Doppler effect

The Doppler effect or Doppler shift (or

simply Doppler, when in context)[1][2] is the
apparent change in frequency of a wave in
relation to an observer moving relative to
the wave source.[3] It is named after the
Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who
described the phenomenon in 1842.
Change of wavelength caused by motion of the source.

An animation illustrating how the Doppler effect causes a car engine or siren to sound higher in pitch when it is
approaching than when it is receding. The red circles represent sound waves.

Passing car horn

0:03

A common example of Doppler shift is the

change of pitch heard when a vehicle
sounding a horn approaches and recedes
from an observer. Compared to the
emitted frequency, the received frequency
is higher during the approach, identical at
the instant of passing by, and lower during
the recession.[4]
The reason for the Doppler effect is that
when the source of the waves is moving
towards the observer, each successive
wave crest is emitted from a position
closer to the observer than the crest of the
previous wave.[4][5] Therefore, each wave
takes slightly less time to reach the
observer than the previous wave. Hence,
the time between the arrivals of
successive wave crests at the observer is
reduced, causing an increase in the
frequency. While they are traveling, the
distance between successive wave fronts
is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".
Conversely, if the source of waves is
moving away from the observer, each
wave is emitted from a position farther
from the observer than the previous wave,
so the arrival time between successive
waves is increased, reducing the
frequency. The distance between
successive wave fronts is then increased,
so the waves "spread out".

For waves that propagate in a medium,

such as sound waves, the velocity of the
observer and of the source are relative to
the medium in which the waves are
transmitted.[3] The total Doppler effect
may therefore result from motion of the
source, motion of the observer, motion of
the medium, or any combination thereof.
For waves propagating in vacuum, such as
electromagnetic waves or gravitational
waves, only the difference in velocity
between the observer and the source
needs to be considered. If this relative
speed is not negligible compared to the
speed of light, a more complicated
relativistic Doppler effect arises.

History

Experiment by Buys Ballot (1845) depicted on a wall in Utrecht (2019)

Doppler first proposed this effect in 1842
in his treatise "Über das farbige Licht der
Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne
des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the
binary stars and some other stars of the
heavens).[6] The hypothesis was tested for
sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845.[p 1]
He confirmed that the sound's pitch was
higher than the emitted frequency when
the sound source approached him, and
lower than the emitted frequency when the
sound source receded from him. Hippolyte
Fizeau discovered independently the same
phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in
1848 (in France, the effect is sometimes
called "effet Doppler-Fizeau" but that name
was not adopted by the rest of the world
as Fizeau's discovery was six years after
Doppler's proposal).[p 2][7] In Britain, John
Scott Russell made an experimental study
of the Doppler effect (1848).[p 3]

General
In classical physics, where the speeds of
source and the receiver relative to the
medium are lower than the speed of
waves in the medium, the relationship
between observed frequency and
emitted frequency is given by:[8]
where
is the propagation speed of waves in
the medium;
is the speed of the receiver relative to
the medium, added to if the receiver is
moving towards the source, subtracted
if the receiver is moving away from the
source;
is the speed of the source relative to
the medium, added to if the source is
moving away from the receiver,
subtracted if the source is moving
towards the receiver.

Note this relationship predicts that the

frequency will decrease if either source or
receiver is moving away from the other.

Equivalently, under the assumption that

the source is either directly approaching or
receding from the observer:

where
is the wave's speed relative to the
receiver;
is the wave's speed relative to the
source;
is the wavelength.

If the source approaches the observer at

an angle (but still with a constant speed),
the observed frequency that is first heard
is higher than the object's emitted
frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic
decrease in the observed frequency as it
gets closer to the observer, through
equality when it is coming from a direction
perpendicular to the relative motion (and
was emitted at the point of closest
approach; but when the wave is received,
the source and observer will no longer be
at their closest), and a continued
monotonic decrease as it recedes from
the observer. When the observer is very
close to the path of the object, the
transition from high to low frequency is
very abrupt. When the observer is far from
the path of the object, the transition from
high to low frequency is gradual.

If the speeds and are small

compared to the speed of the wave, the
relationship between observed frequency
and emitted frequency is
approximately[8]

Change in
Observed frequency
frequency

where
 is the opposite of
the relative speed of the receiver with
respect to the source: it is positive when
the source and the receiver are moving
towards each other.

Proof

Given

we divide for
Since we can

substitute the geometric

expansion:
 Stationary sound source produces sound
waves at a constant frequency f, and the
wave-fronts propagate symmetrically away
from the source at a constant speed c. The
distance between wave-fronts is the
wavelength. All observers will hear the same
frequency, which will be equal to the actual
frequency of the source where f = f0.
The same sound source is radiating sound
waves at a constant frequency in the same
medium. However, now the sound source is
moving with a speed υs = 0.7 c. Since the
source is moving, the centre of each new
wavefront is now slightly displaced to the
right. As a result, the wave-fronts begin to
bunch up on the right side (in front of) and
spread further apart on the left side (behind)
of the source. An observer in front of the
source will hear a higher frequency
f = c c– +0.7c
0
f0 = 3.33 f0 and an observer
behind the source will hear a lower
frequency f = c c+ −0.7c
0
f0 = 0.59 f0.
 Now the source is moving at the speed of
sound in the medium (υs = c). The wave
fronts in front of the source are now all
bunched up at the same point. As a result, an
observer in front of the source will detect
nothing until the source arrives and an
observer behind the source will hear a lower
frequency f = cc –+ 0c f0 = 0.5 f0.
 The sound source has now surpassed the
speed of sound in the medium, and is
traveling at 1.4 c. Since the source is moving
faster than the sound waves it creates, it
actually leads the advancing wavefront. The
sound source will pass by a stationary
observer before the observer hears the
sound. As a result, an observer in front of the
source will detect nothing and an observer
behind the source will hear a lower
frequency f = c c+ –1.4c
0
f0 = 0.42 f0.
Consequences
With an observer stationary relative to the
medium, if a moving source is emitting
waves with an actual frequency (in this
case, the wavelength is changed, the
transmission velocity of the wave keeps
constant; note that the transmission
velocity of the wave does not depend on
the velocity of the source), then the
observer detects waves with a frequency
given by
A similar analysis for a moving observer
and a stationary source (in this case, the
wavelength keeps constant, but due to the
motion, the rate at which the observer
receives waves and hence the
transmission velocity of the wave [with
respect to the observer] is changed) yields
the observed frequency:

Assuming a stationary observer and a

source moving at the speed of sound, the
Doppler equation predicts a perceived
momentary infinite frequency by an
observer in front of a source that is
traveling at the speed of sound. All the
peaks are at the same place, so the
wavelength is zero and the frequency is
infinite. This overlay of all the waves
produces a shock wave which for sound
waves is known as a sonic boom.

When the source moves faster than the

wave speed the source outruns the wave.
The equation gives negative frequency
values, which have no physical sense in
this context (no sound at all will be heard
by the observer until the source passes
past them).
Lord Rayleigh predicted the following
effect in his classic book on sound: if the
observer were moving from the
(stationary) source at twice the speed of
sound, a musical piece previously emitted
by that source would be heard in correct
tempo and pitch, but as if played
backwards.[9]

Applications

Acoustic Doppler current profiler

An acoustic Doppler current profiler

(ADCP) is a hydroacoustic current meter
similar to a sonar, used to measure water
current velocities over a depth range using
the Doppler effect of sound waves
scattered back from particles within the
water column. The term ADCP is a generic
term for all acoustic current profilers,
although the abbreviation originates from
an instrument series introduced by RD
Instruments in the 1980s. The working
frequencies range of ADCPs range from
38 kHz to several Megahertz. The device
used in the air for wind speed profiling
using sound is known as SODAR and
works with the same underlying principles.
Robotics

Dynamic real-time path planning in

robotics to aid the movement of robots in
a sophisticated environment with moving
obstacles often take help of Doppler
effect.[10] Such applications are specially
used for competitive robotics where the
environment is constantly changing, such
as robosoccer.

Sirens
Sirens on passing emergency vehicles.

A siren on a passing emergency vehicle

will start out higher than its stationary
pitch, slide down as it passes, and
continue lower than its stationary pitch as
it recedes from the observer. Astronomer
John Dobson explained the effect thus:

The reason the siren slides is

because it doesn't hit you.

In other words, if the siren approached the

observer directly, the pitch would remain
constant, at a higher than stationary pitch,
until the vehicle hit him, and then
immediately jump to a new lower pitch.
Because the vehicle passes by the
observer, the radial speed does not remain
constant, but instead varies as a function
of the angle between his line of sight and
the siren's velocity:

where is the angle between the object's

forward velocity and the line of sight from
the object to the observer.
Astronomy

Redshift of spectral lines in the optical spectrum of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to that of the
Sun (left)

The Doppler effect for electromagnetic

waves such as light is of widespread use
in astronomy to measure the speed at
which stars and galaxies are approaching
or receding from us, resulting in so called
blueshift or redshift, respectively. This may
be used to detect if an apparently single
star is, in reality, a close binary, to measure
the rotational speed of stars and galaxies,
or to detect exoplanets. This effect
typically happens on a very small scale;
there would not be a noticeable difference
in visible light to the unaided eye.[11] The
use of the Doppler effect in astronomy
depends on knowledge of precise
frequencies of discrete lines in the spectra
of stars.

Among the nearby stars, the largest radial

velocities with respect to the Sun are
+308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as
LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and
−260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as
Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years
away). Positive radial speed means the
star is receding from the Sun, negative that
it is approaching.

Redshift is also used to measure the

expansion of space, but this is not truly a
Doppler effect.[12] Rather, redshifting due
to the expansion of space is known as
cosmological redshift, which can be
derived purely from the Robertson-Walker
metric under the formalism of general
relativity. Having said this, it also happens
that there are detectable Doppler effects
on cosmological scales, which, if
incorrectly interpreted as cosmological in
origin, lead to the observation of redshift-
space distortions.[13]

Radar

U.S. Army soldier using a radar gun, an application of Doppler radar, to catch speeding violators.

The Doppler effect is used in some types

of radar, to measure the velocity of
detected objects. A radar beam is fired at
a moving target — e.g. a motor car, as
police use radar to detect speeding
motorists — as it approaches or recedes
from the radar source. Each successive
radar wave has to travel farther to reach
the car, before being reflected and re-
detected near the source. As each wave
has to move farther, the gap between each
wave increases, increasing the
wavelength. In some situations, the radar
beam is fired at the moving car as it
approaches, in which case each
successive wave travels a lesser distance,
decreasing the wavelength. In either
situation, calculations from the Doppler
effect accurately determine the car's
speed. Moreover, the proximity fuze,
developed during World War II, relies upon
Doppler radar to detonate explosives at
the correct time, height, distance, etc.

Because the Doppler shift affects the wave

incident upon the target as well as the
wave reflected back to the radar, the
change in frequency observed by a radar
due to a target moving at relative speed
is twice that from the same target
emitting a wave:[14]
Medical

Colour flow ultrasonography (Doppler) of a carotid artery – scanner and screen

An echocardiogram can, within certain

limits, produce an accurate assessment of
the direction of blood flow and the velocity
of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary
point using the Doppler effect. One of the
limitations is that the ultrasound beam
should be as parallel to the blood flow as
possible. Velocity measurements allow
assessment of cardiac valve areas and
function, abnormal communications
between the left and right side of the heart,
leaking of blood through the valves
(valvular regurgitation), and calculation of
the cardiac output. Contrast-enhanced
ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble
contrast media can be used to improve
velocity or other flow-related medical
measurements.[15][16]

Although "Doppler" has become

synonymous with "velocity measurement"
in medical imaging, in many cases it is not
the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the
received signal that is measured, but the
phase shift (when the received signal
arrives).[p 4]

Velocity measurements of blood flow are

also used in other fields of medical
ultrasonography, such as obstetric
ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity
measurement of blood flow in arteries and
veins based on Doppler effect is an
effective tool for diagnosis of vascular
problems like stenosis.[17]
Flow measurement

Instruments such as the laser Doppler

velocimeter (LDV), and acoustic Doppler
velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to
measure velocities in a fluid flow. The LDV
emits a light beam and the ADV emits an
ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the
Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections
from particles moving with the flow. The
actual flow is computed as a function of
the water velocity and phase. This
technique allows non-intrusive flow
measurements, at high precision and high
frequency.
Velocity profile measurement

Developed originally for velocity

measurements in medical applications
(blood flow), Ultrasonic Doppler
Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real
time complete velocity profile in almost
any liquids containing particles in
suspension such as dust, gas bubbles,
emulsions. Flows can be pulsating,
oscillating, laminar or turbulent, stationary
or transient. This technique is fully non-
invasive.
Satellites

Possible Doppler shifts in

dependence of the Geometry for Doppler effects. Variables: Doppler effect on the mobile channel.
elevation angle (LEO: orbit is the velocity of the mobile station, is the Variables: is the carrier frequency,
altitude = 750 km). Fixed velocity of the satellite, is the relative
ground station. [18] velocity of the satellite, is the elevation is the maximum Doppler
angle of the satellite and is the driving
shift due to the mobile station moving (see
direction with respect to the satellite.
Doppler Spread) and is the additional
Doppler shift due to the satellite moving.

Satellite navigation

The Doppler shift can be exploited for

satellite navigation such as in Transit and
DORIS.
Satellite communication

Doppler also needs to be compensated in

satellite communication. Fast moving
satellites can have a Doppler shift of
dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground
station. The speed, thus magnitude of
Doppler effect, changes due to earth
curvature. Dynamic Doppler
compensation, where the frequency of a
signal is changed progressively during
transmission, is used so the satellite
receives a constant frequency signal.[19]
After realizing that the Doppler shift had
not been considered before launch of the
Huygens probe of the 2005 Cassini–
Huygens mission, the probe trajectory was
altered to approach Titan in such a way
that its transmissions traveled
perpendicular to its direction of motion
relative to Cassini, greatly reducing the
Doppler shift.[20]

Doppler shift of the direct path can be

estimated by the following formula:[21]

where is the speed of the mobile

station, is the wavelength of the carrier,
is the elevation angle of the satellite and
is the driving direction with respect to
the satellite.
The additional Doppler shift due to the
satellite moving can be described as:

where is the relative speed of the

satellite.

Audio

The Leslie speaker, most commonly

associated with and predominantly used
with the famous Hammond organ, takes
advantage of the Doppler effect by using
an electric motor to rotate an acoustic
horn around a loudspeaker, sending its
sound in a circle. This results at the
listener's ear in rapidly fluctuating
frequencies of a keyboard note.

Vibration measurement

A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is a non-

contact instrument for measuring
vibration. The laser beam from the LDV is
directed at the surface of interest, and the
vibration amplitude and frequency are
extracted from the Doppler shift of the
laser beam frequency due to the motion of
the surface.
Developmental biology

During the segmentation of vertebrate

embryos, waves of gene expression sweep
across the presomitic mesoderm, the
tissue from which the precursors of the
vertebrae (somites) are formed. A new
somite is formed upon arrival of a wave at
the anterior end of the presomitic
mesoderm. In zebrafish, it has been shown
that the shortening of the presomitic
mesoderm during segmentation leads to a
Doppler-like effect as the anterior end of
the tissue moves into the waves. This
effect contributes to the period of
segmentation.[p 5]
Inverse Doppler effect
Since 1968 scientists such as Victor
Veselago have speculated about the
possibility of an inverse Doppler effect.
The size of the Doppler shift depends on
the refractive index of the medium a wave
is traveling through. But some materials
are capable of negative refraction, which
should lead to a Doppler shift that works in
a direction opposite that of a conventional
Doppler shift.[22] The first experiment that
detected this effect was conducted by
Nigel Seddon and Trevor Bearpark in
Bristol, United Kingdom in 2003.[p 6] Later,
the inverse Doppler effect was observed in
some inhomogeneous materials, and
predicted inside a Vavilov–Cherenkov
cone.[23]

See also
Bistatic Doppler shift
Differential Doppler effect
Doppler cooling
Dopplergraph
Fading
Fizeau experiment
Photoacoustic Doppler effect
Range rate
Rayleigh fading
 Redshift
Laser Doppler imaging
Relativistic Doppler effect

Primary sources
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gelegentlichen Bemerkungen zur Theorie
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des rayons de lumière"; [Paris, 1870].
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221.
3. Scott Russell, John (1848). "On certain
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4. Petrescu, Florian Ion T (2015). "Improving
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Further reading
Doppler, C. (1842). Über das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels (About the
coloured light of the binary stars and
some other stars of the heavens).
Publisher: Abhandlungen der Königl.
Böhm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
(V. Folge, Bd. 2, S. 465–482)
[Proceedings of the Royal Bohemian
Society of Sciences (Part V, Vol 2)];
Prague: 1842 (Reissued 1903). Some
sources mention 1843 as year of
publication because in that year the
article was published in the Proceedings
of the Bohemian Society of Sciences.
Doppler himself referred to the
publication as "Prag 1842 bei Borrosch
und André", because in 1842 he had a
preliminary edition printed that he
distributed independently.
"Doppler and the Doppler effect", E. N.
da C. Andrade, Endeavour Vol. XVIII No.
69, January 1959 (published by ICI
London). Historical account of Doppler's
original paper and subsequent
developments.
David Nolte (2020). The fall and rise of
the Doppler effect. Physics Today, v. 73,
pgs. 31 - 35. DOI: 10.1063/PT.3.4429 (ht
 tps://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.
1063/PT.3.4429)
Adrian, Eleni (24 June 1995). "Doppler
Effect" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
090512192731/http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.
edu/Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html) .
NCSA. Archived from the original (http://
archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/Bima/do
ppler.html) on 12 May 2009. Retrieved
2008-07-13.

External links
Media related to Doppler effect at
Wikimedia Commons
 Doppler Effect (http://scienceworld.wolf
ram.com/physics/DopplerEffect.html) ,
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