Ain Shams University

Faculty of Education

Department of Mathematics

Introduction to linear
Algebra

1
 Chapter (1)

Linear Equations

(1-1) Systems of linear equations:

In plane geometry, an equation of the form: ax + by = c, where

a, b are not both o, denote a line, and so it is called a linear
equation in variables x and y. A linear equation in three
variables corresponding to a plane in three- dimensional space.
Then a linear equation in x1, x2, …, xn, is of the form

a1x1 + a2x2+ … + an xn = b, then a system of m linear equations

in n variables x1, x2, …, xn is of the form

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + … + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + … + a2n xn = b2 (1-1)

… … … … …

am1x1 + am2 x2 + … + a m n x n = b m

The above set of m equations in n variables will be called m × n

linear system- if b1, …, b m in (1-1) are all zero, we say that the
system homogenous.

Solving an m × n linear system such as the one above a mounts

to finding a set of numbers x1, x2, …, x n such that when are
substituted for x1, …, x n, respectively, in equation (1-1), we get

2
m equalities. Such a list x1, …, xn of numbers is called a solution
of (1-1).

The answers to the questions such as a linear system has a

solution and how to solve it in the best possible way from the
foundation of the subject called linear algebra.

If a linear system has a solution, it is called consistent, if it has

no solution, it is called inconsistent.

For example, consider the following linear system and their

graphs.

1. x1 + x2 = 1

x1 - x2 = 0 0

2. X1 – 2X2 + 3 X3 = 0

3
3. x1 - 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 1

2 x 2 + x3 = 0

All three linear systems given above are consistent

geometrically the first linear system represents two lines. The
solution of this system is the point if intersection of the two
lines.

The second linear system represents a plane and every solution

of the system is a point of the plane x1 + x2 + x3 = 0. The
solution of the third linear system represents points on the line
of intersection of the two plans

Both the second and third linear systems has infinitely many
solutions.

4
4. x1 + x2 = 1

4x2 = 1

x1 + 4x2 = 1

5. x1 –x2 = 1

2x1 + 2x2 = 1

6. x1 - x2 + x3 = 1

2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 35

All three linear systems given above are inconsistent. One of the
techniques for finding the solutions of a system of linear
equations is the technique of eliminations. We can illustrate this
technique on the following system.

x – y + 2z = 15

3x+y+z=4

-2x + 2y + z = -5

5
If we add (-3) times the firs equations and adding to the second;
(+2) times the first equation and then add to the third equation,
we obtain:

x- y + 2z = 15

4y – 5z = -41

5z = 25

The last equations have easily determined solutions. In fact, if

(x, y, z) is a solutions then z = 5, y = -4 , x = 1

Thus the set of solutions of the original system is

(a,−4a,5a ) : a  R

Example:

By using elimination method, solve the following system of

linear equations

x + 2 y – 2z +3w = 2

2 x + 4y – 3z + 4w = 5

5x + 10y – 8z + 11 w = 12

Solution:

(-2) times the first equation and adding the second, (-5) times
the first equation and add to the third equation, we obtain

6
x + 2y – 2 z + 3 w = 2

z -2w = 1

2z–4w=2

Then, (-2) times the second equation and add to the third
equation, we get:

x + 2y – 2 z + 3 w = 2

z - 2w =1

The system is consistent, and since there are more variables than
equations, the system has an infinite number of solutions.

In fact there are two free variables. Let the free there are two
free variables be assigned arbitrary value; say, y = a and w = b.
into the second equation, we obtain z= 1+ 2b. Putting y = a, z=1
+ 2 b and w = b into the first equation, we find X = 4 – 2a +b.
thus the general solution of the system is
(4 − 2a + b, a,1 + 2b, b ) : a, b  R.

If we begin with a homogenous system of linear equations, then

the system is clearly consistent since, it has the zero solution.

7
Example:

For what value of a is the following system of linear equations

(i) Inconsistent. (ii) Consistent

3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2

x1 – x2 – 2x3 = -3

ax1 – 2x2 + 2x3 = 6

Solution:

(-3) times the second equation and adding to the first equation,
(- a) times the second equation and add to the third equation, we
obtain.

x1 – x2 – 2x3 = -3

5x2 + 7x3 = 11

(a-2) x2 + (2a+ 2) x3 = 3a + 6

We perform another operation to reduce the last system to the

following system.

x1- x2- 2 x3 = -3

7 11
x2 + x3 =
5 5

8
 7 
− 5 (a − 2) + (a + 2) x3 = − 5 (a − 2) + 3a + 6
11
 

The given system of linear equations has:

(i) No solution if:

7
− (a − 2) + (2a) + 2 = 0
5

and

11
− (a − 2) + 3a + 6  0
5

Hence if a = -8, then the system is inconsistent.

(ii) The system is consistent for all values of a except a = -8

(i.e  -8 ≠ a  R, the system has a solution).

9
 Exercises

1- By using elimination method, solve the following systems of

equations:

(i) 2X + y – 2z = 10,

3X + 2y + 2X = 1,

5X+ 4y + 3z = 4.

(ii) 2X – 3y + 6z +2 v – 5 w = 3,

Y – 4z + v = 1,

v - 3w = 2.

(iii) X + 2y – 3z = 1,

3X – y + 2 z= 7,

5 X+3y – 4z =2

2- Which condition must be placed on a, b c so that the

following system has a solution?

X + 2y – 3 z =a

2X + 6y – 11z = b,

X – 2y + 7z =c.

10
3- Determine the value of a so that the following system has:

(i) No solution,

(ii) More than one solution,

(iii) A unique solution:

X + y – z = 1,

2X + 3y + az = 3,

X +ay + 3z =2

4- Determine whether each system has a non- zero solution:

(i) X-2y +3z -2w =0,

3X - 7y - 2z + 4w = 0,

4X – 3y- 5z + 2w=0

(ii) X + 2y – 3z = 0,

2X +5y + 2 z = 0,

2X +5y +2z = 0,

3X – y – 4z = 0

(iii) X +2y – z =0,

2X +5 y + 2z = 0,

11
X +4y + 7z = 0,

X +3y + 3z = 0

12
(1-2) Matrices and system of linear equations:

The following system of linear equations

a11X1 + a12 X2 + … + a1n Xn = b1

a21 X1 +a22 X2 + … + a2n X2 = b2

….. ……. …… ……. ……

a m1 X1 + a m2 X2 + … + amn X2 = bm

is equivalent to the matrix equation

 a11 a12 ..... a1n   x1   b1 

a ..... a 2 n  x  b 
 21 a 22  2 =  2  (1 − 2 )
 ..... ..... ..... .....  ..... .....
     
a m1 a m 2 ..... a mn   xn   bm 

Or simply AX = B, where A = (aij), X = (Xj), B = (bi). That is,

every solution of the system (1-1) is solution of the matrix
equation (1-2), and vice versa.

The above m × n matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the

system (1-1), and the matrix

 a11 a12 ..... a1n b1 

 
 a 21 a 22 ..... a 2 n .....
 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
 
a m1 a m 2 ..... a mn bm 

Is called the augmented matrix of (1-1)

13
Row equivalence and elementary row operations:

We consider operations on the rows of the matrix A which

correspond to those used in solving systems of linear equations.
These operations on a matrix are called elementary row
operation, which are of three types:

1- R i ↔ R j: Interchange row (i) and row (j).

2-  R j: Multiply there (i)th row by a scalar  ≠ 0

3- R j +  R i: Ass  times the (i)th row to the (j)th row (i ≠ j).

Definition:

A matrix A is said to be row equivalent to a matrix B if B can be

obtained from A by a finite sequence of elementary row
operations

Definition:

A matrix is said to be in row echelon from, or simply an echelon

matrix, if:

(i) The zero rows, if any, are below all non- zero rows, and.

(ii) The first non- zero entry in any row is to right to the first
non-zero entry of the pervious row

14
Definition:

A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon from if:

(i) A matrix us row echelon from with 1 as. The first non- zero
entry in each non- zero and.

(ii) The first non zero entry in each row is the only non- zero
entry of its column.

For example, the matrices:

2 3 7
1 2 1 2 0
0 , , 1 ,
3  0 0 
0
 
 0 0 0

− 1 0 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 0 , 0 2 5 6
   
0 0 5 0 0 0 1 

2 3 1 −1 0
0 0 0 2 1
 
0 0 0 4 0
 
0 0 0 0 1

are in row echelon from, but non except the second matrix is in
reduce row echelon form

Example: Reduce the matrix.

15
 2 −3 7 5 
1 −1 1 −1
A=
1 1 −8 5 
 
4 −3 0 5 

To echelon form

Solution:

By applying the operations.

R1  R2 and R2 → −2 R1 + R2 , R3 → − R1+ R , R4 → −4 R1 + R4 ,
3
then we obtain

1 −1 1 − 1
 −3 5
R1  R2 2 7
 R → −2 R + R
A ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→
1 1 −8 1 ⎯⎯
2 ⎯ ⎯1⎯⎯
2→
  R3 → − R1 + R3
4 −3 0 5 R4 → −4 R1 + R4

1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1
0 − 1 5 7  0 − 1 5 7   
  R3 → 2 R2 + R3  R4 → − R3 + R4 0 − 1 5 7 
 ⎯⎯
0 2 − 9 2  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→ 0 0 1 16  ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→0 0 1 16 
  R4 → R2 + R4    
0 1 − 4 9  0 0 1 16  0 0 0 0 

Example:

Find the solution of the system

X1 + X2 + 2X3 = 6

3X1 + 4X2 – X3 = 5

16
5 X1 + 6X2 + 3X3 = 17

Solution:

By using the elementary row operation, we reduce the

augmented matrix of the system to echelon from and find the
solution

The augmented matrix is:

1 1 2 6  1 1 2 6 
  R → −3 R + R  
3 4 − 1 5  ⎯⎯ 2 ⎯⎯⎯1 ⎯ 0 1 − 7 − 13 R3 → − R2 + R3
⎯→
2  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→
5 6 3 17 R3 → −5 R1 + R2 0 1 7 − 13
1 1 2 6 
0 1 − 7 − 13
 
0 0 0 0 
 
 
Hence we get the following new system which is equivalent to
the original system:

X1 + X2 + 3X3 = 6

X2 – 7X3 = -13

Put X3 = t in the 2nd equation, them X2 = -13 + 7t, by

substituting in the 1st equation, X1=19 – 9t.

Hence the general solution is:

(19 − 9t ,−13 + 7t , t ) :t  R

17
Example:

Find the solution of the system

2X1 – 3X2 + 7X3 + 5X4 = 7

X1 – X2 + X3 –X4 = 1

X1 +X2 -8X3 +X4 =0

4X1 – 3X2 + 5X4 = 0

Solution:

BY applying the operations R1  R2 and R2 → -2 R1+ R2, R3→

-R1 +R3, R4 → -4R1 + R4, then we obtain

1 −1 1 − 1
 −3 5  R → −2 R + R
R1  R2 2 7

A ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→
1  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯
2 1 ⎯ 2→
1 1 −8
  R → − R + R3
4 −3 0 5  R3 → −41R + R
4 1 4

1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1
0 − 1 5 7  R →2R + R 0 − 1 5 7 
  3 →  R4 → − R3 + R4
0 2 − 9 2  ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯ ⎯2⎯ ⎯
0 0 1 16  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→
  R4 → R2 + R4  
0 1 − 4 9  0 0 1 16 

1 − 1 1 − 1
0 − 1 5 7 
 
0 0 1 16 
 
0 0 0 0 

18
Example:

Find the solution f the system

X1 + +X2 +2X3 = 6

3X1 + 4X2 – X3 = 5

5X1 + 6X2 +3X3 = 17

Solution:

By using the elementary row operations, we reduce the

augmented matrix of the system to echelon from and find the
solution

The augmented matrix is

1 1 2 6 1 1 2 6 
  R2 → −3R1 + R2  
−1 5 
3 4
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ 0 1 − 7 − 13
5 6 3 17  R3 → −5 R1 + R2 0 1 7 − 13

1 1 2 6 
0 1 −7 − 13
⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→  
R3 → − R2 + R3 0 1 −7 − 13
 
0 0 0 0 

Hence we get the following new system which is equivalent to

the original system:

X1 + X2 + 2X3 = 6

19
 X2 – 7X3 = -13

Put X3 = t in the 2nd equation, them X2 = -13 +7t, by substituting

in the 1st equation, X1 = 19 -9t.

Hence the general solution is: (1 − 9t ,−13 + 7t , t ) : t  R

Example:

Find the solution of the system:

2X1 -3X2 +7X3 +5X4 = 7

X1- X2 + X3 – X4 = 1

X1 +X2 -8X3 +X4 =0

4X1 – 3X2 +5X4 = 0

Solution:

2 −3 7 5 7
 
1 −1 1 − 1 1
to the echelon form
1 1 −8 1 0
 
4 −3 0 5 0

1 −1 1 − 1 1
 
0 −1 5 7 5
0 0 1 16 9
 
0 0 0 0 8

The equivalent system is:

20
 X1 – X2 +X3- X4 = 1

-X2 +5X3 +7X4 = 5

- X3 + 16X4 = 9

0=8

Which is inconsistent system. Hence the original system is

inconsistent. i.e. it has no solution.

From the above examples, we obtain the Gaussian elimination

method, for solving the linear system AX = B, as follows:

1- Transform the augmented matrix A: B to row echelon

form by using row operations.

2- Solve the linear system corresponds to the matrix in row

echelon from by using back substitution.

21
 Exercises

1- Reduce the following matrices into (i) row. (i) row echelon
from and (ii) reduce row echelon

form

 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 
(i ) 1 0 − 1 0 (ii) 0 1 2
   
3 1 0 0 0 0 1 

2- Solve each of the following linear systems, if consistent, and

give the general solution if it has more than one solution.

a- X1 +2X2 -3X3 = 1, b- 2X +y +w =2,

X2 -2X3 =2, 3X +3y+ 3z + 5w =4,

2X2 -4X3 = 4 3X – 3y- 2w = 3

3- Construct the augmented matrix of the following linear

system, and reduce the augmented matrix to reduce row echelon
form:

X1 + 2X2 +X3 +3X4 =0,

2X1 +4X2 +3X3 +X4 =0,

3X1 +6X2 +6X3 +2X4 =0

22
4-Solve each of the following linear system, if consistent:

a- X +2y – z =4, b- 2X1 +4X2 +3X3 +2X4 =2,

2X +4y +3z = 5, 3X1 + 6X2 +5X3 +2X4 =2,

X +2y – 6z =7 2X1 + 5X2 +2X3 -3X4 =3,

4X1 +5X2 +14X3 +14X4 =11

c- 3X1 –X2 +2X3 = -4, d- X1 –X2 –X3 –X4 =5 ,

2X1 +X2 +X3 = -1, X1 +2X2 +3X3 4X = -2,

X1 +3X2 3X1 +X2 +2X4 =1,

2X1 +2X3+3X4 =3

5- Write the linear system with augmented matrix:

4 −1 −1 0 0 1
 
− 1 4 −1 −1 0 2
− 1 −1 4 −1 − 1 3
 
0 −1 −1 4 − 1 4
0 −1 −1 4 5
 0

And find the solution of it by Gaussian elimination method.

23
(1-3) Elementary and Invertible matrices:

An m × m matrix is said to be an elementary matrix if it can be

obtained from the m ×m identity matrix by means of single
elementary row operation.

Example:

1 0 
Let I =  
0 1 

Then the elementary matrices of order 2 are:

0 1   0 
=
E12   E 2(1)= 
1 0  
 0 1

1  
E  (2) = 
1 0
 E1+ 2( 2) =  
0   0 1 

1 0
E 2 +  (1) =  ≠ 0
 1 

Let B be the matrix obtained from the matrix A by performing

an elementary row operation. Suppose E is the matrix obtained
from the identity matrix I , of the same order as that of A, by
performing the same elementary row operation then B = EA.

24
Example:

2 3 1 
Let A =   be 2× 3 matrix
 4 1 2

Interchange row (1) and row (2) of A (R1  R2) gives the
 4 1 2
matrix B =  
2 3 1 

1 0 
Interchange row (1) and row (2) of I =   gives the matrix
0 1 
0 1  0 1   2 3 1   4 1 2 
EA =   , them we get EA =    4 1 2 =  2 3 1  = B
 1 0  1 0    

Example:

1 2 − 1 4 
Let A = 2 1 3 0 
1 3 3 − 1

If we perform successive row operations R2-2R1 and R3 –R1, on

A, we get the matrix.

1 2 − 1 4 
B = 0 − 3 5 − 8 
 
0 1 4 − 5

If we do the same successive operations on the 3 × 3 identity

 1 0 0
matrix, we get E = − 2 1 0
 − 1 0 1

25
Note that: EA =B.

Example:

1 2 3 − 1
Let A = 3 5 8 − 2 find a matrix (P) such that the product
1 1 2 0 

(PA) is a row echelon matrix. Express (P) as (a) product of

elementary matrices.

Solution:

Let us perform elementary row operations on A to reduce it to

echelon form

1 2 3 − 1 1 2 3 − 1 1 2 3 − 1
3 5 8 − 2 R −3R   R −
3 2 
R 
  ⎯⎯2 ⎯⎯1 → 0 − 1 − 1 1  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯→0 − 1 − 1 1 
1 1 2 0  R3 R1 0 − 1 − 1 1  0 0 0 0 
, which is in row echelon from so (P) is the product of
elementary matrices corresponding to these elementary
operations, i.e P = E3+(-1)2 • E3+(-1)1• E2+(-3)1 thus

1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
P = 0 1 0  0 1 0 − 3 1 0 to verify, we compute PA.
   
0 − 1 1 − 1 0 1  0 0 1

26
Remark:

The matrix (p) can be obtain from the identity matrix (I) by
performing successively the operations R2 – 3R1, R3 –R1 and
R3 –R2 in this order, as shown below:

1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
0 1 0 ⎯⎯2⎯ ⎯
R − 3 R R −
1 →− 3 1 0 ⎯⎯3⎯⎯R R −
1 →− 3 1 0 ⎯⎯3⎯ ⎯ R2 →  − 3 1 0
⎯
       
0 0 1  0 0 1  − 1 0 1  2 − 1 1
1 0 0

so P = − 3 1 0
 2 − 1 0

The following fact gives a condition for the existence of the

inverse of a matrix.

Theorem:

If a row echelon form of an n × n matrix has no zero rows, them

A-1 exist.

Theorem:

If (A) is an invertible n × n matrix, and if a sequence of

elementary row operations reduce (A) to the identity, them the
same sequence of operations will applied to (I yields (A).

27
Procedure for computing the Inverse:

We start with A, I, where (I) is the n × n identity matrix. We

perform elementary row operations simultaneously on (A) and
(I) such the (A) is reduced to (I). In this process, I is transformed
to A-1

Example:

1 3 
Let A =  
2 − 4

Now

1
1 3 1 0 R2 + (−2) R1 1 3 1 0 − R2 1 3 1 0 
  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ →   ⎯⎯ 10
⎯ ⎯→  1 1
− − −  − 
 2 4 0 1   0 10 2 1  
0 1
5 10 
 2 3 
R1 + (−3) R1 1 0 5 10 
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→
1 1
0 1 − 
 5 10 
Thus

2 3 
 10 
A −1 =  5
1 1
 − 
5 10 

Example:

3 − 1 4 
Let A = 0 2 1 
1 − 1 − 2

28
By performing the elementary row operations on
3 − 1 4 1 0 0 2 3 
 
, we get −1 =  5 10 
 0 2 1 0 1 0  A 1 1
1 − 1 − 2 0 0 1  − 
5 10 

Example:

3 − 1 4 
Let A = 0 1 1  by performing the elementary row
1 − 1 − 2

 1 1 1 
3 − 1 4 1 0 0  6 3 2 
   1 1 
−1
operations on 0 2 1 0 1 0 , we get A = −
5

1 − 1 − 2 0 0 1  8 9 6 
 1 −
1
− 
1
 9 9 3 

Example:

Solve the system 3X –y +4z =1, 2y +3 =2, X-y-2z =3 by using

the inverse of coefficient matrix.

29
 Exercises

1- For each of the following matrices A, find a matrix p,

expresses as a product of elementary matrices, such that PA is a
row echelon matrix.

A
1 1 1 1 
 2 3 1 2
(i)   (ii)  1 1 2 6
1 − 1 3 2 A=  3 4 − 1 5
− 1 1 1 2

(iii) 1 3 − 1 1 
A = 2 5 1 5
1 1 1 3

2- Find the inverse of each of the following matrices by using

elementary row operations.

1 1 2 1 
3 − 2 1   2 −1
  1 2 
(a) 1 − 1 2  (b)  
− 1 2 1 − 2
1 0 − 2  
 1 −1 1 − 1

30
 1 2 3 1
0 2 5 2
(c)  
2 1 − 3 0
 
− 1 0 5 1

31
 (1-4) Vectors in R

In various physical applications there appear certain quantities

such as temperature and speed, which possess only "magnitude".
These can be represented by real numbers and are called scalars.
On the other hand, there are also quantities, such as force and
velocity, which posses both "magnitude" and "direction". These
quantities can be represented by arrows and are called vectors.

Now we represent the points in the plane by ordered Paris of

real numbers. If the origin of the axes is chosen at the reference
point O, then every vector is uniquely determined by the
coordinates of its end point.

We begin by considering the following operations:

(i) Addition: if (a, b) and (c, d) are the endpoints of the

vectors U and V, then (a + c , b + d) will be the
endpoint of U + V, as below.

(c, d) (a + c, b +d)
ka, kb
‫س‬ ku
U +‫س‬
(a, b)
u u (a, b)

32
(ii) Scalar multiplication: if (a, b) is the endpoint of the vector
U, then (ma, kb) will be the endpoint of the vector ku, as above.

Mathematically, we identify a vector with its endpoint, that is,

we call the ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers a vector.

Vectors in Rn:

The set of all n- tuples of real numbers, denoted by Rn, is called

n-space.

A particular n- tuples in Rn, say u = (U1, U2, … , Un) is called a

vector, the real numbers Ui are called the component (or
coordinates) of the vector U.

Example:

1
Consider the following vectors (0.1), (1.-3), (1,2, 3 ), (-5, ,  )
5

The first two vectors are in R2 and the last two vectors are in R3

Equal vectors:

Two vectors U and V are equal, written U = V, if they have the

same number of components, i.e belong to the same space, and
if corresponding components are equal. The two vectors (1,2,3)
and (2,3,1) are not equal. Since the corresponding components
are not equal.

33
Example:

Suppose (X - y, X + y, z -1) = (4,2,3).

Then

X–y=4

X+y=2

Z – 1 =3

Solving the above system of equations gives X =3, y = -1, and Z

= 4.

Vector Addition and scalar multiplications:

Let U and V be vectors in Rn U = (U1, U2, ….., Un) and V = (V1,

V2,….., Vn). The sum of U and V, written U +V, is the vector
obtained by adding corresponding components U + V = (U 1 +
V1, U2+V2, …., Un + Vn).

The produce of a real number K by the vector U, written ku, is

the vector obtained by multiplying each component of u by k:
ku= (ku, ku2, …, ku2).

Observe that u + v and ku are also vectors in Rn. We also define

–u = (-1)u and u – v = u + (-v). The sum of vectors with
different components is not defined.

34
Example:

Let U = (1, -3, 4) and V = (3, 5, -2)

U + V = (1 + 3, -3 + 6, 4-2) = (4, 2, 2).

5 U = (5.1, 5.(-3), 5.4) = (5, -15, 20)

2 U – 3 V = (2, -6, 8) + (-9, -15, 6)= (-7, -21, 14).

The vector (0,0,….,0) in Rn, denoted by 0, is called the zero

vector, and for any vector U = (U1,U2,….., Un), U + o = (U1, ….,
Un) = U.

Properties of vectors in R2 under the operations of vectors

additions and scalar multiplication are described as follows.

For any vectors U, V, W  Rn and any scalars k, k1  R:

i) (U + V) + W = U + (U +w) ii) U+O=U

iii) U + (- U) = o iv) U + V = V +U

v) K (u + V) = ku + kv vi) (k + k1) v = kv + k1v

vii) (kk1)u = k (k1u) viii) 1.u = u

35
Dot product:

Let U and V be vectors in R U = (U1, U2, …, Un) and V = (V1),

V2, …., Vn) the dot or inner produce of U and V, denoted U,V,
is the scalar detained by multiplying corresponding components
and adding the resulting products: U . V = U1V1 +U2V2+ ….+
UnVn.

The vectors U and V are said to be orthogonal (or

perpendicular) if their dot product is zero, i.e U.V = 0

Example:

Let U = (1, -2, 3, -4), V = (6, 7, 1, -2) and w = (5, -4, 5, 7) then
U.V = 1.6 + (-2). 7 + 3.1 + (-4)(-2) = 6-14 + 3 + 8 = 3

U.W = 1.5 + (-2) (-4) + 3.5 + (-4). 7 = 5 + 8 + 15 – 28 = 0

Thus U, W are orthogonal.

Basic properties of the dot product in Rn following:

i) (U + V). W = U.W + V.W ii) U. V = V .U

iii) (kw).v = k (u.v) iv) U. U ≥ 0 and u.u = 0 iff

u=0

36
Norm and Distance in Rn:

Let U and V be vectors in Rn = U = (U1, U2, …, Un) and V =

(V1, V2, …, Vn). The distance between the points U and V,
written d (U, V), is defined by:

d (u, v) = (u1 − v1) 2 + (u2 − v2 ) 2 + ..... + (un − vn ) 2

The norm of the vector u, written u , is define to be the non-

negative square root of U.U

U = U .U = U12 + U 22 + ..... + U n2 observe that d (U, V) = U − V

Example:

Let u = (1, -2, 4, 1) and V = (3, 1, -5, 0) Then

d (U ,V ) = (1 − 3) 2 + (−2 + 1) 2 + (4 + 5) 2 + (1 + 0) 2 = 95

V = 32 + 12 + (−5) 2 + 0 2 = 35

Now if we consider two vectors P= (a, b) and q = (c, d) in the

P = a2 + b2
plan R2, then and d ( P, q) = (a − c) 2 + (b − d ) 2

p = ( a, p )
b−d (a − c) 2 + (b − d ) 2
( a, b)
a2 + b2
b
a−c
a 37
A similar result hold for vectors on the line R and in the space
R3.

Remark:

A vector e is called a unit vector if its norm is 1 : e = 1 . Observe

U
that, for any 0 ≠u  Rn, the vector en = is unit vector in the
U

same direction of U.

Cauchy – Schwarz inequality:

For any vectors U, V  Rn , U .V  U • V using the above

inequality, we can define the angle  between any two non- zero
U .V
vectors U, V  Rn by cos  =
U •V

Note that if U.V = 0, then  =  2

38
 Exercises

1. Let U = (2, -7, 1), V = (-3, 0, 4), w = (0,5,-8). Find

(i) 3 U – 4V (ii) 2 U + 3 V – 5w.

2. Find X, y and Z if (2, -3, 4) = X (1, 1, 1) + y (1, 1, 0) + Z (1,

0, 0).

3. Let U = (1, -2, 5), V = (3,1, -2). Find

(i) U +V (ii) -6U (iii) 2U – 5 V

(iv) U.V (v) U and V (vi) d (U, V).

4. Let e1= (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3= (0, 0, 1) show that for any
vector U= (a, b, c) in R3"

(i) U = ae1 + be2 + ve3

(ii) u.e1 = a, u.e2,= b, u.e3 = c

5. Find k such that d (U, V) = 6 where U = (2. k, 1, 4) and vV =

(3, -1, 6, -3).

6. Determine k such that U = 39 where U = (1, k, -2, 5).

7. Find the distance d (U, V) between the vectors U and V

where:

(i) U = (1, 7), V = (6, -5) (ii) U = (3, -5, 4), V = (6, 2, -1).

39
 Chapter (2)

Vector spaces

(2-1) Vector spaces:

Definition:

A vector space (or linear space) consists of:

1- A field F, whose elements may be called scalars.

2- A non- empty set V, whose elements called vectors.

3- A binary operations + on V, called scalar additions.

4- A function: FV → V, called scalar multiplication.

Which assign to each scalar   F and vector v  V a
vector   V

Such as:

(i)(v ,+) is an abelian group

(ii)   ,   F and u, v  V, the following are satisfied:

(i) ( + ) u =  u +  u,

(ii)  (u + v) =  u +  v,

(iii) () u =  (u).

40
 (iv) 1.u = u

We shall say V is a vector space over the field F.

Example (1):

Let R2 = (x, y) : x, y  R, where R is the field of real numbers

and define the two operations + and . as follows:

(x1 , y1) + (x2 , y2) = (x1 + x 2., y1 + y2) ,  (x1 , y1) = ( x1,  y1)
 (x1, y1), (x2, y2)  R2,   R. then R2 is vector space over R.

Example (2):

The set of orders n-tuples of Fn = (x1 , x2,….., xn) : x1, …..xn 

F forms a vector space over the field F, with the two
operations: n-tuples addition and scalar multiplication of n-
tuples, defined by:

(x1 , x2,….., xn) + (y1 , y2,….., yn) = (x1 + y1,….., xn + yn) ,

 (x1 , x2,….., xn) = (x1, x2, ….., x2) where  , xi, yi  F

Example (3):

Let F be any field and let m and n be positive integers. Let F m×n
be the set of all m×n matrices over the field F. Then Fm×n is a
vector space over F with respect to the operations of matrix
addition and scalar multiplication observe that F1×n = Fn

41
Example (4):

Let F be a field and let x be any non-empty set. Let V be the set
of all functions from X to F, i.e V = f : f: X → F  the sum of
two vectors f, g  v is the vector f +g, i.e a function from X to
F, defined by (f + g) (a) = f(a) + g(a),  a  x.

The product of a scalar   F and a vector f  V is the function

 f : X → V defined by (f) (a) =  (f(a)),  a  X.

Then V is a vector space over the filed F, with the above

operations.

Example (5):

Let F be a field and let v be the set of all elements of the form
f(x) = a0 + a1x + …..+ anxn, where a1, ….., an  F, and x is
indeterminate. This type of an element is called a polynomial in
x over F. let f(x) = a0 + a1x + …..+anxn, g (x) = b0 + b1x + ….+
bmxm be two vectors of v, where m  n. the addition of f(x) and
g (x) is defined by:

F(x) + g (x) = (a0 + b0) + (a1+ b1) x + ….. + (am+bm)xm +

am+1xm+1 + …..+ anxn

The scalar multiplication of  in F and f (x) in v is given by

42
f (x) = ( a0) + ( a1)x + …. + (an)xn one can easily show that
v is a vector space over F.

Example (6):

The field of complex numbers C may be considered a vector

space over R. More generally, let F = (x1, ……xn): xi  c
define addition of vectors and scalar multiplication as in
Example (2). In this way we obtain a vector space F = Cn over
the field R.

Remark:

From the definition of a vector space V we have:

(i)  0 = 0,   F

(ii) ou = o ,  u  V

(iii) if  u = 0, then  = 0 or u = 0, where   F, and u  V

(iv) (-)u =  (-u) = - (u),    F, uV.

43
(2.2) Subspaces:

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over the field F. A subspace of V is a

subset W of V which is itself a vector space over F with the
operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication on V,
simple criteria for identifying subspace follow:

Theorem:

W is a subspace of V iff

(i) W is non- empty.

(ii)W is closed under vector addition: v,w W implies v+wW

(iii) W is closed under scalar multiplication v  W implies kv

W,  k F

Examples:

1. If V is any vectors space, V itself is a subspace of V and 0

is a subspace of V (called the zero subspace).

2. In R2, the set (x, 0): x R is a subspace but the set (x, 1):
x R is not a subspace.

3. Let V be the vector space of polynomials them the set of all

polynomials of degree less than n, for a fixed n, is a subspace.

44
4. Let V be the vector space of all n × m matrices then the set of
those matrices A = (aij) for which aij = aij, called symmetric
matrices, is a subspace of V.

5. The set T of all solutions of the homogenous equations 3x- y

+z = 0 where x, y, z  R, is a subspace of the vector space R3
over R, i.e, T = (x, y, z): 3x- y +z= 0, x, y, z is a subspace
of R3

Remark:

The intersections of two subspaces of a vector space V is a

subspace but the union need not be a subspace.

Example:

In the vector space R3 over R let w1 = (x1, x2, x3) : x3 = 0 and

w2 = (y1, y2, y3) : y2 = 0.

It is clear that w1 and w2 are subspaces of R3. Let u = (1, 1, 0) 

w1 and v = (1, 0, 1)  w2, them u +v = (2, 1, 1), which is neither
an element of w1 nor an element of w2. Hence w1  w2 is not a
subspace of R3.

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over a field F, and let v1, v2, ….., vnV.
Any expression of the form.

45
 n
1v1+ 2v2 + …..+ nvn =   i vi where 1, 2, …., n F, is
i =1
called a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, ….., vn

By this definition , a vector v  V is called a linear combination

of v1, v2, ….., vn  V if there exist 1, 2, ….., n  F, such that
n
v = 1v1 + 2v2 + ……+ nvn =   i vi
i =1

Example:

In a vector space R3, the vector (5, -1, 0) is a linear combination

of the vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1),

since (5, -1, 0) = 5 (1, 0, 0) + (-1) (0, 1, 0) + 0 (0, 0, 1).

Example:

In a vector space R5, the vector (-3, -6, 1, -5, 2) is a linear

combination of the vectors v1 = (1, 2, 0, 5, 0), v2 = (0, 0, 1, 4,0)
v3 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 1), since (-3, -6, 1, -5, 2) = -3 (1, 2, 0, 3, 0) + (0,
0, 1, 4, 0) + 2 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1). But (2, 4, 6, 7, 8) is not a linear
combination of v1, v2 and v3.

Definition:

Let S be a non- empty subset of a vector space V. the subspace

spanned by S is defined to be the intersection W of all subspaces
of V which contains S. when S = v1, …..,vn is a finite set, we

46
shall say simply W the subspace spanned by the vectors v 1, …..,
vn.

Definition:

If S1, S2, ….., Sk are subsets of a vector space v, the set of all
sums, S1 + S2 + … + Sk, of vectors si in Si is called the sum of the
subsets S1, ….., Sk and is denoted by S1 + S2 + …..+ Sk.

If w1, w2, ….., wk are subspaces of V then the sum w = w1 + w2

+ ….. + wk is a subspace of V which contains Wi

Theorem:

Let S be a non-empty subset of a vector space V. The subspace

spanned by S of V is the set of all linear combinations of vectors
in S.

This subspace denoted by L(S) for convenience, we defined

L() = 0.

Example:

Let R be the field of real numbers suppose v1, = (1, 2, 0, 3, 0) ,

v2 = (0, 0, 1, 4, 0), v3 = (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) Then a vector v is in the
subspace W of R5 spanned by v1, v2, v3 iff  1, 2, 3  F such
that v = 1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3

Thus

47
w = (1, 22, 2, 31 + 42, 3): 1, 2, 3  F .

or

w = (x1, x2, x3, x4 , x5): x2= 2x1, x4 = 3x1 + 4x3 : xi  R .

(-3, -6, 1 , -5, 2)  w, but (2, 4, 6, 7, 8)  w.

Example:

Let R be the field of real numbers, we can prove that the vectors
u = (1, 2, 3), v = (0, 1, 2), w = (0, 0, 1) generate the vector space
R3. If (x1, x2, x3)  R3 and 1, 2, 3  R such that (x1, x2, x3) =
1u + 2u + 3w = (1, 22+ 2, 31+22 +3)

Then we obtain that:

1 = x1 , 2 = x2 – 2x1, 3 = x3 -2x2 + x1

Hence

(x1, x2, x3) = x1u + (x2-2x1) v + (x3 – 2x2+ x1) w

Therefore

R3 = L (u, v, w).

48
Example:

Let V be the vector space of all polynomials over a field F. Let

S be the subset of V consisting of all polynomials fn (x) = x2 , n
= 0, 1, 2, ….. Then V is the subspace spanned by the set S.

Example:

Let V be the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices over the field of

complex numbers  . Let

 x y  
W1 =   : x, y , z  
 z o  

 x o  
W2 =   : x, y 
 o y  

Then w1 and w2 are subspaces of V.

 x o  
Also: V = w1 + w2, and w1  w2 =   : x  R .
 o o  

Definition:

Let A be a matrix over a field F. the subspace spanned the rows

of the matrix A is called the row space of A.

49
Example:

 1 2 7
Let A =  2 5 2 be a matrix over R Find the subspace
− 1 3 3

spanned by the rows of A. Does the vector (1, -1, 2) belong to

this space?

Solution:

Let W be the subspace of V spanned by the rows of A. then v 

w if v = (1 (1, 2, 7) + 2 (2, 5, 2) + 3 (-1, 3, 2), for some

1, 2 ,3  R

V = (1 + 22 - 3, 21 + 52 + 33, 71 + 22 + 23)

Thus:

W = v = (x1, x2, x3, x4): x1= 1 +22- 3, x2 = 21 +5d2 + 3d3, x3
= 71+ 2 2 +23+ 1, 2,3  R

Thus

(1, -1, 2)  w if

1 = 1 + 21 +-3

-1 = 21 + 52 + 33

2 = 71 + 22 + 23

50
By using Gaussian elimination method one can solve this
system and hence we conclude that (1, -1, 2)  w

51
 Exercises

1- Let V be the set of all real sequences, i.e V- (x1, x2, …..): x1,
x2, …… R. Define:  (x1, x2, …...), (y1, y2, …...)  V,  
R (x1, x2, …..) + (y1, y2, …...) = (x1 + y1, x2 + y2 ,……) and 
(x1, x2, …..) = (x1, x2, …..) show that V is a vector space
over R.

2- Show that the set of all power series of x,

  
p =   p r :pr , x  R  from a vector space over the field
r = o r x 

of real numbers R with the operations; series addition and

multination of series by scalar.

3- Let V = (x,y): x, y,  Rdefine (x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1, x2, y1

+ y2),  (x1, y1), (x2, y2)  v and  (x, y) = ( x, y),  (x, y)
 v,   R. Is v a vector space over R.

4- Let v be the set of all real functions in one variable define

over the interval a, b; v = f: f: a, b→R. Define the two
operations: function addition and multiplication of functions
by scalar (f1 + f2) (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x),  f1, f2,  v (f) (x) = 
(f (x)),  f  v,   R. show that v is a vector space over R.

5- Shoe that the set of all continuous real functions defined on

the domain D = x: -1  x  1 is a vector space over R.

52
 6- Show that the set of all solutions of a given linear
homogeneous equations, e.g. 3x – y + z = 0, x, y, z  R, is a
vector space over R.

7- Let V = (a, b): a, b  R. show that V is not a vector space

over R w. r. t each of the following operations of additions in
V and scalar multiplication over v:

(i) (a, b) + (c, b) = (a + c, b + d), k (a, b) = (k2a, k2b),  (a, b),

(c, d)  V, k  R.

(ii) (a, b) + (c, d) = (a, b), k (a, b) = (ka, kb),  (a, b) , (c, d)
 V, k  R.

8- Let V = R4. show that W is a subspace of V, where:

(i) W = (a, b, c, 0): a, b, c  R

(ii) W = (a, b, c, d): a + b + c + d = 0, a, b, c, d  R.

9- Let V= R4. show that W is not a subspace of V, where:

(i) W = (a, b, 1, c): a, b, c  R

(ii) W = (a, b, 1, c): abcd = 0  R

10- Let V be a vector space of all n × n matrices over a field F.

which of the following sets of matrices is a subspace of V.

(i) W = A  V : AT = AT, T –fixed in V

53
 (ii) W = A  V : A2 = A

(iii) W = A  V : A = 0

11- Write the vector

(i) v = (1, -1, 2)  R3 as a linear combination of the vectors.

e1 = (1, 2, 7), e2 = (2, 5, 2), e3 (-1, 3, 3)

(ii) v = (-1, 1, 0, 1)  R4 as a linear combination of the

vectors e1 = (1, 1, 3, 1), e2 = (2, 1, 5, 4), e3 = (1, 2, 4, -1)

(iii) V = t3 + 4t -3  the set of polynomials over R as a linear

combination of the polynomials e1 = t2 – 2t + 5, e2 = 2t2 – 3t,
e3 = t + 3.

 3 1
(iv) v =    the set of all 2 × 2 – matrices over R as a
 − 1 1 

1 1  0 0
linear combination of the matrices A =   , B =  
1 0  1 1

0 2 
C =  
 0 − 1 

12- Let v1 = (1, 1, 1) and v2 = (0, 1, 1) write a simple expression

of L (v1, v2).

13- Show that the vectors u = (1, 2, 3), v = (0, 1, 2), w = (0, 0, 1)
generate R3

54
 1 1 3 1 
14- Let A = 2 1 5 4  be a matrix over R.
1 2 4 − 1

(i) Find two vectors other than the rows of A in the space
spanned by the rows.

(ii) Does the vector (-1, 1, 0, 1) belong to the subspace

spanned by the rows of A?

(iii) Does the vectors (1, 0, 0, 0) belong to the subspace

spanned by the rows of At?

15- Let v be the vectors space of real polynomials of degree not

greater than 3, let

U =  a0 + a2 x 2 + a3x3 : a0 , a2 , a3  R 

W = a1x +a2x2: a1, a2 R

Show that:

(i) U, W are subspaces of V

(ii) V = U + W.

(iii) = U  W = a2x2: a2 R.

55
(2-3) Basis and Dimension:

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over a field F. The vectors v 1, ….., v 

V are called linearly dependent over F if there exist scalars 1,
….., n F , not all of them 0, such that: 1v1+ 1v2 + …..+
kvk = 0 otherwise, the vectors are called linearly independent
over F.

A subset S is said to be linearly dependent if there exist distinct

vectors v1, ….., v2  S and scalars 1, ….., n  F, not all of
which are 0, such that: 1v1 + ….. + nvn = 0

A set which is not linearly dependent is called linearly

independent.

Example:

In the vector space R3. The vectors: v1 = (1, -2, 5), v2 = (0, 4, -3)
and v3 = (2, -8, 13) are linearly dependent since

-2v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

Example:

In R4, the vectors: v1 = (6, 2, 3, 4) v2 = (0, 5, -3, 1) and v3 = (0,

0, 7, -3) are linearly independent. For, suppose 1, 2,3  R.
such that 1v1+ 2v2 + 3v3 = 0, i.e

56
(0, 0, 0) = (6a, 2a,+ 5b, 3a- 3b + 7c, 4a + b-2c)

So, by equality of the corresponding component

6a =0

2a + 5b =0

3a – 3b + 7c =0

4a + 6 – 2c =0

Hence, we obtain a = b= c = 0

Example:

Let v be the vectors space of 2 × 2 matrices over the field R of

real numbers over the field R of real numbers. The vectors:

1 2 3 − 1  1 − 5
v1 =  , v = , v =
 2 2 2  3 − 4 0  are linearly department,
3 1     

since, let 1, 2,3  R , such that 1v1+ 2v2 + 3v3 = 0 then

 1 2 1  3 2 −2   3 − 53  0 0
+ + = we obtain:
3
 1  1  2 2 2 2  − 4 3 0  0 0

1 + 31 + 3 =0

21 - 2 - 53 =0

31 + 22 - 43 = 0

57
1+ 22 =0

The coefficient matrix of this system is:

1 3 1  1 3 1  1 3 1 
 2 − 1 − 5  0 − 7 − 7   0 − 7 − 7 
 → → 
 3 2 − 4  0 − 7 − 7   0 0 0 
     
1 2 0  0 − 1 − 1   0 0 0 

This implies that the vectors v1, v2, v3 are linearly department.

Remark:

1- Any set which contains a linearly dependent subset is

linearly dependent.

2- Any subset of linearly independent set is a linear

independent.

3- If two of the vectors v1, ….., vn in a vector space are equal,

say v1 = v2, then the vectors are linearly dependent.

For v1- v2 + 0v3 + …..+ 0vm = 0 and the coefficient of v1 is

not 0.

4- Any set which contains the 0 vector is linearly dependent

for; 1.0 = 0

58
Theorem:

1- Two vectors v1 and v2 in a vector space v are linearly

dependent iff one of them is a multiple of the other.

2- If the vectors v1, ….. , v2  V are linearly independent and

u  V such that u = 1v1 + ….. + nvn, I  F, then this
linear combination is unique.

Example:

Show that the vectors (3 + 2, 1+ 2 ) and (7, 1+ 2 2) in R2 are

linear independent over R but are linearly dependent over R

Solution:

Since (7,1 + 2 2) = (3 - 2) (3 + 2, 1+ 2) and (3 – 2) R

but (3 – 2)  Q.

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over a field F, a subset B of V is called a

basis of V iff:

1- B is linearly independent.

2- B spans V, i.e V = L (B).

59
Example:

Let A be a matrix over a field F .The set of non- zero rows of A

forms a basis of the subspace spanned by the rows.

Example:

Let F be a field. Consider the vector space Fn over F. let B = e1,

….., en where e1 = (1, 0, ….,0), e2 (0, 1, 0, ….., 0), and en = (0,
0, ….., 1). Then B form a basis, called the standard basis of Fn

Example:

Let V be the vector space of polynomials over the field of real

numbers R. Let fn(x) = xn, n = 0, 1, 2, …… The infinite set
f0(x), f1(x), ….., fn(x), ….. is a basis for V. for any f(x)  V
f(x) = a0 f0 (x) + a1f1(x) + ….. + anfn (x) and it is clearly that
f0(x), f1(x)…..fn(x) is linearly independent for each n.

Hence f0(x), f1(x), ….., fn(x), ….. is linearly independent.

Example:

Let V be the vector space R2 over the field R. which of the

following subsets of V is a basis?

(i) B = (1, 2), (0, 0)

(ii) B = (1, 2)

60
Solution:

(i) Since B is linearly dependent them B is not a basis

(ii) Since L (B)  V, them B is not a basis.

Theorem:

If a vector space V has a basis of m vectors, them any set of P

vectors:

(i) p  m is linearly dependent.

(ii) p  m , can't span V.

Theorem:

Let V be a vector space has a basis v1, v2, ….., vm of m

vectors, them every basis of V consists of m vectors.

Definition:

The dimension of a given vector space is the number of vectors

in any its basis.

Example:

1- The vector space Fn over a field F has dimension n.

2- The vector space of all m × n matrices over a given field

has dimension mn.

61
 3- The vector space of all real polynomials of degree n has
dimension n + 1.

4- The vector space of all real polynomials (of any degree)

has an infinite dimension.

Theorem:

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space with dim v = n, then

any linearly independent subset of V which contains n vectors is
a basis of V.

Theorem:

Let W be a subspace of an n- dimensional vector space V. them

dim W  n. In particular, dim W = dim V iff W = V.

Proof:

Since dim V = n. them any set of more than n vectors are

linearly dependent. Them any basis of W consists of m vectors,
m  n.

Thus dim W  dim V. furthermore, if dim W = n, then any basis

of W contain n linearly independent n vectors, then it is a basis
of V. thus W = V.

62
Theorem:

If U and W are finite dimensional subspaces of a vector space

V, then U + W has finite dimension and dim (U +w) = dim U +
dim V- dim (U  W).

Example:

Find a basis of the subspace W of R4 spanned by S = (1, 4, -1,

3), (2, 1, -3, 1), (0, 2, 1, -5), which is a subset of S.

Sol:

Any vector in the space W can be written as a linear

combination of the vectors of S. So, first check weather the
given vectors are linearly independent. 1 (1, 4, -1, 3) + 2 (2, 1,
-3, 1) + 3 (0, 2, 1, -5) = (0, 0, 0, 0.).

We have the coefficient matrix.

1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0
4  1 −1
1 2 0 − 7 2  R  − R
3 →0
  − 4 R1 + R2   ⎯⎯2 ⎯ ⎯⎯ 
− 1 − 3 1  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→ 0 − 1 1  0 −7 2 
  R1 + R3 −3R1 + R4    
− 1 − 5  0 − 5 − 5  0 −5 −5

1 2 0  1 2 0 1 0 0
 1 −1  0 1 −1 0 1 0
7 R2 + R3 0  R3  − 1 R3   R3 + R2  
⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯→ 0 0 − 5  ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯5⎯⎯→ 0 0 1  ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ 0 0 1
5 R2 + R4   10 R3 + R4   − 2 R2 + R1  
0 0 − 10 0 0 0 0 0 0

63
Thus 1 = 2 =3 = 0 and hence S is linearly independent set
and form a basis of W.

Example:

Let v1 = (3, -2, 2, -1), v2 = (2, -6, ), v3 = (4, 8, -4, -3), v4 = (1, 10,
-6, -2), v5 = (1, -1, 8, 5), v6 = (6, -2, 4, 8).

Let S = L (v1, v2, v3, v4) and T = L (v4, v5, v6) be subspaces
of R4. Find bases of S, T and S + T.

Solution:

To find a basis of S we need to find a maximal subset vectors let

1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 +4v4 = (0, 0, 0, 0) so:

 3 2 4 1  1 0 0 − 1
− 2 − 6 8 10  0 1 0 0
 → 
 2 4 − 4 − 6  0 0 1 1
   
 − 1 0 − 3 − 2  0 0 0 0

Reduce row echelon form yields 1 - 4 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 + 4 = 0

This implies that the vectors are linearly dependent and one of
the vectors v1, v3 or v4 can be expressed as a linear combination
of the others. So we now omit one of them and check for linear
independence of the removing vectors. say v1, v2, v3. Hence, we
prove that v1, v2 and v3 are linearly independent.

So  v1, v2, v3 is a basis of S.

64
To find a basis of T we need to find a maximal subset of linearly
independent vectors of the set v4, v5, v6.

Let 1v4 + 2v5 +3v6 = 0, then

1 1 6  1 0 0
 10 − 1 − 2 0 1 0
 → 
− 6 8 4  0 0 1
   
− 2 5 8  0 0 0

1 = 2 = 3 = 0 So v4, v5, v6 is linearly independent and

hence a basis for T.

Now, let 1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 +4v4 + 5v5 + 6v6 = 0

 0 − 1 0 − 66 4 
 3 2 4 1 1 6  1 0 7
− 2 − 6 8 10 − 1 − 2 0 1
7 
0 0 0 53 5
 →
 2 4 −4 −6 8 4  0 0 1 1 0 23 6 
  7
−1 0 − 3 − 2 5 8  0 0 0 0 1 20 
 7 

Thus v1, ….., v6 are L.D and so we drop v6 and then drop v4.
Hence v1, v2, v3, v5 is linearly independent and so a basis for S
+T.

65
 Exercises

1. Show which of the following subsets of R3 is linearly

dependent and which is linearly independent.

(i) A = (2, 7, 0), (-3, 2, 0), (5, 1, 0)

(ii) B = (2, 3, 0), (1, -4, 0), (2, 2, 1)

(iii) C = (2, 3, 0), (4, 6, 0), (2, 2, 1)

(iv) D = (1, 0, 0), (-3, 2, 5), (1, 3, 2)

(v) E = (1, 0, 0), (-3, 6, 4), (1,3,2)

(vi) = F = (1,1, 3), (2, -3, 2)

2. Which of the above sets can be taken as basis for R3

3. Let A = 1, 2, 1 + 2: 1, 2  R} be a subspace of R3.

Given B = { ( 1, 0, 1) , (0, 1, 1)} A. Prove that B is a basis
of A, What is the dimension of A?

4. Find a basis for the subspace W of R3 Spanned by v1 = (3, 3,

3), v2 = (4, 5, 6), v3 = (7, 8, 9). Find dim W.

0 1
5. For the matrix A = 1 1 find the dimension of:
2 3

(i) The subspace of R2 spanned by the rows of A.

66
 (ii) The subspaces of R3 spanned by the columns of A.

6. Consider the two subspaces of R3 given by:

U = (x, y, z): x – 2y + z = 0,

W = (x, y, z): - x + 2y + z =0

Find bases of Um W, U  W, and U + W

7. Let V and W be the following subspaces of R4

V = (a, b, c, d): b- 2c + d = 0

W = ( a, b, c, d): a = d, b= 2c

Find a basis and the dimension of:

(i) V (ii) W (iii) V  w (iv) V + W

8. Let U and W be the subspaces of R4 generated by(1,1, 0, -1),

(1, 2, 3, 0), (2, 3, 2, -1) and (1, 2, 2, -2), (2, 3, 1, -3), (1, 3,
4, -3) respectively. Find:

(i) dim (U + W) (ii) dim (U w).

9. Let U and W be subspaces of R3 for which dim U = 1, dim W

= 2, and U not subspace of W. Show that R3 = U + W

67
 Chapter (3)

Linear transformation

(3-1) Linear transformation:

Definition:

Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F. A function

T : V → W is said to be linear transformation if

T (v1 + v2) =  T (v1) + T (v2),  v1, v2  

Example:

The projection function T : R3 → R3 define by T (x1, x2, x3) =

(x1, x2, 0) is a linear transformation.

Example:

The identity function I, defined by I (v) = v,  v v, where V is

any vector space, is a linear transformation. Also, the zero
function O, defined by O(v) = 0  v  v, is a linear
transformation

Example:

Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F. The

function T: V → W defined by T(v) = 0,  v  V, is a linear
transformation.

68
Example:

(The differential transformation let V be the vector space of all

polynomials over a field F. Let (DF)(x) = a1+ 2a2x + ….. nanxn-1
for all f (x) = a0 + a1x + ….. + anxn  V. Then D is a linear
transformation form V into V

Example:

Let A be a fixed m × n matrix with entries in the field F. The

function T : Fn+1 → Fn+1 defined by T(x) = Ax,  X  Fn+1, is a
linear transformation. The function U: Fm → Fn defined by

U (v) = v (A),  v  Fm is a linear transformation.

Remark:

If T is a linear transformation from V into W, then T (o) = o,

since T (o) = T (o + o) = T (o) + T (o), T (- v) = -T (v),  v  V.

Example:

(The translation function)

F: R2 → R2 defined by f(x1, x2) = (x1 + 1, x1 + 2) is not linear

transformation.

69
Theorem:

Let V be finite dimensional vector space over the field F, and let
v1, ……, vn be a basis for V. let W be a vector space over the
same field F, and let W1, ….., Wn be any vectors in W. Then
there exists a unique linear transformation T: V → W such that
T(vi) = wi, i = 1, ….., n.

Example:

The vectors (1, 0) and (2, 3) are linearly independent and

therefore form a basis for R2. According to the pervious
theorem,  a unique linear transformation T: R2 → R3 such that
T (1, 0) = (1, 1, 0) and T (2, 3) = (-1, 1, 1) then  (a, b)  R2,

(a, b) = 1(1, 0) + 2 (2, 3) = (1, + 22, 32) and we obtain

a = 1 + 22

b= 32

Then 2 = 13 and 1 = a - 2 3 b

Now

(a, b) = (a - 2 3 b) (1, 0) + 13 b (2, 3)

And

70
T (a, b) = (a - 2 3 b) T (1, 0) + 13 b T (2, 3)

= (a - 2 3 b) (1, 1, 0) 13 b (-1, 1, 1)

= (a –b, a- 13 b, 13 b).

Example:

Let f : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by f (1, 0, 0)

= (1, 1, 1) f (1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 1) and f (1, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0).

Find (2, 3, 4)

Solution:

Since (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1) are linearly independent and so
basis for R3. Since (2, 3, 4) = -2 (1, 0, 0) + 3 (1, 1, 1) + (1, 0, 1)
then T (2, 3, 4) = -2 (1, 1, 1) + 3 (0, 1, 1) + (0, 0, 0) = (-2, 1, 1).

Remark:

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation. The image of T,

written Im T = T (v) : v  V is a subspaces of W. The kernel
of T, written ker T = v V: T (v) = 0 is a subspace of V, this
space is called the null space of T

71
Definition:

Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F such that V is

finite dimensional. Let T : V → W be a linear transformation,
the rank of T is the dimension of the rang of T and the nullity
of T is the dimension of the null spaces of T

Theorem:

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and

let T: V →W be a linear transformation. Then

Dim V = rank (T) + nullity (T).

Example:

Find the nullity (T), where T is a linear transformation from R 2

to R3 given by T (x1, x2) = (x1, x1+ x2, x1 + x2). Can you obtain
rank (T) without actually computing the range?

Solution:

Let (x1, x2)  ker T  T (x1, x2) = (0, 0, 0). Thus (x1, x1 +
x2, x1 + x2) = (0, 0, 0) hence x1 = x2 = 0, and therefore ker T =
0 nullity (T) = 0. Since dim R2 = nullity () T rank (T). 2 = 0
+ rank (T). then rank (T) = 0

Example:

Let T: R4 → R4 be a linear transformation defined by:

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T (x1, x2, x3, x4) = (x1 - x2 + x3 + 2x4, -x1 +4x2 – x3 +x4). Find a
basis and the dimension of ImT and Ker T.

Solution:

Let e1, e2, e3, e4 be the standard basis R4

T (e1) = T (1, 0, 0, 0) = (1, -1).

T (e2) = T (0, 1, 0, 0) = (-1, 4)

T (e3) = T (0, 0, 1, 0) = (1, -1)

T (e3) = T (0, 0, 0, 1) = (2, 1)

ImT = L ((1, -1), (-1, 4), (2, 1))

 1 − 1  1 − 1  1 − 1
     
Now  − 1 4  →  0 3  →  0 1  thus rank (T) = 2 and (1, -
 2 1  0 3  0 0 
     

1, (-1, 4)) is a basis of ImT.

Nullity (T) = 4-2 = 2

To find a basis of ker T. let.

x1 – x2 + x3 + 2 x4 = 0, - x1 + 4x2 – x3 + x4 = 0 and we get the

equivalent system x1 – x2 + x3 + 2 x4 = 0

3 x2 + 3 x4 = 0

Put (i) x3 = 0, x2 = 1, then x4 = 0, x1 = 1

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Put (ii) x3 = 1, x2 = 0, then x4 = -1, x1= 1

Thus (1, 0, 1, -1), (1, 1, 0, 0) is a basis of ket T.

Remark:

Let T: V → W be a linear transformation. If V = L(v1, …...vn)

then W = L (T (v1),….., T (vn)).

Example:

Let T: R4 → R4 be defined by T (a, b, c, d) = (a + b, 2a – c, c-d,

d) prove that T is linear transformation and find a basis and the
dimension of ImT and ket T.

Solution:

Let U = (a1, b1, c1, d1) and v = (a2, b2, c2, d2) be in R4 and  R,
then u + v = (a1 + a2, b1+ b2, c1+c2, d1+d2)

T (u + v) = (a1 + a2, + b1+ b2, 2a1 +2a2 – c1- c2)

c1 + c2 – d1- d2, d1 + d2)

= (a1 + b1, 2a1 –c1, c1-d1, d1) + (a2+ b2, 2a2 – c2, c2-d2, d2).

= T (u ) +  t (v).

Hence T is a linear transformation.

Let  e1, e2, e3, e4be the standard basis

74
Then

T (e1) = (1, 2, 0, 0).

T (e2) = (1, 0, 0, 0).

T (e3) = (0, -1, 1, 0).

T (e3) = (0, 0, -1, 1).

Im (T) = L (T(e1), T(e2), T(e3), T(e3), T(e4)) to find rank T, we

have.

1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0
2 0 − 1 0  0 − 2 − 1 0  0 1 1 0
 → → 2 
0 0 1 − 1 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 1 − 1
     
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

Then rank T = 4, and we take (1, 2, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0, 0), (0, -1, 1,
0), (0, 0, -1, 1) is a basis of ImT.

Since dim R4 = rank (T) + nullity (T)

4 = 4 + nullity (T)

Nullity (T) = 0 . and  is a basis for ker T.

Example:

Find a linear transformation T: R4 → R3 whose kernel is

spanned by (1, 2, 3, 4) and (0, 1, 1, 1) and obtain its image.

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Solution:

Extend (1, 2, 3, 4), (0, 1, 1, 1) by 2 linear independent.

Vectors (-1, 2, 0, 0), (-1, 1, 0, 0) (say) so that.

(1, 2, 3, 4), (0, 1, 1, 1), (-1, 2, 0, 0), (-1, 1, 0, 0) is a basis of

R4. Choose T: R4 → R3. such that:

T (-1, 2, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0).

T (1, -1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 1).

T (1, 0, 0,0 )= 2 T (1, -1, 0, 0) + T (-1, 2, 0, 0) = (1, 2, 0)

T (0, 1, 0, 0) = T (-1, 2, 0, 0) + T (1, -1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 0).

T (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) = T (1, 2, 3, 4) – 3 T (0, 1, 1, 1) – T (1, -1, 0, 0)

= (0, -1, 0).

T (x, y, z, t) = xT (1, 0, 0, 0) + y T (0, 1, 0, 0) + z T (0, 0, 1, 0) +

t T (0, 0, 0, 1)

= x (1, 2, 0) + y (1, 1, 0) + z (-1, 0, 0) + t (0, -1 0)

= (x + y- z, 1x +y – t, 0).

1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0
1 1 0  0 − 1 0 0 − −1 0
 → → 
− 1 0 0  0 2 0  0 0 0
     
 1 −1 0  0 − 3 0  0 0 0

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Im(T) = L (1, 2, 0), (0, -1, 0)

77
 Exercises

1. Which of the following functions T: R2 → R2 are linear

transformation.

(i) T (x, y) = (2x – y, x).

(ii) T (x, y) = (2x, 3x)

(iii) T (x, y) = (x2, y2)

(iv) T (x, y) = (x + 1, y+1)

2. Is there a linear transformation T: R2 → R3 such that T ()

1, 2 = (3, -1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, -1)?

3. Find T (a, b, c) where T: R3 → R is defined by T (1, 1, 1) = 3,

T (0, 1, -2) = 1 and T ()

0, 0, 1 = 2

4. For ea R2 → R2 defined by T R2 → R2 defined by T ch of the

following linear transformation T, find a basis and the
dimension of

i) its image ii) its kernel

(a) T: R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y, y-z, x+2z).

(b) T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (x +y, x+y)

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 (c) T: R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, y, z)

5. Find a linear transformation T: R3 → R3 whose image is

spanned by (1, 2, 3, 4) and (4, 5, 6).

6. Find a linear transformation T: R4 → R3 whose kernel is

spanned by (1, 2, 3, 4) and (0, 1, 1, 1).

79
(3.2) Matrix representation of a linear operators

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over a field F. A linear transformation

T: V → V from V into itself is called a linear operator or a linear
transformation on V.

Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V and suppose e1,

….., e2 is a basis of V. now T(e1), ….., T(e2) are vectors in V
and so each is a linear combination of the elements of the basis
e1, ….., en.

T(e1) = a11e1 + a12e2 + …..+ a1nen

T(e2) = a21e1 + a22e2 + ….. + a2nen

….. ….. ….. ….. …..

T(en) = an1e1 + an2e2 + ….. + annen

Definition:

The transpose of the above matrix of coefficients, denoted by

T2 is called the matrix representation of T relative to the basis
ei or simply the matrix of T in the basis ei:

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  a11 a21 ..... an1 
a a22 ..... an 2 
T 2 =  12 
 ..... ..... ..... ..... 
 
 a1n a2n ..... ann 

Example:

Let T be the linear operator on R2 defined by T (x, y) = (4x – 2y,

2x +y) we compute the matrix of T in the basis

f1 = (1, 1), f2= (-1, 0) we have:

T (f1) = T (1, 1) = (2, 3) = 3f1 + f2

T (f2) = T (-1, 0) = (-4, -2) = -2f1 +2f2

3 − 2
Therefore: T  f = 
1  2 

Example:

Let V be the vector space of polynomials in x over R of degree

 3, i.e, V = a0, a1x + a2x2 + a3x3: a0, a1, a2, a3  R let D be
the differential transformation from V into V. Let B = 1, x, x2,
x3 be a basis of V. then:

D (1) = 0 = 0.1 + 0.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3

D (x) = 1 = 1.1 + 0.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3

D (x2) = 2x = 0.1 +2.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3

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D (x3) = 3x2 = 0.1 + 0.x + 3.x2 + 0.x3

Then the matrix of D in the basis B is:

0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
DB =  
0 0 0 3
 
0 0 0 0

(3-3) Characteristic values and vectors:

Definition:

Let V be a vector space over the field F, and T: V→ V be a

linear transformation. A scalar   F is called a

Characteristic value of T if there exist 0  V such that T (v) =

v if  is a characteristic value (eigen value) of T, then:

(i) Any v s.t T (v) = is called the characteristic vector (eigen

vector) of T associated with the characteristic value .

(ii) The collection of all v s.t T (v) = v is called the

characteristic space associated with .

Remark:

Let T : V → V be a linear transformation the v  V : T (v) =

v, for any   F, is a subspace of V. It is the null space of the
linear transformation (T- I). We call  a characteristic value of

82
T if this subspace is different from the zero subspace , i.e when
(T =I) is not one – one.

Theorem:

Let T: V → V be a linear transformation then   F is a

characteristic value of T iff (T- I) is not one – one .

Example:

Let T : V → V be the identity transformation then  = 1, is the

only characteristic value of T, and every vector in V is a
characteristic vector of T. associated with the characteristic
value

Example:

Let T: R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by T(x, y, z)

= (x, 2y, 2z). then  =1 is a char. Value of T, since any v = (a, 0,
0)  R3, a  0 satisfies Tv = 1.v.

Also  = 2 is a char. Value of T, sine any v= (0. a, b)  R3, a, b

 0 satisfies Tv = 2v.

Definition:

Let A be an n × n matrix over a value F, a scalar  F is called a

character value of A if the matrix A- I is singular.

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The matrix (A- I) is called the characteristic matrix of A. Its
determinant A- I , which is a polynomial in , is called the
characteristic polynomial of A. The equation A- I  = 0, is
called a characteristic equation of A. Therefore   F is a
characteristic value of A iff  is a root of the characteristic
equation of A.

Example:

The characteristic polynomial of the matrix

1 − 3 3
A = 3 − 5 3
 
6 − 6 4

1−  3 3
A − I = 3 −5− 3 = 3 − 12 − 16
6 −6 4−

The characteristic equation of A is A- I  = 0 3 - 12 - 16 = 0.

Which implies that  = 4, -2, -2. Therefore the characteristic
values of A are 4, -2, -2.

Definition:

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and let T: V →v be a

linear transformation the characteristic polynomial of T is the
characteristic polynomial of any matrix representation of T.

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Example:

Find all characteristic values and a basis of each characteristic

space of the linear transformation T: R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y,
z) = (2x +y, y-z, 2y +4z).

Solution:

First find a matrix representation of T, say relative to the

standard basis of R3.

2 1 0 
A = T e = 0 1 − 1
 
0 2 4 

The characteristic polynomial of T is:

2− 1 0
A − I = 0 1−  − 1 = −( − 2) 2 ( − 3)
0 2 4−

Then 2 and 3 are the characteristic values of T.

(i) If  = 2, we obtain a homogenous system:

0 1 0  x 0 
0 − 1 − 1  y = 0 
     
0 2 2   z  0

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Thus, y -0 , y + z =0, and the solution of this system is V = (a, 0,
0), a  R. The characteristic space associated with  =2 is of the
form V2 = (a, 0, 0): a  Rand (21, 0, 0) is a basis of V2, i.e

V2 = L (1, 0, 0)

(ii) If  = 3, we have:

− 1 1 0  x 0 
 0 − 2 − 1  y = 0 
     
 0 2 1   z  0

Thus –x +y = 0, 2y +z =0.

If x = a, then y=a and z = -2a, a R then the characteristic space

associated with  =3 is V3 = (a, a, -2a): a  R and its basis is
(1, 1, -2), where V3 = L (1, 1, -2)

86
 Exercises

1. Find the characteristic values and corresponding

characteristic vectors for each of the following matrices:

 2 1 0 1 3 6 
 1 2   0 2 − 1
a)   b) 0 3 1 c)  
− 1 4
0 0 1 0 0 7 

1 − 3 3  − 3 1 − 1
  − 7 5 − 1 
d) 0 − 1 2 e)  
0 − 3 4 − 6 6 − 2

3 − 1 1 − 1
2. Let A =  and = 2 − 1 . Find all characteristic values
1 
B
1   
and the corresponding characteristic vectors of A and B
viewed as matrices over (i) R, (ii)

3. Find all characteristic values and a basis of each

characteristic space of the following linear transformations.

(i) T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (3x-y, x +y)

(ii) T: R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x-3y-3z), 3x-5y +3z,

6x-6y+4z.

(iii) T: R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x +4y-3z, 3y +z, 2y-

z).

87
Properties of characteristic values:

We now give some properties of the characteristic (eigen)

values of an n × n matrix A.

1. The sum of the eigen values of A equal the sum of the

diagonal entries of A (trace of A).

2. The produce of the eigen values of A equal the

determinate of A.

3. The eigen values of a triangular matrix are precisely the

entries of the diagonal.

4. If 1, ….., k are distinct eige values of A with

corresponding eigen vectors v1, ….., vk are linearly
independent.

5. If a n × n matrix A has n distinct eigen values 1, ….., n

then there exists an invertible matrix P such that

 1 0 ..... 0 
 0  ..... 0 
−
P AP = 
1 2 
..... ..... ..... .....
 
0 0 ..... n 

Matrices A and B are called similar if there exists an

invertible matrix P such that B = p-1AP

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Example:

For the following matrix A find an invertible matrix P such

P-1AP is a triangular matrix

1 − 2 0
A = 1 − 1 2
 
0 1 1

Solution:

2
The eigen values of A are 1, 1 and -1 and V =  0  is an eigen
− 1

vector corresponding to eigen value 1. We choose the vectors

0  0 
1 and 0 linearly independent vectors that include v set
   
0 1

 2 0 0
P =  0 1 0 whose columns are that vectors chosen above. It
 
− 1 0 1

1 − 1 0
can be verified that P −1 AP = 0 − 1 2 which is in the desired
0 0 1

from.

Remark:

If the 2 × 2 sub matrix, of P-1AP, on the right- hand corner were

not triangular we would have repeated the steps for it.

89
 Exercises

2 3 1
1. If A = 0 a 0 and the sum of the eigen values is 3. Find
0 0 1

the value of a and if the product of the eigen values is 3.

Find a

5 0 0
2. Let A = 6 a 0 find a and b if the trace of A is 5 and the
7 8 6

produce of the eigen values is 1.

3. Reduce of the following matrices to a triangular matrix

similar to it.

1 − 3 3  4 0 1
   2 2 3
a) 0 − 1 2 b)  
0 − 3 4 − 1 0 2

0 1 00
0 0 1 0
4. Reduce the matrix   to a triangular matrix
0 0 0 1
 
− 1 4 − 6 4

similar to it, given that its eigen values are 1, 1, 1, and 1.

90