data?
*Can you give some examples of qualitative and
quantitative data?

*Qualitative vs.
Quantitative Data
 Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

• Deals with • Deals with numbers.

descriptions. • Data which can be
• Data can be observed, measured.
but not measured. • Length, height, area,
• Colours, textures, volume, weight,
smells, tastes, speed, time,
appearance, beauty, temperature,
etc. humidity, sound
• Qualitative à Quality levels, cost,
members, ages, etc.
• Quantitative à
Quantity
* Science is a communal activity and it is important that NOS and TOK
information is shared openly and honestly.
* An essential part of this process is the way the international
scientific community subjects the findings of scientists to intense
critical scrutiny through the repetition of experiments and the
peer review of results in journals and at conferences.
* All measurements have uncertainties and it is important these
are reported when data are exchanged, as these limit the
conclusions that can be legitimately drawn.
* Science has progressed and is one of the most successful
enterprises in our culture because these inherent uncertainties
are recognized.
* Chemistry provides us with a deep understanding of the material
world, but it does not offer absolute certainty.
*Measurement, calculation and data processing are an
integral part of the chemist’s job and a key objective of
many experiments in Analytical Chemistry, Biology, and
Physics.

*Having a good idea or having a deep knowledge of

Chemistry is not enough to be a good scientist…

*If you are not able to collect and process your data, your
research will be wasted.

MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS, DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

ARE IMPORTANT NOT ONLY IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY…
* Accuracy and
Precision
Measurement and Data Processing
* Accuracy and/or Precision?
*In an acid-base titration experiment, 20.0 cm3
of 1.0 mol dm-3 dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
was titrated with 1.0 mol dm-3 aqueous sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
*The true titre volume is 20.0 cm3 as 1 mole of
HCl reacts with 1 mole of NaOH.
*The table below shows the results obtained by
four students.
student titre titre titre average
1/cm 3 2/cm 3 3/cm 3 titre/c

*Example
m3
A 19.8 20.0 19.9 19.9

B 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.5

C 21.0 21.6 20.2 20.9

D 19.6 20.4 20.0 20.0

 Accuracy
How close an experimental value is
to its true, accepted or literature
value.
Analogous to the “validity” of a
measure.
The degree to which the data is
able to scientifically answer the
questions it is intended to answer.

Precision (or consistency or reliability)

How close several experimental
measurements of the same quantity
are to each other.
Analogous to the “reliability” of a
measure.
How close repeated measurements
under consistent conditions are to
each other.
*In an acid-base titration experiment, 20.0 cm3
of 1.0 mol dm-3 dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
was titrated with 1.0 mol dm-3 aqueous sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
*The true titre volume is 20.0 cm3 as 1 mole of
HCl reacts with 1 mole of NaOH.
*The table below shows the results obtained by
four students.
student titre titre titre average
1/cm 3 2/cm 3 3/cm 3 titre/c

*Example
m3
A 19.8 20.0 19.9 19.9

B 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.5

C 21.0 21.6 20.2 20.9

D 19.6 20.4 20.0 20.0

 student titre 1/cm 3 titre 2/cm 3 titre 3/cm 3 average
titre/cm 3

A 19.8 20.0 19.9 19.9

* Student A’s results were
accurate and precise B 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.5

* Student B’s results were

C 21.0 21.6 20.2 20.9
inaccurate and precise
* Student C’s results were D 19.6 20.4 20.0 20.0

inaccurate and imprecise

* Student D’s results were

*Example
accurate and imprecise
* Uncertainties
Uncertainties of measurement
*No measure is ever exact due to errors in
instrumentation and measuring skills.
*When a measurement is taken with a measuring
instrument, the reading has an associated uncertainty
due to the precision of the measuring instrument.
*The actual measure lies either slightly above or
slightly below that reading. The range is the
uncertainty of the measurement taken.
*More precise instruments have a smaller range of
uncertainty.
*Whenever you take a measurement, the last recorded
digit is your estimate. We call digits in a measurement
significant figures.

*Uncertainties
* Uncertainty of measurement ???
*Numbers obtained by measurement are always inexact.
* There are always inherent limitations in the equipment used to
measure quantities (errors), and there are differences in how different
people make the same measurement (human errors).
*When a measurement is taken with a measuring instrument the
reading has an associated uncertainty due to the precision of the
measuring instrument.
These measurements
involve estimation.
ONE ESTIMATED DIGIT CAN BE REPORTED
• 6.35 or
• 6.36 or
• 6.37

• Two numbers are certain.

• One number is uncertain.
• The last recorded digit is our estimate
The last recorded
digit is your estimate.
We call digits in a
measurement
significant figures.
 3456 has
Non-zeros always count as significant figures: 4 significant figures

Leading zeroes do not count as significant 0.0486 has

figures: 3 significant figures

Captive zeroes always count as significant 16.07 has

figures: 4 significant figures

Trailing zeros are significant only if the 9.300 has

number contains a written decimal point: 4 significant figures
 1.0070 m à 5
17.10 kg à 4
100,890 L à 5 or 6
3.29 x 103 s à 3
0.0054 cm à 2
3,200,000 mL à 2 or more
5 dogs à 1
*Determined by the suitability of its range for
the spread of values being measured.
*For example, to measure the length of an
object with a spread of values between 0 and
1 cm, a meter ruler with a range of 0-100 cm
would not be appropriate. A micrometer
would be appropriate in this case.

*Accuracy of a measuring
instrument
*Determined by the smallest unit to which it can measure.

*The precision is said to be the same as the smallest

fractional or decimal division on the scale of the measuring
instrument.

*Precision of a measuring
instrument
*The uncertainty of a measurement taken with an analogue
measuring instrument is usually taken to be half the division
on the scale of the instrument, while…

*The uncertainty of a measurement taken with a digital

measuring instrument is usually taken to be the same as the
precision of the instrument.

*Uncertainty of measuring
instruments
* With ANALOG instruments (i.e. ruler, grad.
cylinder) usually, the uncertainty is half of the
smallest graduation (increment).
Example: 2.85cm
± 0.05 (smallest
graduation is 0.1,
therefore half of
0.1 is 0.05)

* How to determine the

uncertainty of an analog
measuring instrument?
* With instruments with DIGITAL displays (i.e.
analytical balance), the uncertainty associated
with a single measurement can be assumed to be
the smallest value the instrument can
theoretically measure.
* Example: centigram balance uncertainty is to
± 0.01g, milligram balance is to ± 0.001g

* How to determine the

uncertainty of a digital
measuring instrument?
*The uncertainty of a measurement taken with an analogue
measuring instrument is usually taken to be half the division
on the scale of the instrument, while…

*The uncertainty of a measurement taken with a digital

measuring instrument is usually taken to be the same as the
precision of the instrument.

*Uncertainty of measuring
instruments
• Go to manufacturer’s web site.
• Find a Manual for the sensor.
• Check technical specifications.

* How to determine the

uncertainty of digital sensors?
 * Reporting the precision of
glassware: Volumetric pipettes
* 25 cm3 of water measured out using a 100 cm3 measuring
cylinder might be reported as 25 ± 1 cm3.
* One measured out using a 50 cm3 burette might be reported
as 25.0 ± 0.1 cm3.
* And further, one measured out using a 25 cm3 pipette as
25.00 ± 0.03 cm3.
* The ‘±’ value indicates the level of estimation required to
arrive at the reported measurement.
Therefore, the pipette is said to be more precise than the
burette, which in turn is more precise than the measuring
cylinder.

* Reporting the precision of a

measuring instrument:
Uncertainty
§Rounding
§Decide how many significant figures are
needed (more on this very soon).
§Round to that many digits, counting from
the left.
§Is the next digit less than 5? Drop it.
§Next digit 5 or greater? Increase by 1.
Addition and Subtraction
§ The answer should be rounded to the same number of
decimal places as the least number of decimal places in the
problem.
Multiplication and Division
§ Round the answer to the same number of significant figures
as the least number of significant figures in the problem.
Multiplication and Division: # sig figs in the result equals the
number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.

} 6.38 x 2.0 = 12.76 à 13 (2 sig figs)

} 6.8 + 11.934 = 18.734 à 18.7 (1 decimal place)

 Calculation Calculator says: Answer

3.24 m + 7.0 m 10.24 m 10.2 m

100.0 g - 23.73 g
0.02 cm + 2.371 cm
713.1 L - 3.872 L
1818.2 lb + 3.37 lb
2.030 mL - 1.870 mL
 Calculation Calculator says: Answer

3.24 m x 7.0 m 22.68 m 23.00 = 23 m

100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm3
0.02 cm x 2.371 cm
710 m ÷ 3.0 s
1818.2 lb x 3.23 ft
1.030 g x 2.87 mL
 Range of value gives you an idea
of the consistency of the results
Individual precision
Value

2
uncertainties accepted 6

5
7
Mean of value
1
Accuracy (deviation
from accepted value)

Range of value
Accepted value 4

Number of experiment
• All measurements have a degree of
uncertainty regardless of its accuracy or
precision
• Uncertainty in measurements can be
reported in different ways:
❖ Absolute uncertainty
❖ Fractional uncertainty
❖ Percentage uncertainty

*Recall: Types of
representation of uncertainty
Example:
* Same volume was measured three times using different
glassware and then all three were added together:
* 25 cm3 of water measured out using a 100 cm3 measuring
cylinder might be reported as 25 ± 1 cm3.
* One measured out using a 50 cm3 burette might be
reported as 25.0 ± 0.1 cm3.
* And further, one measured out using a 25 cm3 pipette as
25.00 ± 0.03 cm3.
* Total volume – ???

* Propagating uncertainties:
Adding uncertainties
Example:
* Same volume was measured three times using different glassware and then all three were added
together.
* 25 cm3 of water measured out using a 100 cm3 measuring cylinder might be reported as 25 ± 1 cm3.
* One measured out using a 50 cm3 burette might be reported as 25.0 ± 0.1 cm3.
* And further, one measured out using a 25 cm3 pipette as 25.00 ± 0.03 cm3.

* Total volume = 75 cm3. Not 75.0 or 75.00 cm3 !!!

* What will be the overall uncertainty of this volume?
* Absolute uncertainty = 1 + 0.1 + 0.03 = ± 1.13 cm3.
* Final answer: 75 ± 1 cm3.
* Note: final absolute uncertainty is to 1 s.f.

* Propagating uncertainties:
Adding uncertainties
*Absolute uncertainty = the ‘±’ value of
the measurement.
*Experimental value = the value measured in
the lab.
*Percentage uncertainty = the absolute
uncertainty divided by the experimental
value, then multiplied by 100%.

*Percentage
Uncertainty
*Dealing with uncertainties
in calculations
(Overview)
*Adding or subtracting
uncertainties
*Multiplying or dividing
uncertainties
20.00 ± 0.05 g of sugar is dissolved
in 50.00 ± 0.10 cm3 of distilled water.

Find its concentration and the uncertainty of

concentration in g cm-3.

*Worked Example
20.00 ± 0.05 g of sugar is dissolved
in 50.00 ± 0.10 cm 3 of distilled water.
*Worked Example
Find its concentration and the uncertainty of concentration in g cm-3.
 Final answer:

Concentration of sugar =
= 0.400 ± 0.002 g cm-3.

*Final absolute uncertainty must

be recorded to 1 s.f.

**Final answer must be given to

same d.p. as the final absolute
uncertainty (0.400, not 0.4000).

20.00 ± 0.05 g of sugar is dissolved

in 50.00 ± 0.10 cm 3 of distilled water.
*Worked Example
Find its concentration and the uncertainty of concentration in g cm-3.
 * Recall: Propagation of uncertainties in
calculated results
1. When adding or subtracting measurements, the uncertainty in
the calculated value is the sum of the absolute uncertainties.

1:

2:

Weighing mass by difference is one way of

systematic
reducing ____________________ error
 * Recall: Propagation of uncertainties in
calculated results
2. When multiplying or dividing measurements, the total
% uncertainty in the calculated value is the sum of
individual % uncertainties.
*Accepted value = the correct value based
on reliable references.
*Experimental value = the value measured in the
lab.
*Error = accepted value – exp. value
*Can be positive or negative.
*Percentage error = the absolute value of the
error divided by the accepted value, then
multiplied by 100%.

*Percentage Error
*When evaluating an experiment, you will
compare your experimental value and its
precision to the expected value – i.e. compare
the % experimental error with the % (precision)
uncertainty.

*Comparing % error and

% uncertainty
* The result is within the margin of error for the
precision uncertainties.
* Systematic errors or other random errors are smaller
than the random errors caused by precision
uncertainties. >> Minor experimental errors.
* If the precision uncertainty is large you probably want
to suggest ways of reducing it – e.g.:
* More replications to reduce error.
* More precise measuring tools or larger experimental
sample size to reduce uncertainty.
* It is possible that two systematic errors cancelled each
other out.

*% experimental error <

< % uncertainty
* Systematic errors or other random errors are larger
than the random errors caused by precision
uncertainties.
* You need to estimate or identify where the systematic
errors or random errors have occurred.
* You then need to suggest improvements to minimize
the effects of these systematic or other random errors
e.g.:
* Changing the method used.
* Calibrating the apparatus.
* Systematic errors can also occur in data processing.

*% experimental error >

> % uncertainty
• Understand the distinction between random
errors and systematic errors.
• Propagation of random errors in data
processing shows the impact of the uncertainties
on the final result.
• Experimental design and procedure usually lead
to systematic errors in measurement, which
cause a deviation of the data in a particular
direction.
• Repeat trials and measurements will reduce
random errors but not systematic errors.

*Description of Errors
 *Errors
Random vs systematic errors
Accuracy, precision and consistency (the variation in the value obtained
when the determination is repeated) of measurements are illustrated in the
diagram below, which represents eight separate determinations of a
particular quantity:
 Systematic errors
• Due to how well the equipment was
Random errors used or how well the experiment
• Due to the precision of the was controlled.
equipment. • Makes the measured value always
• Makes the measured value both smaller or larger than the true
smaller and larger than the true value, but not both
value. • An experiment may involve more
• Uncertainties are measures of than one systematic error and these
random errors. These are errors errors may nullify one another, but
incurred as a result of making each alters the true value in one
measurements on imperfect tools way only.
which can only have certain degree • Accuracy (or validity) is a measure of
of accuracy. the systematic error. If an
experiment is accurate or valid then
the systematic error is very small.

*Errors
Human error

Yazan is trying to
measure the length
of a piece of wood:

Discuss what he is doing wrong.

How many mistakes can you find?
 Human error
Answers:
1. Measuring from 100 end
2. 95.4 is the wrong number
3. ‘mm’ is wrong unit (cm)
4. Hand-held object, wobbling
5. Gap between object & the ruler
6. End of object not at the end of the ruler
7. Eyesare not at the end of the object
(parallax error)
8. He is on wrong side of the ruler to see scale.
Human error

Reading a scale: Your eye

1X

2V
3X
Discuss the best position
to put your eye.
Human error

2 is best.
1 and 3 give the
wrong readings.
This is called a
parallax error.

It is due to the gap here,

between the pointer and
the scale.
Should the gap be wide or narrow?
Anomalous results

When you are doing your practical work,

you may get an odd or inconsistent or
‘anomalous’ reading.
This may be due to a simple mistake in
reading a scale.
The best way to identify an anomalous
result is to draw a graph.
For example . . .
Anomalous results

Look at this graph: x

x
x
Which result do x

you think may be x

anomalous? x

A result like this should be taken again,

to check it.
Anomalous, or an outlier.
Types of errors

When reading scales,

there are 2 main types of error:

• Random errors
• Systematic errors.

Let’s look at some examples . . .

 Random errors

May be due to
*Human error
*Faulty equipment
*The effects of changes in the surroundings,
such as temperature variations and air
currents
*Insufficient data
*The observer misinterpreting the reading
 Random errors

Random errors make a measurement less precise, but

not in any particular direction. They are expressed as
an uncertainty range, such as 25.05 ± 0.05°C.

To reduce the error,

take a lot of readings (repeated measurements),
and then calculate the average (mean).

*Precise measurements have small random errors

and are reproducible in repeated trials.
Systematic errors

These errors cause readings to shift one way (or the

other) from the true reading.
Your results will be systematically wrong.
Systematic errors are always either higher or lower,
but not both (occur in the same direction each time).
They are due to:
Instrument
Wrong procedure…
Let’s look at some examples
Systematic errors

Suppose you are

measuring with a ruler:

If the ruler is wrongly

calibrated, or if it
expands, then all the
readings will be too low (or
all too high).
Systematic errors – zero errors

Look at this
top-pan balance:

It has a zero error.

There is nothing on it,

but it is not reading zero.

What effect do you think this will have

on all the readings?
 Systematic errors – zero errors

Ammeter: Voltmeter:

If you used it like this, what effect would it have on your

results?
 Systematic Random
• Causes the data to be skewed • Causes the data to be either
in one direction every time. above or below accepted
Also, known as determinate value. Also known as
errors. indeterminate errors.

• Cannot be eliminated by • Can be reduced by averaging

averaging, but can be avoided the data, but cannot be
by changing the way in which avoided.
the experiment is carried out
(methodology). • Inherent in all the instruments
we use in data measurements
• Examples include: zero error,
mis-calibrated thermometer.
Systematic errors – other cases

* Uncalibrated or poorly calibrated weights and glassware

* Incomplete drying of samples
* Transfer of solutions (contamination of reagents)
* Co-precipitation with impurities
* Incomplete reaction
* Impurities in the reagents used
* Effect of moisture changing the concentration of the reagent
* Improper use of a pipette
* Measuring the volume of water from the top of the meniscus rather
than the bottom
* Overshooting the volume of a liquid delivered in a titration will lead
to readings which are too high
* Heat losses in an exothermic reaction will lead to smaller observed
temperatures changes
Systematic errors

These errors can be reduced by:

* Weighing by difference.
* Calibration of each apparatus by an appropriate procedure.
* The occurrence of systematic errors in any given method is
checked by comparing the results with those obtained from
different methods.

*Accurate measurements have small systematic

errors and give a result close to the accepted
value.
To be used in evaluation of IA report….

Instrumental

Systematic
error Operator

Methodological
Types of
errors
Instrumental

Random
error
Operator
 * When evaluating experimental
conclusion, systematic and
random errors need to be
considered. Precision and accuracy
of the measurements need to be
discussed with reference to both
procedures and use of equipment.