Thermodynamics Four types of thermodynamic process

- derived from Greek words “thermes” means 1. Adiabatic Process – no heat transfer into
heat and “dynamikos” means powerful. or out of the system occurs.
- deals with the concepts of heat and 2. Isochoric Process – no change in volume
temperature and the inter-conversion of heat occurs and the system does not work.
and other forms of energy. 3. Isobaric Process – no change in pressure
- Coined by William Thomson (1749). occurs.
- deals with heat, work and temperature, and 4. Isothermal Process – no change in
their relation to energy, radiation, and temperature occurs.
physical properties of matter. (P6 branch) Thermodynamic properties – characteristic
- explains how thermal energy is converted to features of a system, capable of specifying the
or from other forms of energy and how matter system’s state.
is affected by this process. Intensive properties – do not depend on the
Thermodynamics System - specific portion of quantity of matter. Ex. Pressure and
matter with a definite boundary. temperature.
- system boundary may be real or imaginary, Extensive properties – their value depends on the
fixed or deformable. mass of the system. Ex. Volume, energy, and
Three types of system enthalpy.
1. Isolated System – cannot exchange both
energy and mass with its surroundings.
(The universe is considered an isolated Basic Thermodynamics Property
system.)
2. Closed System – Across the boundary, the Fluids – collection of molecules that are randomly
transfer of energy takes place, but the arranged and held together by weak cohesive
transfer of mass doesn’t take place. forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a
(Refrigerators, compression of gas in the container.
piston-cylinder assembly are examples of - Any form of matter that flows, such as a liquid
closed systems.) or a gas.
3. Open System – the mass and energy both Fluid Statics – study of fluids at rest.
may be transferred between the system Density – more useful than mass to describe the
and surroundings. A steam turbine is an internal property of fluids.
example of an open system. a. Mass Density – ratio of the mass m of the
Type of System Mass Flow Work Heat substance and its volume V.
Isolated X x X
Open / / /
Closed x / /
Interactions of thermodynamic systems b. Weight Density or Specific weight – ratio of
an object’s weight w and its volume V.
System boundary – closed surface surrounding a
system through which energy and mass may
enter or leave the system.
Surroundings – everything that interacts with the c. Relative Density or Specific Gravity – ratio
system. of a substance density to the density of
System – region containing energy and matter that water at 3.98 C.
is separated from its surroundings by arbitrary
imposed walls.

Densities of some common substances at

standard temperature (0°) and pressure (atm)
Substance kg/m3 Substance kg/m3
Air 1.29 Ice 917
Aluminum 2700 Blood 1060
Copper 8890-8920 Lead 11300
Ethyl alcohol 806 Seawater 1030
Fresh water 1000 Mercury 13600
Pressure – ratio of the magnitude of a force applied 2. Gauge Pressure (Pg) – pressure difference
perpendicular to a surface and the area over between the atmospheric pressure and an
which the force is exerted. unknown air pressure.
- pressure due to height difference.
hg = height difference

3. Absolute Pressure (P) – unknown air

*When we study fluids, the quantity pressure pressure different from the atmospheric
assume a role of primary importance. pressure.
*Force : solids, pressure : fluids. 3.1. absolute pressure is greater than the
*Force is a vector and pressure is a scalar. There is atmospheric pressure.
no direction associated with pressure, but the
direction of the force associated with pressure is
perpendicular to the surface of interest. 3.2. absolute pressure is less than the
atmospheric pressure.

Pressure Variation w/depth - pressure exerted by a

fluid varies with depth, the deeper an object is in
a fluid, the greater the pressure acting on the
object due to the weight of the fluid above.

P1 = pressure at the bottom

P2 = pressure at the surface
ρgh = pressure due to the height
Pressure Measurements
1. Atmospheric Pressure (Po) – standard
reference pressure, the pressure of air at
sea level.

Externally Applied Pressure – external pressure

exerted on a static, enclosed fluid is transmitted
Note: Evangelista Torricelli discovered the uniformly throughout the volume of the fluid.
pressure of the atmosphere.
Manometer – U-shaped tube used to measure
pressure containing mercury or water.

F1 = force on the smaller A1

F2 = force on the larger A2

*If the manometer is open on both ends, air pushes

down on each column with equal pressure
making each side at the same elevation.
*If one side of the manometer is closed, creating a
vacuum, the air pressure pushes the fluid down
and up into evacuated side.
Temperature (T) – indicator of the average thermal Absolute Temperature Scale – in this scale, the
energy of the atoms or molecules in the lowest possible temperature is called absolute
substance zero & the temperature cannot be lowered
- measures how hot or cold a body is with further by decreasing the motion of the
respect to a standard object. molecules.
Thermal Energy – the random kinetic energy of the Absolute Temperature or Absolute Zero
atoms & molecules in the substance. - the temperature at which all molecular
Translational – they move or translate from one motion ceases.
position to another. - zero in Celsius scale is shifted to the triple
Vibrational – they vibrate in and out and bend back point of water.
and forth. Triple Point of Water – exists when water within a
Rotational – they also spin and rotate as they move closed vessel is in equilibrium in all three
through space. states: ice, water, and vapor.
*Because all types of motion occur Rankine degree is exactly 5⁄9 as large as the Kelvin
simultaneously, there is much variation in the degree.
motion of different molecules at any time Kelvin degree is exactly 9⁄5, or 1.8 times, the size
resulting to thermal energy. of the Rankine degree.
Thermal energy – related closely to the idea of Kelvin scale – named after English Physicist
temperature: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
- If an object becomes warmer, the motion of Rankine scale – named after William John M.
the molecules increases as does the thermal Rankine.
energy.
- If an object becomes cooler, the motion of
the molecules decreases as the thermal
energy.
Thermal Contact – two objects are in thermal
contact if they can affect each other’s Heat (Q) – energy transferred between a system
temperature. and its environment because of the difference
Thermal Equilibrium – exists when two objects in in their temperatures.
thermal contact no longer affect each other’s - two objects with different temperatures are in
temperature. contact with each other, heat flows from the
hotter system to the colder one.
Temperature Scale - (+Q), if a system gains energy
Arbitrary Scale – based on the freezing & boiling - (-Q), if a system loses energy
point of water at atmospheric pressure. * Increase or decrease in mechanical energy in a
*Celsius scale, the ice point is 0, and the steam system always accompanies an equal
point is 100. decrease or increase of heat, respectively.
Degrees – interval between these temperatures Specific Heat Capacity (C) – the amount of heat
is divided into 100 equal parts. energy necessary to raise the temperature of an
*Fahrenheit scale, the ice point is 32 degrees, object by one degree.
and the steam point is 212 degrees. interval
between these temperatures is divided into
180 equal parts.
Celsius scale – named after Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius.
Fahrenheit scale – named after German Gabriel
Fahrenheit.

Calorie – defined as the amount of energy required

to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree.
- This energy is slightly dependent upon the
temperature of the water, so the temperature
change is usually defined from 14.5 degrees
to 15.5 degrees Celsius.
U.S. engineering unit of heat is the British thermal
unit (BTU)
 - related to the calorie and the joule: BTU = 252 Latent Heat of Condensation (Lc) – the amount of
calories = 1.055 kJ. heat needed to condense a substance at its
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat – reversible condensation temperature.
conversions of heat energy and work.

*Boiling temperature is the same as the

condensation temperature.

Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf) – the amount of heat

needed to melt or freeze a substance at its
melting or freezing temperature.

*Substance does not change temperature while it

is melting or freezing, thus the melting or freezing
temperature of a substance are the same.

Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv) – the amount of

heat needed to vaporize a substance at its
boiling temperature.