Domains and Regions in the Complex Plane

a
r m
Ve
Definition: A domain in the complex plane is a nonempty connected
open set.

l a
Example: The open unit disk {z ∈ C : |z| < 1} is a domain.
e
h e
Definition: A domain together with some, none or all of its boundary
points is referred as a region in the complex plane.

S
Example: The closed unit disk {z ∈ C : |z| ≤ 1} is a region.

.
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 1 / 65
Definitions and Examples

a
r m
A deleted ϵ neighborhood of z0 ∈ C,
Nϵ (z0 ) \ z0 = {z ∈ C|0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}. Ve
An ϵ neighborhood of z0 ∈ C, Nϵ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C||z − z0 | < ϵ}.

l a
A point z0 is said to be an interior point of a set S if for some ϵ > 0,
Nϵ (z0 ) ⊂ S.
e
h e
A point z0 is said to be a boundary point of a set S if every
neighborhood of z0 intersect both S and S c , the complement set of S.

. S
A set S is said to be open if each of its point is an interior point of S.

r
A set S is said to be closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 2 / 65
 A set S is said to be bounded if there exists a real number R > 0a
r m
such that every point of S lies inside circle |z| = R. If no such R
exists, S is said to be unbounded.

Ve
A point z0 is said to be an accumulation point or limit point of a set
S if each deleted neighborhood of z0 contains atleast one point of S.

l a
Zero is the only accumulation point of sequence zn = ni .
e
h e
The sets (a) Im z > 1 (b) |2z + 3| > 4 are an unbounded domains.
The set |z − 2 + i| ≤ 1 is bounded set which is not a domain.
The set 0 ≤ arg z ≤

. S π
4 , (z ̸= 0) is neither open nor closed.

r
Try to explore some examples.

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 3 / 65
What are Complex Functions?

a
r m
Ve
Complex function: A complex function f defined on a subset S of
complex numbers is a rule that assigns to each z in S a complex

l a
number w . The set S is called the domain of definition of f .

e
h e
Notation: f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), where z = x + iy , u(x, y ) and
v (x, y ) are real-valued functions, and i is the imaginary unit.
The function f (z) =

. S 1
z is defined for all complex numbers z ̸= 0.

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 4 / 65
What are Complex Functions?

a
r m
Ve
e l a
Complex functions map complex numbers to complex numbers.
Notation: f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), where z = x + iy , u(x, y ) and

e
v (x, y ) are real-valued functions, and i is the imaginary unit.

h
. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 5 / 65
Limit of a Complex Function

a
r m
Definition

Ve
Let f (z) be a complex function defined in a neighborhood of z0 , except
possibly at z0 itself. We say that the limit of f (z) as z approaches z0 is L,

l a
denoted by limz→z0 f (z) = L, if for every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such

e
that |f (z) − L| < ϵ whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.

Example: Let f (z) =

h e z 2 −1
z−1 . Find limz→1 f (z).

. S
Solution: limz→1 f (z) = limz→1 (z−1)(z+1)
z−1 = limz→1 (z + 1) = 2.

r
Therefore, limz→1 f (z) = 2.

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 6 / 65
Continuity in Complex Functions

a
r m
Ve
A complex function f (z) is continuous at a point z0 if limz→z0 f (z)
exists and is equal to f (z0 ).

l a
Continuity involves both real and imaginary parts separately.
e
complex plane.
h e
Polynomial Functions: f (z) = z n is continuous everywhere on the

S
Exponential Functions: f (z) = e z is continuous everywhere.

.
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 7 / 65
Non-Continuous Function

a
r m
Ve
Consider the function f (z) = zz , where z is a complex number.
To show that f (z) is not continuous at z = 0, let’s evaluate the limit

e l a
of f (z) as z approaches 0 along different paths.
Along the path z = t where t → 0, f (z) = t
t = 1.

h e
Along the path z = it where t → 0, f (z) = −it
ti = −1.
Since the limit of f (z) as z approaches 0 differs along different paths,

z = 0.
. S
thus limz→0 f (z) does not exist. Hence f (z) is not continuous at

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 8 / 65
Differential Functions of Complex Variables

a
r m
Ve
A complex function f (z) is differentiable at a point z0 if the limit
limz→z0 f (z)−f
z−z0
(z0 )
exists.

e l a
be holomorphic in D.
h e
If f (z) is differentiable at every point in an open set D, it is said to

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 9 / 65
Examples of Differentiable Functions

a
r m
Ve
The function f (z) = z 2 is differentiable everywhere and holomorphic
on the entire complex plane.

e l a
The function f (z) = z̄, where z̄ is the complex conjugate of z, is not

h e
differentiable anywhere.

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 10 / 65
Non-Differentiable Function (contd.)

a
r m
Example: Let f (z) = |z|. This function is not differentiable at z = 0.

Ve
Solution: Consider approaching z = 0 along the real axis, i.e., z = x
where x → 0. Then, f (z) = |x|, which is not differentiable at x = 0.
Therefore, f (z) is not differentiable at z = 0.

l a
Example: Let f (z) = Re(z). This function is not differentiable
e
anywhere.

h e
Solution: Consider the Cauchy-Riemann equations for f (z) = Re(z).

and ∂v
∂y = 0. Since
. S
We have u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = 0. The partial derivatives ∂u
the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not
∂x = 1
satisfied,

D r
f (z) = Re(z) is not differentiable anywhere.
The function f (z) = |z|2 is differentiable only at z = 0.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 11 / 65

Conclusion

a
r m
Ve
Continuous functions of complex variables provide a rich

l a
mathematical framework with applications across various disciplines.

e
Understanding the properties and behavior of these functions is crucial

h e
for advancing scientific knowledge and technological innovation.

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 12 / 65
Cauchy-Riemann Equations

a
r m
Ve
e l a
Definition and significance of CR equations.
f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) and the CR equations: ∂u
∂x = ∂v
∂y and
∂u ∂v
∂y = − ∂x .

h e
. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 13 / 65
Derivation of CR Equations

a
r m
Derivation from the concept of differentiability:

f ′ (z) = lim
f (z + ∆z) − f (z)
∆z Ve
a
∆z→0

= lim
∆z→0 l
(u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) + iv (x + ∆x, y + ∆y )) − (u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

e ∆x + i∆y

= lim


h e
u(x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) − u(x, y )
∆x + i∆y
+i
v (x + ∆x, y + ∆y ) − v (x, y )
∆x + i∆y


S
∆z→0

Equating the real and imaginary parts of f ′ (z) gives the

r.
Cauchy-Riemann equations.

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 14 / 65
Theorem
Suppose that f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) and that f ′ (z) exists at a point

a
z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then the first order partial derivatives of u and v must exist
at (x0 , y0 ) and they must satisfy C-R equations

r m
ux = vy , uy = −vx

Ve
at (x0 , y0 ). Further, f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 )
Application of CR Equations
e l a
h e
Given: f (z) = |z|2 = x 2 + y 2 .
Partial derivatives:

. S ∂u
∂x
= 2x,
∂u
∂y
= 2y

D r ∂v
∂x
= 0,
∂v
∂y
=0

̸ 0, thus f (z) is not differentiable

The CR equations do not hold at z =
at all points z ̸= 0.
We can not conclude anything at z = 0 using CR equations.
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 15 / 65
CR Equations Hold but function is NOT Differentiable

a
Define

r m
e
(
z̄ 2
z , ̸ 0,
ifz =
f (z) =
0,
V
ifz = 0.

Note that

e l a
h e x 3 − 3xy 2
u(x, y ) = 2
x + y2
and v (x, y ) =
y 3 − 3x 2 y
x2 + y2

S
for (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0). Also, u(0, 0) = 0 and v (0, 0) = 0.
.
D r
ux (0, 0) = 1 = vy (0, 0) and uy (0, 0) = 0 = −vx (0, 0). Thus CR
equation is satisfied at z = 0.
Exercise: f (z) is not differentiable at z = 0.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 16 / 65

Sufficient Condition for Differentiability

a
r m
Ve
Let function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be defined throughout some

l a
nbd of a point z0 = x0 + iy0 . Suppose that the first order partial
derivatives of u and v exist everywhere in the nbd (x0 , y0 ) and those
e
h e
first-order partial derivatives are continuous at (x0 , y0 ) and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at (x0 , y0 ). Then f (z) is differentiable at
z0 and f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 17 / 65
Cauchy-Riemann Equations in Polar Coordinates

a
r m
Ve
∂u
∂r
=

e l
1 ∂v
r ∂θ a
h e ∂u
∂θ
= −r
∂v
∂r

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 18 / 65
Analytic Functions

a
r m
differentiable in some neighborhood of z0 .
Ve
A complex-valued function is said to be Analytic at a point z0 if it is

Examples of Analytic Functions:

e l a
f (z) = e z , sin z are analytic on all points in the finite plane.

h e
f (z) = z1 is analytic at each nonzero point in the finite plane.
f (z) = |z|2 is not analytic anywhere.

entire plane.
. S
An entire function is a function that is analytic at each point in the

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 19 / 65
Harmonic Functions

a
Definition

r m
e
A real-valued function f (x, y ) of two variables is called harmonic in a given
domain of the xy − plane if it has continuous partial derivatives of first and
second order and it satisfies Laplace’s equation:
V
∂2f
(x, y ) + l
∂2f
e a(x, y ) = 0.

h e ∂x 2 ∂y 2

S
Properties of Harmonic functions:
The real and imaginary parts of analytic functions are harmonic

.
functions.

D r
Harmonic functions satisfy the mean value property: The value of a
harmonic function at any point is equal to the average value of the
function over any circle centered at that point.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 20 / 65

Harmonic Conjugates and Examples

a
Definition

r m
e
Given a harmonic function u(x, y ), a function v (x, y ) is called a harmonic
conjugate of u if v satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations with u i.e.,
ux = vy , uy = −vx .
V
Theorem
e l a
h e
A function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is analytic in a domain D if and only
if v is a Harmonic conjugate of u.

. S
Theorem
r
If a harmonic function u(x, y ) is defined on a simply connected domain D,
D
it always has a harmonic conjugate v (x, y ) in D.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 21 / 65

Example

a
Let u(x, y ) = − x2 y 2.
r m
To find the harmonic conjugate v (x, y ), we
solve the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂uVe ∂v
∂x
=
∂y

e
and
l a ∂y
=−
∂x

e
Differentiating u(x, y ) with respect to x and y , we get:

h
. S ∂u
∂x
= 2x and
∂u
∂y
= −2y

r
Solving these equations gives v (x, y ) = 2xy .

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 22 / 65
Definitions

a
Arc: An arc AB is defined by the parametric equation
r m
functions of the real parameter t.
Ve
z(t) = (x(t), y (t)), a ≤ t ≤ b,, where x(t) and y (t) are continuous

z = e iθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π; z = e −iθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π and z = e 2iθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

represent different arc.

e l a
Simple Arc: A simple arc is an arc that does not cross itself. It can
e
be represented as a continuous and injective function z(t).
h
S
Simple Closed Curve or Jordan curve: A simple closed curve is a
closed curve that does not intersect itself except at the endpoints. It
.
r
can be defined parametrically as z(t) where t ranges from a to b and
z(a) = z(b). Such a curve is positively oriented if when it is in the
D
counterclockwise direction.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 23 / 65

Definitions

a
Differentiable Arc: A differentiable arc is an arc z(t) for which z ′ (t)
is continuous on a ≤ t ≤ b.
r m
s
Ve
The length L of a differentiable arc is defined as

a
Z b Z b  2  2
dx dy
L=
a
|z ′ (t)| dt =

eal dt
+
dt
dt.

h e
Smooth Arc: A smooth arc is an arc z(t) for which z ′ (t) is

.
interval a < t < b. S
continuous on a ≤ t ≤ b and z ′ (t) is nonzero throughout the open

D r
Contour: A contour is an arc consisting of a finite number of smooth
arcs joined end to end. Thus for a contour, z(t) is continuous and
z ′ (t) is piecewise continuous.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 24 / 65

Derivative of w (t)

a
r m
Let w (t) be a complex valued function of a real variable t,

Ve
w (t) = u(t) + iv (t), where u(t) and v (t) are real valued function.
w ′ (t) = u ′ (t) + iv ′ (t), provided u ′ (t) and v ′ (t) exist.

e l a
The mean value theorem for derivatives is NOT true here.
Consider w (t) =

h e e it , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then |w ′ (t)| = 1 for all t and

. S
w (b) − w (a)
b−a
= 0 ̸= w ′ (t) for any 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 25 / 65
Definite integral of w (t)

a
Over the interval a ≤ t ≤ b,
r m
Z b
w (t) dt =
Z b

Ve
u(t) dt + i
Z b
v (t) dt,
a a

e l
provided the integrals on the right hand side exist.a a

h e
The mean value theorem for integrals is NOT true here i.e., it is not
necessarily true that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that

. S Z b

D r a
w (t) dt = w (c)(b − a).

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 26 / 65

Contour Integral

Integrals of complex functions of the complex variable z are defined a

similarly to integrals of real functions.
r m
denoted by C f (z) dz.
Ve
The integralR of a complex-valued function f (z) over a contour C is

integrating over the parameter.

e l a
The integral is computed by parameterizing the contour and then

h e
For a contour C parameterized by z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, the contour
integral of a piecewise continuous function f (z) = f (z(t)) is defined
as:

.
Z
S Z b
f (z(t)) · z ′ (t) dt

D r C
f (z) dz =
a
Here, z ′ (t) is the derivative of z(t) with respect to t. Note that z ′ (t)
is also piecewise continuous on a ≤ t ≤ b.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 27 / 65

Examples

a
Let −C denote the same set of points on C but with the order of
r m
those points reversed, then
Z
f (z) dz = −
Z
Ve
−C
f (z) dz.

e l a C

e z 2 dz, where C is the

R
Example 1: Evaluate the contour integral C

Sh
unit circle centered at the origin.
Solution: Since z(t) = e it for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, we have z ′ (t) = ie it . Thus,

r. Z
2
z dz =
Z 2π
it 2 it
(e ) · ie dt = i
Z 2π
e 3it dt = 0.

D
C 0 0

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 28 / 65

Examples

dz a
m
R
Example 2: Compute the integral C z along the contour C defined
by z(t) = e it for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.
Solution: We have z ′ (t) = ie it . Thus,
e r
Z
dz
Z π ′
z (t) V
C z
=

e l a
0 z(t)
dt = π i.

e dz
R
Exercise: Compute the integral C z along the contour C defined by

Sh
z(t) = e it for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π,
z(t) = e it for 2π ≤ t ≤ π.

r.
Observation: The value of a contour integral of a function f (z) from

D
a fixed point z1 to another fixed point z2 depends, in general, on the
path taken.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 29 / 65

Theorem
a
Let C denote a contour of length L and a function f (z) is piecewise

r m
continuous on C . If there exists a nonnegative constant M such that

Z
f (z) dz ≤ ML. Ve
|f (z)| ≤ M at all points z on C at which f (z) is defined, then

e l a
h e
Example 1: Let CR denote the semi circle
z = Re iθ , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), R > 3. Then show that

. Slim
Z
(z + 1) dz
= 0,

D r R→∞ CR (z + 4)(z 2 + 9)

without evaluating the integral.

2

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 30 / 65

 Sol. For a point z on CR ,

|z + 1| ≤ |z| + 1 = R + 1, a
r
|z 2 + 4| ≥ ||z|2 − 4| = R 2 − 4,
m
Thus on CR , Ve
|z 2 + 9| ≥ ||z|2 − 9| = R 2 − 9.

|z + 1|
e l a R +1
|f (z)| =

h e |z 2 2
+ 4||z + 9|
≤
(R − 4)(R 2 − 9)
2
= MR .

Therefore,

. S
r
Z
(z + 1) dz
≤ MR L, where L = πR
(z 2+ 4)(z 2 + 9)
D CR

Since MR L −→ 0 as R −→ ∞, we get the desired inequality.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 31 / 65

Theorem

a
Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D, then the following are
equivalent:

r m
f (z) has an antiderivative F (z) throughout D i.e., F ′ (z) = f (z) for
e
1

all z ∈ D.
2
V
The integrals of f (z) along any contour lying entirely in D and

l a
extending from a fixed point z1 to a fixed point z2 have the same
value, namely
e
h e
Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ),

. S z1

3 r
where F (z) is the antiderivative of f (z).

D
The integral value of f (z) around any closed contour lying entirely in
D is zero.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 32 / 65

Cauchy Integral Theorem

a
Theorem
r m
then
Ve
If a function f (z) is analytic throughout a simply connected domain D,

l a
f (z) dz = 0
e
e
C

Sh
for every closed contour C lying in D.

Let a function f (z) be analytic throughout a simply connected

r.
domain D, then it has an antiderivative everywhere in domain D.

D
Entire function always possess antiderivatives.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 33 / 65

Multiply connected domain

Theorem a
Suppose that
r m
direction:
Ve
C is a simple closed contour, described in the counterclockwise

e l a
Ck , k = 1, 2, . . . n are simple closed contours interior to C , all
described in the clockwise direction, that are disjoint and whose

h e
interiors have no points in common.
If a function f is analytic on all of these contours and throughout the

to each Ck , then
. S
multiply connected domain consisting of the points inside C and exterior

D r Z
f (z)dz +
n Z
X
f (z)dz = 0.
C k=1 Ck

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 34 / 65

Example

a
r m
Example: Let C be a positively
around the origin, then C dz
R
z = 2π i. e
oriented simple closed contour

V
e l a
Solution: Let C0 be the positively oriented circle of radius R > 0
centered at the origin with radius R so small that C0 lies entirely
inside C . Then

h e
Z
dz
Z
dz

. S C z
=
C0 z
= 2π i.

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 35 / 65
Cauchy Integral Formula

a
Theorem

r m
Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C , taken in a
positive sense and z0 be any point in the interior of C . Then,

1
I
f (z) Ve
f (z0 ) =
2πi C z − z0
dz.

e l a
h e
The formula expresses the value of an analytic function at any point

S
inside a contour in terms of its values on the contour itself.
Example: Let C be the positively oriented circle |z| = 1,
.
D r Z

C
dz
z(z 2 + 9)
=
Z

C
1/(z 2 + 9)
z
dz =
2πi
9
.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 36 / 65

Extension of Cauchy Integral Formula
Theorem
a
m
Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C , taken in a
r
(n)
f (z0 ) =
n!
I
f (z)
Ve
positive sense and z0 be any point in the interior of C . Then,

dz, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1

e l a
Example 1: Let C be the positively oriented circle |z| = 1,
Z 2z
e dz
=
Z

h ee 2z dz
=
2πi d 3
e 2z =
8πi
.
C z 4

. S
C (z − 0)
3+1 3
3! dz z=0 3
Example 2: Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour

Z
r
around the origin and z0 be a point interior to C , then

Ddz
Z
dz
= 2π i and = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )n+1
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 37 / 65
Consequences of Cauchy Integral Theorem and Formula

a
r m
Ve
If a function f (z) is analytic at a point z0 , then its derivatives of all
orders are analytic at z0 .

e l a
If a function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is analytic at a point

h e
z0 = x0 + iy0 , then u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) have continuous partial order
derivatives of all orders at (x0 , y0 ).

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 38 / 65
Consequences of Cauchy integral formula

a
Theorem (Morera’s Theorem)
Let f (z) be continuous on a domain D. If
r m
Z
f (z) dz = 0
Ve
C

e l a
for every closed contour C in D, then f (z) is analytic throughout D.

h e
Theorem (Cauchy’s inequality)
S
Let f (z) be an analytic function inside and on a positively oriented circle
.
r
CR , centered at z0 with radius R. If |f (z)| ≤ MR on CR , then

D |f n (z0 )| ≤
n!MR
, n = 1, 2, . . . .
Rn

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 39 / 65

Consequences of Cauchy’s integral formula

a
r m
Theorem (Liouville’s Theorem)
Ve
If a function is entire and bounded in the complex plane, then f (z) is
constant throughout the plane.

e l a
e
Theorem (The Fundamental theorem of Algebra)
h
S
Any polynomial p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an z n , (an ̸= 0), of degree
n(n ≥ 1) has at least one zero.
.
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 40 / 65
 a
Theorem (Maximum Modulus)

r m
If a function f (z) is analytic and non constant in a domain Ω, then its

Ve
modulus |f (z)| has no maximum in Ω i.e., there is no point z0 in the
domain such that |f (z)| ≤ |f (z0 )| for all point z in Ω.

Corollary
e l a
h e
If a function f (z) is continuous on a closed bounded region R, and it
analytic and non constant in the interior of R. Then the maximum value

interior.
. S
of |f (z)| in R occurs somewhere on the boundary of R and never in the

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 41 / 65
Convergence of Sequence

a
r m
Convergent Sequence: A sequence (zn ) is said to be convergent if
there exists a complex number z such that for every ϵ > 0, there
exists a natural number N(ϵ) such that

Ve
e l a
|zn − z| < ϵ for all n ≥ N(ϵ).

This number z is called a limit of sequence (zn ). If no such z exists,

e
we say that sequence (zn ) diverges.
h
Theorem

. S
Let zn = xn + iyn , n = 1, 2, . . . and z = x + iy , then

lim zn = z
n→∞
D r if and only if lim xn = x and lim yn = y .
n→∞ n→∞

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 42 / 65

Convergence of series

Convergence or divengence of ∞
P
k=1 zk : An infinite series of a
P∞

r m
complex numbers Pk=1 zk converges to the sum S if the sequence of
partial sums Sn = nk=1 zk converges to S ∈ C. Then we say that
the series is convergent and its
Ve
P sum is S. If sequence Sn does not
converge, we say that series ∞ k=1 zk is divergent.

Theorem
e l a
e
Let zn = xn + in , n = 1, 2, . . . and S = X + iY , then

h
S
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
zn = S if and only if xn = X and yn = Y .
n=1

r. n=1 n=1

Theorem
D
If a series of complex number converges, its nth term converges to zero.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 43 / 65

Power Series

a
Power series are series of the form
r m
∞
X

n=0
e
an (z − z0 ) = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + · · · ,
n

V
l a
where z0 and coefficients ai , i = 1, 2, . . . are complex constants.
e
e
Discuss the convergence of the series ∞ n
P
n=0 z .
Radius
P∞ n h
of convergence: The radius of convergence of

S
n=0 n (z − z0 ) is defined by
a

r. 1
= lim
an+1 1
== lim |an | n .

D R n→∞ an n→∞

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 44 / 65

 a
r m
Theorem
If power series ∞
P n
Ve
n=0 an (z − z0 ) converges at z = c ̸= z0 , then it

l a
converges absolutely for all z with |z − z0 | < |c − z0 |. If the series diverges

e
at z = d, then it diverges for all z with |z − z0 | > |d − z0 |.

h e
. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 45 / 65
Taylor’s theorem

Theorem (Taylor’s theorem) a

r m
Let f (z) be an analytic function throughout a disk |z − z0 | < R0 , centered

∞
Ve
at z0 and with radius R0 . Then f (z) has the power series representation

a
X
an (z − z0 )n
f (z) =
n=0
e l (|z − z0 | < R0 ),

where
h e
. S an =
f (n) (z0 )
n!
(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).

D r
This is called Taylor series expansion of f (z) about the point z0 .

If z0 = 0, the Taylor series is called Maclaurin series.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 46 / 65

Examples

a
r m
Ve
Find domains where the following functions are analytic:
ez
sin z
cos z
e l a
sinh z.

h e
Write Taylor series expansion of the above functions about point
z = 0.

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 47 / 65
Laurent Series

a
For 0 < |z| < ∞, z 3 cosh 1


= z3 + z
r m
P∞ 1

For series of the form

z 2 +

Ve n=2 (2n)!z 2n−3 .

a
∞
bn
lbn+1
X 1
, define r = lim == lim |bn | n . Then
n=0
(z − z0 ) n

e e
n→∞ bn n→∞

1
2
h
If r = 0, then series converges absolutely for every z ∈ C∞ \ {z0 }.
S
If 0 < r < ∞, the series converges absolutely for all z with |z − z0 | > r

3
r.
and diverges for |z − z0 | < r .
If r = ∞, then the series diverges for all finite z.

D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 48 / 65
Laurent Series

Theorem a
Let a function f (z) be analytic throughout an annular domain
r m
Ve
R1 < |z − z0 | < R2 and let C denote any positively oriented simple closed
contour around z0 and lying in the annular domain. Then at each point in
the domain, f (z) has the series representation
∞

e l a
e
X
f (z) = cn (z − z0 )n (R1 < |z − z0 | < R2 ),

where
Sh n=−∞

cn =
r.1
Z
f (z)dz
(n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).

D 2πi C (z − z0 )n+1

This representation of f (z) is called a Laurent series.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 49 / 65

Example

a
The function f (z) = z+1
z−1
r m
has the singular point z = 1 and analytic in
domains

Ve
D1 : |z| < 1 and D2 : 1 < |z| < ∞.

e l a
In both domains, f (z) has series representations in powers of z.

|z| < 1,
h e
On domain D1 , f (z) = −(z + 1
1) 1−z 1
= −z 1−z − 1
1−z . Since in D1 ,

. S ∞
X
zn −
∞
X
z n = −1 − 2
∞
X
z n.

D r f (z) = −
n=1 n=0 n=1

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 50 / 65

Example contd...
On domain D2 , f (z) = 1 + 1
z

1
1− z1
a
. Since in D2 , 1 < |z| < ∞ i.e.,
|1/z| < 1,
r m

f (z) = 1 +
z
 ∞
1 X 1
z n
=1+2
n=0
∞
X 1
zn
.
Ve n=1

l a
Note that on D1 , we get Taylor series while on D2 , we get Laurent
series.
e
h e
Example: Replacing z by 1/z in the Maclaurin series expansion of e z ,
1 1

. S
e 1/z = 1 +
1!z
+
2!z 2
+ · · · (0 < |z| < ∞).

1 DZ
r
Then for any positively oriented simple closed contour around the
origin, C lying in 0 < |z| < ∞, we have
Z
e 1/z dz = c−1 = 1 i.e., e 1/z dz = 2πi.
2πi C C

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 51 / 65

Exercise

a
r m
−1
Find series expansion of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2) .
Ve
P∞

On 1 < |z| < 2, f (z) = ∞

P l a
On |z| < 1, f (z) = n=0 (2−n−1 − 1)z n .

e
−n−1 z n +
P∞ 1

h e n=0 2
P∞ 1−2n−1
On 2 < |z| < ∞, f (z) = n=1 z n .
n=1 zn .

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 52 / 65
Zeros of Analytic functions

a
Let f (z) be a nonzero analytic function in a domain D and z0 ∈ D.
Then f (z) is said to be vanish at z0 if

r m
f (z) = a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + · · · , |z − z0 | < R for some R > 0.

Ve
If a1 = a2 = · · · = am−1 = 0 but am ̸= 0, then z0 is a zero of f (z) of
order m.
Theorem
e l a
h e
A function analytic at z0 has a zero of order m at z0 if and only if
f (z) = (z − z0 )m g (z), where g (z) is analytic at z0 and g (z0 ) ̸= 0.

Theorem
. S
Theorem
D r
Every zero of a nonzero analytic function is isolated.

Let f (z) be an analytic function in a domain D. If set of zeros of f (z) in

D has a limit point in D, then f (z) ≡ 0 in D.
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 53 / 65
Singularity

a
r m
Ve
If a function is not analytic at a point z0 but is analytic at some point
in every neighborhood of z0 , then z0 is called a singular point or a
singularity of f .

e l a
The point z = 0 is a singular point of the function f (z) = z1 .

h e
The function f (z) = |z|2 has no singular point as since it is nowhere
analytic.

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 54 / 65
Behaviour at infinity

a
r m
The role of the point at infinity is understood through the inversion
w = z1 .

Ve
It allow us to pass back and forth between the neighborhoods of ∞
and the neighborhoods of 0.

e l a
Let f (z) be analytic for |z| > R for some R with 0 ≤ R < ∞. By

h e
putting w = z1 , we obtain F (w ) = f ( w1 ).
Then F (w ) is analytic in the deleted neighborhood

. S
{w : 0 < |w | < 1/R} of zero.
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at z = ∞ if f ( z1 ) is
r
analytic at z = 0.
D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 55 / 65
Isolated singular point

a
Definition: A singular point z0 of function f (z) is said to be isolated

r m
if there is a deleted ϵ−neighborhood of z0 , on which f (z) is analytic.
Definition: If there is a positive number R1 such that f (z) is analytic

at z0 = ∞.
Ve
for R1 < |z| < ∞, then f (z) is said to have an isolated singular point

a
1
Definition: The coefficient c−1 of z−z , in Laurent series expansion
l 0
of f (z) in the domain 0 < |z − z0 | < R1 for some R1 > 0, is called
e
h e
the residue of f (z) at the isolated singular point z0 and we write
c−1 = Resz=z0 f (z).

S
Thus for any positively oriented simple closed contour C around z0
.
there, we have
D
Z
r
lying in 0 < |z − z0 | < R2 , for some R2 > 0 such that f (z) is analytic

f (z)dz = 2πi c−1 = 2πi Resz=z0 f (z).

C

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 56 / 65

 Find
Z
ez − 1 a
C z5
dz
r m
where C is positively oriented unit circle |z| = 1.
Ve
Since the integrand is analytic everywhere in the finite plane except at
z = 0.
For 0 < |z| < R1 , for some R1 > 0,
e l a
h e
ez − 1 1 1 1 1

. Sz 5
= 4+
z 2!z 3
+
3!z 2
+
4!z
+ ··· .

r
z
Resz=0 e z−1
5 = 4!1 1
= 24 .

D
R e z −1 2πi πi
C z 5 dz = 24 = 12 .

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 57 / 65

Cauchy Residue Theorem

a
Theorem
r m
Ve
Let D be a simply connected domain in the complex plane and let f (z) be
a function that is analytic on D except for a finite number of isolated

l a
singularities. If C is a simple closed positively oriented contour within D
that does not pass through any singularity of f (z), then
e
h e Z
f (z) dz = 2πi
n
X
Res(f , zk ),

. S C k=1

r
where zk are the isolated singularities of f (z) inside C , and Res(f , zk )
denotes the residue of f (z) at zk .
D
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 58 / 65
Example

Evaluate the integral a

Z
4z − 5
r m
C z(z − 1)
dz,

Ve
where C is the circle |z| = 2 oriented in the counterclockwise
direction.
4z−5
e l a
= 4 − z5 −1 − z − z 2 − · · · .

When 0 < |z − 1| <

h
 1, e
When 0 < |z| < 1, z(z−1)

4z−5
z(z−1) = 4 − 1
z−1

. S1 − (z − 1) + (z + 1) 2 − ··· .

Zr
Thus Resz=0 f (z) = 5 and Resz=1 f (z) = −1 and

D 4z − 5
dz = 2πi(5 − 1) = 8πi.
C z(z − 1)

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 59 / 65

Residue at Infinity

a
r m
Let f (z) be analytic throughout the domain R1 < |z| < ∞ and C0

R0 > R1 .
Ve
denote a circle |z| = R0 , oriented in the clockwise direction with

Definition: The residue of a function f (z) at infinity is defined as

Z
e l a
h e
f (z) dz = 2πi Resz=∞ f (z).
C0

S
Observation: Note that

. 
1
 
1

D r Resz=∞ f (z) = − Resz=0

z2
f
z
.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 60 / 65

Theorem

a
If a function f (z) is analytic everywhere in the finite plane except for a

closed contour C , then

r m
finite number of singular points interior to a positively oriented simple

Z 
f (z) dz = 2πi Resz=0 2 f
z
1
 
1
z V
.
e
C

z (1−3z)
Let f (z) = (1+z)(1+2z
3

e l a
4 ) and C denote the positively oriented circle

e
centered at the origin with radius 3.
h
S
Resz=0 z12 f z1 = − 32 .



Then

r.
Z
z 3 (1 − 3z)
 
3

D C (1 + z)(1 + 2z )4
dz = 2πi −
2
= −3πi.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 61 / 65

Types of Singularity

a
r m
Ve
If function f (z) has an isolated singularity at z0 , then
1

e l a
f (z) has a removable singularity at z0 if limz→z0 f (z) exists in C.
f (z) has a pole at z0 if limz→z0 f (z) = ∞.
3

C ∪ {∞}.
h e
f (z) has an essential singularity at z0 if limz→z0 f (z) does not exist in

. S
D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 62 / 65
Types of Singularity

If function f (z) has an isolated singularity at z0 , then we have the a

unique representation
r m
f (z) =
−1
X
cn (z − z0 )n +
∞
X
Ve
cn (z − z0 )n , 0 < |z − z0 | < r ,

1
n=−∞

R f (ζ)dζ
e l a
n=0

where cn = 2πi
e
C (ζ−z0 )n+1 and C is any circle taken in positive

h
direction with center at z0 and radius less than r .

. S
If cn = 0 for all n ≤ −1, then f (z) has removable singularity at z0 .
If c−k ̸= 0 and c−n = 0 for all n ≥ k + 1, then f (z) has a pole of
order k at z0 .

D r
If c−n ̸= 0 for infinitely many n ≥ 1, then f (z) has an essential
singularity at z0 .

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 63 / 65

Example

Consider the Laurent series a

−1 ∞
r m
X

n=−∞
z +
X
n zn
2n+1
.
n=0
Ve
Series
P−1 n
n=−∞ z converges for |z| > 1.
P∞ n

e l a
h e
Series n=0 2zn+1 converges for |z| < 2.
Thus the combined series −1
P
n=−∞ z +
n
P∞ z n
n=0 2n+1 converges for

S
1 < |z| < 2 and it is equal to

.
D r f (z) =
−1
(z − 2)(z − 1)
.

The function f (z) has simple poles at z = 1 and z = 2.

Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 64 / 65

 a
Theorem
r m
e
If f (z) has a removable singularity at z = z0 , then Resz=z0 f (z) = 0.

V
Theorem
If f (z) has a pole of order n at z0 , then
e l a
h e
Resz=z0 f (z) = lim
1 d n−1
((z − z0 )n f (z)) .

. S z→z0 (n − 1)! dz n−1

D r
Dr. Sheela Verma (IIT(BHU)) Complex Analysis March 22, 2024 65 / 65