UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER 4
ISENTROPIC FLOW

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4. ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 1/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 2/80
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4.1 INTRODUCTION

 The compressible flow is 3D in general, but the discussion is restricted to 1D flows

 Although the static pressure in a streamtube can be considered constant, the velocity changes
due to no-slip condition.

 But from a 1D point of wiev, it can be approximated by its average value so that it is uniform.

 From a one-dimensional point of wiev, the fluid properties in compressible flows are affected from
(i) changes in the cross-sectional area
(ii) friction
(iii) heat transfer

 In many practical problems, these effects occur simultaneously.

 Due to the complexity of the analysis of such flows, these factors are studied one at a time, while
the others being neglected.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 3/80
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 In this chapter, the effects of

(i) friction and
(ii) heat transfer
are neglected.

 Therefore
(i) steady
(ii) one-dimensional
(iii) adiabatic
isentropic
(iv) reveresible
flows with area change are studied.

 These isentropic flows with area change are known as simple area change flows.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 4/80
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 They have two important applications:

(i) flow in ducts
(ii) flow in stream tubes

• The flow in pipes and ducts is usually adiabatic.

• In the case of nozzles and diffusers, the ducts are usually very short so that the frictional effects
are negligible.

• Therefore, the flow is reversible, hence it is isentropic.

• The main function of nozzles and diffusers are to accelerate or decelerate the flow as efficiently as
possible.

• Therefore, isentropic process provides a useful standard for the comparison of the actual
performance of nozzles and diffusers.

 For external flows around bodies and internal flows through passage, there are stream tubes
which lie outside the boundary layer.

 In these stream tubes, the effects of heat transfer are negligible and the flow may be treated as
isentropic.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 5/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 6/80
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4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Control volume

Fp
p1 p2
1 2
Flow V2
V1
direction h2
h1
A1 A2

1
2
a) Continuity Equation

 For steady flows, mass flow rate is constant

 For 1D flows, flow properties are uniform (constant) over each cross-section

b) Momentum Equation
 For frictionless flows

where Fp is the pressure force acting on the side walls of the control volume.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 7/80
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Control volume

Fp
p1 p2
1 2
Flow V2
V1
direction h2
h1
A1 A2

1
2

c) Energy Equation
 When there is no heat transfer between the control volume and its surroundings

d) The Second Law of Thermodynamics

 For isentropic flows

e) Equation of State

 For perfect gases

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 8/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.3 STAGNATION CONDITIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 9/80
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4.3 STAGNATION CONDITIONS

 The stagnation conditions are extremely important for defining a reference state for compressible
flows.

 The stagnation state is defined as the state where the flow velocity is zero.

Infinitely large Infinitely large

reservoir reservoir

p p Stagnation
Stagnation
Flow   Flow state
state p0, T0
V V
p0, T0 h0, 0
h h
h0, 0
T T

 Applying the energy equation

where h0 is the stagnation enthalpy.

 The stagnation enthalpy has the same value for all states, which are reachable adiabatically from a
given static state, whether the deceleration process is reversible or not.

 The stagnation state may be fixed by using the second law of thermodynamics

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.3 STAGNATION CONDITIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 10/80
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 The deceleration process, which is governed by first and second law of thermodynamics, can be
illustrated on a Mollier diagram.

h T
Stagnation p0 p0
state
h0 T0

Stagnation
V2/2 state
V2/(2cp)
p p
h T
Static state Static state
s s
s = s0 s = s0

 For a perfect gas, h = cpT, so that the energy equation becomes

or using cp = kR/(k – 1) , so that the energy equation becomes

where T0 is the stagnation temperature and it has the same value whether the acceleration or
deceleration process is isentropic or not.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.3 STAGNATION CONDITIONS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 11/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 12/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEEDS OF GAS DYNAMICS

 They are two types of characteristic speeds:
(i) dimensional characteristic speeds and
(ii) nondimensional characteristic speeds.

4.4.1 Dimensional Characteristic Speeds

 There are three important dimensional characteristic speeds.
a) Stagnation Speed of Sound
 It is the speed of sound at the stagnation state.

 For an adiabatic flow, the stagnation speed of sound is constant.

b) Maximum Speed
 A gas can attain its maximum speed when it is hypothetically expanded to zero pressure. The
static temperature corresponding to this state is also zero.

 It represents the speed corresponding to the complete transformation of the kinetic energy
associated with the random motion of gas molecules (thermal energy) into directed kinetic energy.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 13/80
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c) Critical Speed of Sound

 The speed of sound at the sonic state of a perfect gas, where M = 1

where the superscript * indicates the sonic state.

Relation between Dimensional Characteristic Speeds

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 14/80
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Steady Flow Adiabatic Ellipse

 Recall adiabatic energy equation

 At the stagnation state V = 0 so that T = T0 or a = a0 , while V  Vmax as T = 0 or a = 0

or

which is known as the steady flow adiabatic ellipse.

M = 0.3

Subsonic M=1

Supersonic
Incompressible Transonic

M=5

450 Hypersonic
V

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 15/80
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4.4.2 Nondimensional Characteristic Speeds

 There are two important nondimensional characteristic speeds:

a) Mach Number
 It has two important disadvantages:

(i) The Mach number is not only proportional to the velocity, but it is also a function of
temperature due to the definition of the speed of sound.

(ii) The Mach number tends to infinity at high velocities.

b) Mach Number Referred to Critical Conditions

 It can be defined as

 Recall adiabatic energy equation

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 16/80
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or

M*

k 1
k 1
2.0

1.0

M
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.4 CHARACTERISTIC SPEED OF GAS DYNAMICS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 17/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 18/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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4.5 EFFECTS OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES IN ISENTROPIC FLOW

Control volume

p p + dp
  + d
V Flow V + dV
h direction h + dh
A A + dA

1
2

a) Continuity Equation
 For steady flows, mass flow rate is constant
 For 1D flows, flow properties are uniform (constant) over each cross-section

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 19/80
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b) Momentum Equation

 For frictionless flows

Control volume

 Noting that
p p + dp
  + d
or V Flow V + dV
h direction h + dh
A A + dA
 Combining continuity and momentum equations
1
2

 For an isentropic process, the entropy is constant so that dp/d = (p/)s = a2

or

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 20/80
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Flow Flow
dA < 0 dA > 0

(a) (b)

Flow Flow
dA > 0 dA < 0

(c) (d)

 When flow is sonic (M = 1), the flow area must either pass through a minimum or maximum
 A sonic flow can be obtained
(i) by accelerating a subsonic flow (Case a)
(ii) by decelerating a supersonic flow (Case d)
 Hence, sonic flow is reached at the point where the flow area is minimum and known as throat.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 21/80
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 Afterwards the flow area may remain the same, continues to decrease or starts to increase.

(i) If the flow area remains constant, properties do not change in an isentropic flow.

(ii) If the flow area continues to decrease

dA < 0
dA < 0

M1 = 1 M2

 Therefore, a sonic flow cannot enter a converging passage and still satisfy the governing
equations for steady, one-dimensional flow.

 This is due to a phenomenon known as choking and the flow is known as choked flow.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 22/80
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(iii) If the flow area starts to increase

dA < 0
dA > 0

M1 = 1 M2

 Therefore, when M = 1, the flow cross-sectional area must pass through a minimum.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 23/80
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Inlet conditions A1
p1 Flow
are fixed A2   M2  until M2  1
   AV is fixed
m T1
M1 < 1
M1
2

1 Adjustable walls

 For a given area reduction, there is a maximum initial Mach number which can be maintained.

Inlet conditions A1
p1 Flow
are fixed A2   M2  until M2  1
   AV is fixed
m T1
M1 > 1
M1
2

1 Adjustable walls

 For a given area reduction, there is a minimum initial Mach number which can be maintained.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 24/80
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dA < 0
dA < 0
dA > 0

M<1
M<1 Mt = 1 M> 1

(Subsonic nozzle (Subsonic to supersonic nozzle

(de Laval nozzle)

dA > 0
dA < 0
dA > 0

M<1 M>1 Mt = 1 M<1

(Subsonic diffuser (Supersonic to subsonic diffuser

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.5 EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION ON FLOW PROPERTIES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 25/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 26/80
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4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS

 Any one-dimensional isentropic flow problem of a perfect gas can be solved by the application of the
governing equations.

 However, they can be arranged in a more suitable form and the results can then be tabulated to
facilitated the solution of problems.

4.6.1 Stagnation Temperature Ratio

 Recall adiabatic energy equation

 For a perfect gas, h = cpT

 Since cp = kR/(k – 1)

 Using the equation for the speed of sound a2 = kRT

 When M = 1

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 27/80
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4.6.2 Stagnation Pressure Ratio

 For an isentropic process

 For a perfect gas, p = RT

 Hence

 When M = 1

4.6.3 Stagnation Density Ratio

 When M = 1

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 28/80
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4.6.4 Mass Flow Rate per Unit Area (Mass Flux)

 For a perfect gas,  = p/RT

or

 Using the definition of the Mach number

 Using the equation for the stagnation temperature ratio

 The above equation is valid for both isentropic and adiabatic flows since only
(i) continuity equation
(ii) adiabatic energy equation and
(iii) equation of state for a perfect gas is used

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 29/80
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 Using the equation for the stagnation pressure ratio

or

 For maximum mass flow rate per unit area (since mass flow rate is constant, area is minimum),
differentiate with respect to M and equate to zero

 /A
m
so that

 / A*
m

 The mass flow rate can now be nondimensionalized as

0 M
 Therefore, maximum mass flux depends only on p0 and T0 0 1

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 30/80
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4.6.5 Area Ratio

 Recall

 Hence

A/ A*

A1 / A *

0 M
0 M1sub 1 M1sup

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 31/80
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4.6.6 Impulse Function

 It can be defined as

Control volume

Fp

p1 p2
1 2
Flow
V1 V2
h1 h2
A1 A2

1
2

 Applying the momentum equation

where Fp is the pressure force exerted on the control volume by the side walls

 The force exerted on the solid surfaces by the stream is

where  is called the net thrust.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 32/80
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 Recall

 For a perfect gas,  = p/RT

which can be nondimensionalized by dividing by p0A*

 When M = 1

 Hence

 Recall

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 33/80
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 Recall
k
p0  k  1 2  k 1
 1 M 
p  2 

T0 k 1 2
 1 M
T 2
1
 0  k  1 2  k 1
 1 M 
  2 

k 1
A 1 2  k  1 2   2( k 1)
  1  M 
A * M  k  1  2 

I 1  kM 2

I*  k 1 2
M 2(k  1)  1  M 
 2 
k 1

 RT 0
m  k  1 2  2( k 1)
 k M 1  M 
Ap0  2 

 The right hand side of all of these ratios is a function of M and k.

 These ratios are then tabulated as a functon of M for air with k = 1.4. Also, k = 1.4 for nitrogen

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.6 RELATIONS FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 34/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 35/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 36/80
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APPENDIX C
ISENTROPIC FLOW OF A PERFECT GAS (k = 1.4)

M M*

0.00 0.00000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 ∞ ∞ 0.00000

0.01 0.01095 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 57.87 45.65 0.01183
0.02 0.02191 0.9997 0.9999 0.9998 28.94 22.83 0.02366
0.03 0.03286 0.9994 0.9998 0.9996 19.30 15.23 0.03548
0.04 0.04381 0.9989 0.9997 0.9992 14.48 11.43 0.04728
0.05 0.05476 0.9983 0.9995 0.9988 11.59 9.158 0.05907
0.06 0.06570 0.9975 0.9993 0.9982 9.666 7.643 0.07084
0.07 0.07664 0.9966 0.9990 0.9976 8.292 6.562 0.08258
0.08 0.08758 0.9955 0.9987 0.9968 7.262 5.753 0.09429
0.09 0.09851 0.9944 0.9984 0.9960 6.461 5.125 0.1060
0.10 0.1094 0.9930 0.9980 0.9950 5.822 4.624 0.1176

1.00 1.0000 0.5283 0.8333 0.6339 1.000 1.000 0.6847

3.00 1.964 0.02722 0.3571 0.07623 4.235 1.237 0.1617

∞ 2.450 0.00000 0.0000 0.00000 ∞ 1.429 0.0000

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 37/80
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Problem 4.6
Air is flowing isentropically through a converging duct, which is fed from a large reservoir where the
temperature and pressure are 350 K and 250 kPa, respectively. At a certain point along the duct, where
the cross-sectional area is 0.005 m2, the pressure is 150 kPa. Determine the Mach number, temperature
and velocity at that point and also calculate the mass flow rate.

0 1
p0 = 250 kPa A1 = 0.005 m2
T0 = 350 K p1 = 150 kPa

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 38/80
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T
p0
0
T0

0 1
p0 = 250 kPa A1 = 0.005 m2 p1
T0 = 350 K p1 = 150 kPa T1
1
Solution
s

or

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 39/80
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Problem 4.13
A supersonic diffuser decelerates air isentropically from a Mach number of 3.0 to a Mach number of 1.5. If
the static pressure and temperature at the diffuser inlet are 30 kPa and 250 K, respectively, then calculate
the static pressure rise in the diffuser and the ratio of the inlet to exit cross-sectional area of the diffuser.
Also calculate the mass flow rate per unit area at the inlet of the diffuser. Show the process on the T-s
diagram.

M1 = 3.0 Flow
p1 = 30 kPa M2 = 1.5
T1 = 250 K
2

Solution

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 40/80
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T
p0
0
T0 p2
T2
M1 = 3.0 Flow 2
p1 = 30 kPa M2 = 1.5
T1 = 250 K
p1
2
T1
1
1
s

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.7 CHARTS AND TABLES FOR ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 41/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 42/80
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4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES

4.8.1 Converging Nozzles

V0 = 0
Flow to vacuum
p0 = constant pb
pump
T0 = constant
pe

Valve
(a)
p

p0 1 No flow condition

2 Subcritical flow
3 regime
p* 3 Critical condition
Supercritical
4 flow regime
x
Distance along the
nozzle

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 43/80
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p

p0 1 No flow condition

2 Subcritical flow
regime
p* 3 Critical condition
Supercritical
4 flow regime
x

a) No-Flow Condition (pb = p0)

 No flow
 pb = pe = p0

b) SUBCRITICAL FLOW REGIME (p0 > pb > p*) pe pe

 constantly decreasing pressure pb
pb
 pb = pe otherwise
 if pe > pb  stream will expand  A   V   p  X
Jet Jet
 if pe < pb  stream will contract  A   V   p  X boundary
boundary

 Hence pb = pe
pe
 issues as a cylindrical stream
pb
 gradually retarded by surrounding gases

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 44/80
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c) Critical Condition (pb = p*)

Jet
 The flow is choked
boundary
 Me = 1
 pb = pe = p* pe
p
pb

p0 1 No flow condition

2 Subcritical flow
regime
p* 3 Critical condition
Supercritical Jet
4 flow regime boundary
x
pe

d) SUPERCRITICAL FLOW REGIME (pb < p*) pb

 The flow is choked
 Me = 1
 pb < pe = p*
 The flow will expand outside the nozzle.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 45/80
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p0 1 No flow condition

2 Subcritical flow
regime
p* 3 Critical condition
Supercritical
4 flow regime
x

 /A
m pe

p0 1
4 3
 / A*
m
2
2 4 3
p*

1 450
pb pb
p* p0 p* p0

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 46/80
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Problem 4.19
A converging nozzle is fed with air from a large reservoir where the temperature and pressure are 400 K
and 300 kPa, respectively. At a certain point along the duct, where the cross-sectional area is 0.005 m2,
the velocity is 200 m/s. The nozzle discharges to the atmosphere with a pressure of 100 kPa. Determine
the Mach number, temperature, pressure and the cross-sectional area at the exit plane. Also, find the
mass flow rate. The flow is isentropic throughout the nozzle.

0 1 e b
p0 = 300 kPa A1 = 0.005 m2 pb = 100 kPa
T0 = 400 K V1 = 200 m/s
Solution

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 47/80
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T
p0
0
T0
p1
T1 1

pe = p*
0 1 e b *
Te = T
*

p0 = 300 kPa pb
A1 = 0.005 m2 pb = 100 kPa
T0 = 400 K V1 = 200 m/s
s

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 48/80
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Problem 4.20
A converging nozzle is fed with air from a large reservoir where the temperature and pressure are 350 K
and 150 kPa, respectively. The flow in the nozzle is isentropic throughout and the nozzle discharges to
the atmosphere with a pressure of 100 kPa. At a section within the nozzle, where the cross-sectional area
is 0.005 m2, the velocity is 100 m/s. Determine the pressure, Mach number, temperature and cross-
sectional area at the exit plane. Also, find the mass flow rate.

0 1 e b
p0 = 150 kPa A1 = 0.005 m2 pb = 100 kPa
T0 = 350 K V1 = 100 m/s
Solution

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 49/80
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T
p0
0
T0
p1
T1 1

pe = pb
0 1 e b e
Te
p0 = 150 kPa A1 = 0.005 m2 pb = 100 kPa
T0 = 350 K T*
V1 = 100 m/s
s

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 50/80
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PROBLEM 4.26
Air is stored in a tank of 2 m3 in volume at a pressure of 3 MPa and a temperature of 300 K. The gas is
discharged through a converging nozzle with an exit cross-sectional area of 0.0012 m2. For a back
pressure of 101 kPa, find the time required for the pressure to drop to 300 kPa. The flow throughout the
nozzle is isentropic. Assume that the flow is quasi-steady through the nozzle so that the steady flow
equations are applicable at each instant of time. Also, the temperature in the reservoir remains the same.

 = 2 m3
Flow pb = 101 kPa
p0i = 3000 kPa
T0 = 300 K e
Ae = 0.0012 m2

p0 1 No flow condition

2 Subcritical flow
regime
p* 3 Critical condition
Supercritical
4 flow regime
x

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 51/80
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 = 2 m3
Flow
p0i = 3000 kPa pb = 101 kPa
T0 = 300 K e
Ae = 0.0012 m2

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 52/80
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 = 2 m3
Flow
p0i = 3000 kPa pb = 101 kPa
T0 = 300 K e
Ae = 0.0012 m2

The mass that is escaped from the tank is

Separating the variables

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 53/80
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4.8.2 Converging-Diverging Nozzles

V0 = 0
p0 = constant Flow pb to
T0 = constant vacuum
pump
pt pe

Valve
(a)
p
(a)
p0 1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 54/80
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p

1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle
a) No-Flow Condition (pb = p0)
 No flow.
 pb = pe = pt = p0

b) SUBSONIC FLOW REGIME (p0 > pb > pe3)

 p decreases in the converging section, reaches a minimum and increases in the diverging section.

 converging part acts as a subsonic nozzle, while the diverging part acts as a subsonic diffuser.

 are sensitive to pb.

 pt and m

 Flow is subsonic at the exit, so that pb = pe.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 55/80
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p

1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle

c) Choking Condition (pb = pe3)

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 Flow is subsonic everywhere, except the throat.

 subsonic nozzle + subsonic diffuser.

d) NONISENTROPIC FLOW REGIME (pe3 > pb > pe5y)

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 There is a shock wave in the diverging part.
 Flow is subsonic at the exit, so that pb = pe.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 56/80
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p

1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle

e) Exit Shock Condition (pb = pe5y)

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 There is a normal shock wave at the exit.
 Flow is subsonic at the exit, so that pb = pe.

f) OVEREXPANSION FLOW REGIME (pe5y > pb > pe7)

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 Nozzle is isentropic throughout.
 Overexpanded pb > pe .
 Oblique compression waves outside nozzle.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 57/80
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p

1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle

e) Design Condition (pb = pe7)

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 Flow is entirely isentropic within and outside the nozzle.
 The nozzle is designed for this condition, so that pb = pe.

f) UNDEREXPANSION FLOW REGIME (pe7 > pb )

 Flow is choked at the throat, Mt = 1.
 Nozzle is isentropic throughout.
 Underexpanded pb < pe.
 Oblique expansion waves outside nozzle.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 58/80
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Jet
boundary

pe
p

1 No flow condition pb
Subsonic
2
flow regime (a) pe = pb Jet
3 Choking condition
boundary
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime pb
7 Design condition
Underexpansion Jet
8
flow regime boundary
x
Distance along the nozzle

pb

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 59/80
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1 No flow condition
Subsonic
2
flow regime
3 Choking condition
Flow regime
4
with shocks
5 Exit shock condition
p*
Overexpansion
6
flow regime
7 Design condition
Underexpansion
8
flow regime
x
Distance along the nozzle


m pe
9
p0 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
3
2 4
5y
7y
8 76
5xx
1 450
pb pb
p0 p0

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 60/80
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PROBLEM 4.31
At a point upstream of the throat of an isentropic converging-diverging nozzle, the pressure, temperature
and velocity are 105 kPa, 400 K and 100 m/s, respectively. The exit and throat cross-sectional areas are
0.0015 m2 and 0.001 m2, respectively. The nozzle discharges to the atmosphere with a pressure of 100
kPa. Determine the pressure, Mach number and temperature at the exit plane and also calculate the mass
flow rate.
Ae = 0.0015 m2
1 At = 0.001 m2 e
t
p0 Flow pb = 100 kPa
T0

p1 = 105 kPa
T1 = 400 K
V1 = 100 m/s
p
1 No flow condition
9
2 Subsonic flow regime
3 Choking condition
4 Flow regime with shocks

p* 5 Exit shock condition

7y
6 Overexpansion flow regime
7 Design condition
8 Underexpansion flow regime
x

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 61/80
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Solution
Ae = 0.0015 m2
1 At = 0.001 m2 e
t
p0 Flow
pb = 100 kPa
T0

p1 = 105 kPa
T1 = 400 K
V1 = 100 m/s

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 62/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
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p
1 No flow condition
2 Subsonic flow regime
3 Choking condition
4 Flow regime with shocks

p* 5 Exit shock condition

6 Overexpansion flow regime
7 Design condition
8 Underexpansion flow regime
x

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.8 ISENTROPIC OPERATION OF NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 63/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 64/80
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4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES

 The performance of real nozzles differs slightly from the ones which are computed by isentropic
relations.

 Since the departures from isentropic flow are very small, the actual design is based on isentropic flow
and then modified by emprically determined coefficients.

 These are the

(i) nozzle efficiency,
(ii) nozzle velocity coefficient and
(a)
(iii) nozzle discharge coefficient. h
(a)
p0
0i p0i 0e p0e
h0i = h0e

p0i pe Ve2/2
T0i Ves2/2
Ve 7y pe
he
e
hes
es

s
(b)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 65/80
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0i p0i 0e p0e
h0i = h0e

Ve2/2
Ves2/2
pe
he
e
hes
es

s
 The nozzle efficiency is

while the nozzle velocity coefficient Cv is

 The nozzle discharge coefficient Cd is

 These three coefficients are interrelated.

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 66/80
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 The adiabatic energy equation for the isentropic process

 For a perfect gas, h = cpT

 However for an isentropic process h

0i p0i 0e p0e
h0i = h0e
so that

Ve2/2
Ves 2/2

 The adiabatic energy equation for the actual process pe

he
e
hes
 For a perfect gas, h = cpT es

s
 However for the imaginary isentropic process

so that

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 67/80
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 Noting that T0i = T0e

 Recall
 2 k 1
  2 k 1

s
m k 2  pes  k  pes  k  m k 2  pe  k  pe  k 
 and  p0e    
p0 i     k  1  p0e  p0e  
Ae RT0 i k  1  p0 i   p0 i   Ae RT0e 
   

k 1  k 1

1 k 1 k 1 k 1
  p  k

 pe   p   pes   p   pes  n 1   es
  p0 i  
k k k k k
  1  e    1  e   
m p  p0e   p0e   p0 i   p0e   p0 i   
Cd   0e   k 1
 s p0 i
m 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
 k 1

 pes  k p  k  pe  k  pes  k   pes  k  p  k

1   es    1   1  n 1   1   es 
 
 p0e   p0 i    p0 i    p0 i 
 p0 i   p0 i   

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 68/80
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PROBLEM 4.35
Air is flowing in a converging-diverging nozzle, which has an efficiency of 90 percent. At the inlet of
the nozzle, the stagnation temperature and pressure are 350 K and 500 kPa, respectively. The ratio
of the exit cross-sectional area to the throat cross-sectional area is 1.5.
a) Determine the Mach number, pressure, temperature, mass flux and velocity at the exit of the
nozzle for isentropic flow.
b) Determine the actual values of the velocity, pressure, temperature, Mach number and the
mass flux at the exit of the nozzle.
c) Determine the velocity coefficient of the nozzle.
d) Determine the discharge coefficient of the nozzle.
T

0i p0i 0e p0e
T0i = T0e

Ae/At= 1.5
e Ve2/2cp
t Ves2/2cp
p0 = 500 kPa Flow 7y pe
T0 = 350 K Te
e
9 Tes
es

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 69/80
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Solution T

0i p0i 0e p0e
T0i = T0e
Ae/At= 1.5
e
t
Ve2/2cp
p0 = 500 kPa Flow
T0 = 350 K Ves2/2cp
7y pe
Te
9 7y e
Tes
es
s

a)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 70/80
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T
Ae/At= 1.5
e 0i p0i 0e p0e
t T0i = T0e
p0 = 500 kPa Flow
T0 = 350 K
Ve2/2cp
9 Ves2/2cp
7y pe
Te
b) 7y e
Tes
es
s

c)

d)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.9 PERFORMANCE OF REAL NOZZLES Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 71/80
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Governing Equations
4.3 Stagnation Conditions
4.4 Characteristic Speeds of Gas Dynamics
4.5 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties
4.6 Relations for Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
4.7 Charts and Tables for Isentropic Flow
4.8 Isentropic Operation of Nozzles
4.9 Performance of Real Nozzles
4.10 Thrust of a Rocket Engine

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 72/80
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4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE

Solid
Control propellant
volume

p0
Ve T0
At

Ae (a)

 The free body diagrams of the control volume and (a)

the rocket engine can be drawn as
p0
pa

7y
Fc pe Fc

(b)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 73/80
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pa
+

7y
Fc pe Fc

(a)
 Applying the momentum equation to the control volume

 The net thrust on the rocket engine is

 Nondimensionalizing by dividing by p0At

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 74/80
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 The adiabatic energy equation for the isentropic process

 For a perfect gas, h = cpT

 However for an isentropic process

so that

 For isentropic operation of the nozzle at its design condition, the flow is choked at the throat
k 1
 2  2( k 1)
 
Ae
  k  1
 Recall  2 k 1
 At  2 k 1

s
m k 2  pes  k  pes  k  2  es p  k  p  k

 p0 i       
es
 
Ae RT0 i k  1  p0 i   p0 i   
k  1  p0 i   p0 i  
   
 
 
  pe pa  
k 1
2 
k 1
   
 2  
 2    0
p p0 

Ft  k  p 
2( k 1) k
  1 e
 

p0 At  k  1  k  1   p0    2 k 1

   2  pes  p 
  es   
k k
  
 k  1  p0 i   p0 i   
   

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 75/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
 To find the maximum thrust one may differentiate nondimensional thrust with respect to pe/p0 and
set this derivative to zero.

 The thrust is maximum when the area ratio is chosen such that the pressure at the exit plane to be
equal to the atmospheric pressure.

 This result may be obtained more easily by physical reasoning.

 The net thrust on the rocket is the resultant of static forces on all surfaces of the rocket engine.
Plane where
pe = pa
Atmospheric
pressure

Static pressure
distribution

produces
positive thrust
produces
negative thrust

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 76/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

 The thrust can then be maximized by setting pe = pa

k 1  k 1

(Ft )max  2  2( k  1) 2k 2
 
pe k 
  1  
p0 At  k  1 k  1   p0  
 

 Two performance criteria are commonly employed to compare the performance of propulsive nozzles
in rocket engines.

 These are
(i) specific impulse, Is

(ii) thrust coefficient, Ct

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 77/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PROBLEM 4.38
A solid propellant rocket engine generates gases at a stagnation temperature of 2500 K and a
stagnation pressure of 4000 kPa. The exit and throat cross-sectional areas of the nozzle are 0.020 m2
and 0.005 m2, respectively. The generated gases are perfect with a specific ratio of 1.4 and gas
constant of 320 J/kgK. The flow is isentropic. At an altitude of 20000 m, determine the
a) thrust developed,
b) specific impulse and
c) thrust coefficient. Solid
propellant
e

t
pa Flow p0 = 4000 kPa
T0 = 2500 K

At = 0.005 m2
Ae = 0.020 m2 (a)
SOLUTION

a)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 78/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Solid
propellant
e

t
pa p0 = 4000 kPa
T0 = 2500 K

At = 0.005 m2
Ae = 0.020 m2 (a)

b)

c)

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4.10 THRUST OF A ROCKET ENGINE Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 79/80
 UNIVERSITY OF TURKISH AERONAUTICAL ASSOCIATION
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

AST 441 GAS DYNAMICS 4. ISENTROPIC FLOW Prof. Dr. M. Halûk AKSEL 80/80