Measurement Errors & Experiments

MEASUREMENT ERRORS AND EXPERIMENTS

——————————————————————————————————— 
1. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
To get some overview of error, least count and significant figures, lets consider the example given
below. Suppose we have to measure the length of a rod. How can we!
(a) Lets use a cm scale: (a scale on which only cm marks are there)
We will measure length = 4 cm
Although the length will be a bit more than 4, but we cannot
say its length to be 4.1 cm or 4.2 cm, as the scale can
measure upto cm only, not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto cm accuracy only.
* so we’ll say that its least count is 1 cm

(b) Lets use an mm scale : (a scale on which mm marks are there)

We will measure length ""= 4.2 cm, which is a more closer measurement. Here also if we observe
closely, we’ll find that the length is a bit more than 4.2, but we cannot say its length to be 4.21, or
4.22, or 4.20 as this scale can measure upto 0.1 cms (1 mm) only, not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto 0.1 cm accuracy
Its least count is 0.1 cm
Max uncertainty in ""can be = 0.1cm
Max possible error in "" can be = 0.1cm
Measurement of length = 4.2 cm. has two significant figures ; 4 and 2, in which 4 is absolutely
correct, and 2 is reasonably correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.1 cm is there.

(c) We can use Vernier callipers : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.01 cm )
Then we’ll measure length "" = 4.23 cm which is more closer measurement.
* It can measure upto 0.01 cm accuracy
Least count = 0.01 cm Max uncertainty in "" can be = 0.01cm
Max possible error in "" can be = 0.01cm
Measurement of length = 4.23 cm. has three significant figures ; 4 , 2 and 3, in which 4 and 2 are
absolutely correct , and 3 is reasonable correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.01 cm is there.
To get further more closer measurement :-
(d) We can use Screw Gauge : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.001 cm )
we’ll measure length l = 4.234 cm.
* Max possible uncertainty (error) in l can be = 0.001 cm
* length = 4.234 cm. has four significant figures ; 4, 2, 3 and 4.
I I I I
absolutely absolutely absolutely Reasonably
correct correct correct correct
To get further more closer measurement
(e) We can Use microscope :
we’ll measure length l = 4.2342 cm.
* Max possible uncertainty (error) in l can be = 0.0001cm
* length = 4.2342cm. has five significant figures ; 4, 2, 3, 4 and 2
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Measurement Errors & Experiments
2. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
From the above example , we can conclude that ,in a measured quantity,
Significant figures are = Figures which are absolutely correct + The first uncertain figure
2.1 Common rules of counting significant figures :
Rule 1 : All non-zero digits are significant
e.i. 123.56 has five S.F.
Rule 2 : All zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant (obviously)
e.i. 1230.05 has six S.F.
Rule 3 :

So trailing zeroes after decimal place are significant (Shows the further accuracy)

Once a measurement is done, significant figures will be decided according to closeness of

measurement. Now if we want to display the measurement in some different units, the S.F. shouldn’t
change (S.F. depends only on accuracy of measurement)
Number of S.F. is always conserved, change of units cannot change S.F.
Suppose measurement was done using mm scale, and we get  = 85 mm ( Two S. F.)
If we want to display it in other units.
85 mm 8.5 cm 0.085 m

85000 mm 0.000085 km
–5
= 8.5 × 104 mm = 8.5 × 10 km
All should have two S.F.
The following rules support the conservation of S.F.
Rule 4: From the previous example, we have seen that,
0.000085 km also should has two S.F.; 8 and 5, So leading Zeros are not significant.

Not significant
In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to the left of first non-zero digit
are insignificant (arises only due to change of unit )
0.000305  has three S.F.
 3.05 × 10–4 has three S.F.
Rule 5 : From the previous example, we have also seen that
85000 m should also has two S.F., 8 and 5. So the trailing zeros are also not significant.

Not significant

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. (Also
arises only due to change of unit)
154 m = 15400 cm = 15400 mm = 154 × 109 nm
all has only three S.F. all trailing zeros are insignificant
Rule 6 : There are certain measurement, which are exact i.e.

Number of apples are = 12 (exactly) = 12.000000........... 

This type of measurement is infinitely accurate so, it has  S.F.
* Numbers of students in class = 125 (exact)
* Speed of light in the vacuum = 299,792,458 m/s (exact)

Example 1. Count total number of S.F. in 3.0800

Solution : S.F. = Five , as trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Example 2. Count total number of S.F. in 0.00418
Solution : S.F. = Three, as leading zeros are not significant.
Example 3. Count total number of S.F. in 3500
Solution : S.F. = Two, the trailing zeros are not significant.
Example 4. Count total number of S.F. in 300.00
Solution : S.F. = Five, trailing zeros after decimal point are significant.
Example 5. Count total number of S.F. in 5.003020
Solution : S.F. = Seven, the trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Example 6. Count total number of S.F. in 6.020 × 1023
Solution : S.F. = Four ; 6, 0, 2, 0 ; remaining 23 zeros are not significant.
–19
Example 7. Count total number of S.F. in 1.60 × 10
Solution : S.F. = Three ; 1, 6, 0 ; remaining 19 zeros are not significant.

———————————————————————————————————
2.2 Operations according to significant figures:
Now lets see how to do arithmetic operations ie. addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division according to significant figures
(a) Addition  subtraction
For this, lets consider the example given below. In a simple
pendulum, length of the thread is measured (from mm
 = 75.4 cm
scale) as 75.4 cm. and the radius of the bob is measured = 75.4? cm
(from vernier) as 2.53 cm.
Find eq =  + r
r = 2.53 cm
is known upto 0.1 cm( first decimal place) only. We don’t
know what is at the next decimal place. So we can write
 =75.4 cm = 75.4? cm and the radius r = 2.53 cm.
If we add and r, we don’t know which number will be added with 3. So we have to leave that
position.
  eq = 75.4? + 2.53 = 77.9? cm = 77.9 cm

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
Rules for Addition  subtraction : (based on the previous example)
* First do the addition/subtraction in normal manner.
* Then round off all quantities to the decimal place of least accurate quantity.

i.e.

Rules for Multiply  Division

Suppose we have to multiply 2.11 x 1.2 = 2.11 ? x 1.2 ?
2 . 11 ?
x 1.2 ?
? ???
4 2 2?x
211 ?x x
2.5 ? ? ? ? = 2.5
So answer will come in least significant figures out of the two numbers.
 Multiply divide in normal manner.
 Round off the answer to the weakest link (number having least S.F.)

–2
Example 8. A cube has a side  = 1.2 × 10 m. Calculate its volume
–2
Solution :  = 1.2 × 10
V = 3 = (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2)
Two S.F. Two S.F. Two S.F.
–6 3
= 1.728 × 10 m

Round off to 2 S.F.

= 1.7 × 10–6 m3 Ans.

Rules of Rounding off

 If removable digit is less than 5 (50%) ; drop it.
Round off
47.833 47.8
till one decimal place
 If removable digit is greater than 5(50%), increase the last digit by 1.
Round off
47.862 47.9
till one decimal place

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Example 9. In ohm’s law exp., reading of voltmeter across the resistor is 12.5 V and reading of current
i = 0.20 Amp. Estimate the resistance in correct S.F.
V 12.5 3 SF
R= = = 62.5  62 
Solution : i 0.20 2 SF round off
to 2 S.F.

Example 10. Using screw gauge radius of wire was found to be 2.50 mm. The length of wire found by mm.
scale is 50.0 cm. If mass of wire was measured as 25 gm, the density of the wire in correct S.F.
will be (use = 3.14 exactly)

m
Solution : = = = 2.5465
r 2 

———————————————————————————————————
3. LEAST COUNT
We have studied (from page 1) that no measurement is perfect. Every instrument can measure upto a
certain accuracy; called least count.

4. PERMISSIBLE ERROR
Error in measurement due to the limitation (least count) of the instrument, is called permissible error.
From mm scale  we can measure upto 1 mm accuracy (least count = 1mm). From this we will get
measurement like  = 34 mm

Max uncertainty can be 1 mm.

Max permissible error () = 1 mm.
But if from any other instrument, we get  = 34.5 mm then max permissible error () = 0.1 mm
and if from a more accurate instrument, we get  = 34.527 mm then max permissible error () = 0.001 mm
= place value of last number
Max permissible error in a measured quantity = least count of the measuring instrument and if
nothing is given about least count then Max permissible error = place value of the last number
5. MAX. PERMISSIBLE ERROR IN RESULT DUE TO ERROR IN EACH
MEASURABLE QUANTITY :
Let Result f(x, y) contains two measurable quantity x and y
Let error in x = ± x i.e. x  (x – x, x + x)
error in y = ± y i.e. y  (y – y, y + y)
Case - () : If f(x, y) = x + y
df = dx + dy
error in f = f = ± x ± y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x ± y)
(f)max = x + y

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
Case - () : If f = x – y
df = dx – dy
(f) = ± x  y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x  y)
 (f)max = x + y
For getting maximum permissible error , sign should be adjusted, so that errors get
added up to give maximum effect
i.e. f = 2x – 3y - z
(f)max = 2x + 3y + z

Example 11. In resonance tube exp. we find 1 = 25.0 cm and 2 = 75.0 cm. The least count of of the scale
used to measure  is 0.1 cm. If there is no error in frequency. What will be max permissible
error in speed of sound (take f 0 = 325 Hz.)
Solution : V = 2f 0 (2 – 1)
(dV) = 2f 0 (d2 – d1)
(V)max = max of [2f 0(± 2  2] = 2f 0 (2 + 1)
1 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
2 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
So max permissible error in speed of sound (V)max = 2(325Hz) (0.1 cm + 0.1 cm) = 1.3 m/s
Value of V = 2f 0 (2 – 1) = 2(325Hz) (75.0 cm - 25.0 cm) = 325 m/s
so V = ( 325 ± 1.3 ) m/s
———————————————————————————————————
a b c
Case-() : If f(x, y, z) = (constant) x y z to scatter all the terms, Lets take log on both sides
n f = n(constant) + a n x + b n y + c n z
Differentiating both sides
df dx dy dz
=0+a +b +c
f x y z
f x y z
=±a ±b ±c
f x y z
 f  x y z
 f  = max of (± a ±b ±c )
 max x y z
i.e. f = 15 x2 y–3/2 z–5
df dx 3 dy dz
=0+2 – –5
f x 2 y z
f x 3 y z
=±2  5
f x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
 f  = max of (± 2  5 )
 max x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
 f  =2 + +5
 max x 2 y z
 sign should be adjusted, so that errors get added up

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Example 12. If measured value of resistance R = 1.05 , wire diameter d = 0.60 mm, and length  = 75.3 cm.
If maximum error in resistance measurment is 0.01  and least count of diameter and length
measuring device are 0.01 mm and 0.1 cm respectively, then find max. permissible error in
 d2 
R
 4 
resistivity =  

   R d 
Solution :   = +2 +
  max R d 
R = 0.01 
d = 0.01 mm (least count)
 = 0.1 cm (least count)

    0.01  0.01mm 0.1cm 

  =  1.05  + 2 0.60mm + 75.3cm  × 100 = 4.3 %.
  max  

Example 13. In ohm’s law experiment, potential drop across a resistance was measured as v = 5.0 volt and
current was measured as i = 2.0 amp. If least count of the voltmeter and ammeter are 0.1 V
and 0.01A respectively then find the maximum permissible error in resistance.
v
Solution : R= = v × i–1
i
 R  v i
 R  = +
 max v i

v = 0.1 volt (least count)

i = 0.01 amp (least count)

 R   0.1 0.01 
%   =    × 100 % = 2.5 %
 R max  5.0 2.00 

Example 14. In Searle’s exp to find Young’s modulus, the diameter of wire is measured as D = 0.050 cm,
length of wire is L = 125 cm, and when a weight, m = 20.0 kg is put, extension in the length of
the wire was found to be 0.100 cm. Find maximum permissible error in young’s modulus (Y).
mg x mg
Solution : =Y( )  Y=
d2 / 4  ( / 4) d2 x

 Y  m  d x
 Y  = + +2 +
 max m  d x

here no information of least count is given so maximum permissible error in  = place value of
last number.
m = 20.0 kg  m = 0.1 kg (place value of last number)
 = 125 cm   = 1 cm (place value of last number)

d = 0.050 cm  d = 0.001 cm (place value of last number)

x = 0.100 cm  x = 0.001 cm (place value of last number)

 Y   0.1kg 1cm 0.001cm 0.001cm 

 Y  =    2   100% = 6.3%
 max  20.0kg 125cm 0.05cm 0.100cm 

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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Example 15. To find the value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum T = 2.00 sec ; = 1.00 m was measured.
2
Estimate maximum permissible error in ‘g’. Also find the value of ‘g’. (Use  = 10)
 4 2
Solution : T = 2  g=
g T2
 g   T  0.01 0.01 

g
 =

+2
T
=  1.00  2 2.00  × 100 % = 2 %
 max  
4 2 4  10  1.00
value of g = 2
= 2
= 10.0 m/s2
T (2.00)
 g  gmax 2
  = 2/100 so  so (g)max = 0.2 = max error in ‘g’
 g max 10.0 100
2
so ‘g’ = (10.0 ± 0.2 ) m/s

———————————————————————————————————
OTHER TYPES OF ERRORS :
1. Error due to external Causes :
These are the errors which arise due to reasons beyond the control of the experimentalist, e.g., change
in room temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, variation of the acclectrion due to gravity etc. A
suitable correction can, however, be applied for these errors if the factors affecting the result are also
recorded.
2. Instrumental errors :
Every instrument, however cautiously manufactured, possesses imperfection to some eaxtent. As a
result of this imperfection, the measurements with the instrument cannot be free from errors. Errors,
however small, do occur owing to the inherent manufacturing defects in the measuring instruments are
called instrumental errors. These errors are of constant magnitude and suitable corrections can be
applied for these errors. e.i.. Zero errors in vernier callipers, and screw gauge, backlash errors in screw
gauge etc
3. Personal or chance error :
Two observers using the same experiment set up, do not obtain exactly the same result. Even the
observations of a single experimentalist differ when it is repeated several times by him or her. Such
errors always occur inspire of the best and honest efforts on the part of the experimentalist and are
known as personal errors. These errors are also called chance errors as they depend upon chance.
The effect of the chance error on the result can be considerably reduced by taking a large number of
observations and then taking their mean. How to take mean, is described in next point.
4. Errors in averaging :
Suppose to measure some quantity, we take several observations, a1, a2, a3…. an .To find the
absolute error in each measurement and percentage error , we have to follow these steps
(a) First of all mean of all the observations is calculated : a mean= (a1+ a2 +a3 +…+ an) / n. The mean of
these values is taken as the best possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of
measurements..
(b) Absolute Error : The magnitude of the difference between the best possible or mean value of the
quantity and the individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement.
The absolute error in an individual measured value is:
  an = | amean  an |
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error.
   amean = (|a1| + |a2| + |a3|+...........+|an|)/n
 n 
   
amean =  | ai | n
i  1 
 
we can say amean  amean  a  amean + amean
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Measurement Errors & Experiments
(c) Relative and Percentage Error
Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error and arithmetic mean.
amean
Relative error =
amean
When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the percentage error.
amean
Thus, Percentage error = × 100%
amean

Example 16. In some observations, value of ‘g’ are coming as 9.81, 9.80, 9.82, 9.79, 9.78, 9.84, 9.79, 9.78,
9.79 and 9.80 m/s2. Calculate absolute errors and percentage error in g.
Solution :
S.N. Value of g Absolute error g = |gi – g |
1 9.81 0.01
2 9.80 0.00
3 9.82 0.02
4 9.79 0.01
5 9.78 0.02
6 9.84 0.04
7 9.79 0.01
8 9.78 0.02
9 9.79 0.01
10 9.80 0.00

gmean =  g i

10
gmean = 9.80
0.14
= = 0.014
10
gmean 0.014
percentage error =  100 = × 100 % = 0.14 %
gmean 9.80
2
so ‘g’ = ( 9.80 ± 0.014 ) m/s
———————————————————————————————————
EXPERIMENT - 1
Screw gauge (Micrometer)

 1 mm 
Screw gauge is used to measure closely upto   . How can it divide 1 mm in 100 parts !
 100 
To divide 1 mm in 100 parts, a screw is used. In one rotation, the screw (spindle) moves forward by
1 mm. (Called pitch of the screw)
The rotation of the screw (spindle) is divided in 100 parts (called circular scale), hence 1 mm is divided
in 100 parts

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
1 rotation 1 mm
100 circular parts 1 mm
1 mm
so 1 circular part  = Least count of screw gauge
100
So lets generalize it

How to find thickness of an object by screw gauge !

Object is inserted ZOOM

between the jaws

0 1 mm
57 1 circular part =
50 100
47
(mm) 47 circular part = 47 x 1 mm
40 100

Object thickness = 7. - - - - -
= 7 mm + 47 circular devisions
= 7 mm + 47 ( 1 mm )
100
Main scale Circuler Least
Reading scale Count
Reading

Thickness of Main Circular Least

object = scale + scale Count
= Reading
Reading of Reading
Screwgauge

Pitch
Numbers of
devisions on
Circular Scale
Description of screw gauge :
movable Jaw
(spindle)
Main scale
Fixed Jaw Circular scale
object

0 5
50
(mm)
40

Thimble
Fixed sleeve
Fixed frame
The object to be measured is put between the jaws. The sleeve is hollow part, fixed with the frame and
main scale is printed on it.
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Measurement Errors & Experiments
The spindle and thimble are welded, and move together by means of a screw. The circular scale is
printed on the thimble as shown. It generally consists of 100 divisions (sometime 50 divisions also)
The main scale has mm marks (Sometimes it also has 1/2 mm marks below mm marks.)
(Usually if pitch of the screw gauge is 1mm then there are 1mm marks on main scale and if pitch
is 1/2 mm then there are 1/2 mm marks also)
This instrument can read upto 0.01 mm (10 m) accuracy that is why it is called micrometer

Example 17. Read the normal screwgauge

*Main scale has only mm marks.
*In a complete rotation, the screw advances by 1 mm.
*Circular scale has 100 divisions
Solution :

0 5 10
70
(mm) 60

Soln: 1 mm
Object thickness = 11 mm + 65 ( )
100
= 11.65 mm
Example 18. Read the screwgauge
1
* Main scale has mm marks.
2
1
* In complete rotation, the screw advances by mm.
2
* Circular scale has 50 division.
Solution :
50

6.5
40

Soln: Object thickness = 6.5 - - - -

1/2 mm )
Object thickness = 6.5 mm + 43 (
50
= 6.93 mm

Example 19. Read the screwgauge shown bellow:

1
* Main scale has mm marks.
2
1
* In complete rotation, the screw advances by mm.
2
* Circular scale has 50 division.
Solution :

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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Example 20. A wire of resistance R = 100.0  and length l = 50.0 cm is put between the jaws of screw gauge.
Its reading is shown in figure. Pitch of the scruegauge is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisio on
circular scale. Find its resistivity in correct significant figures and maximum permissible error in 
(resistivity).
Solution :

 Rd2 (100.0) (3.14) (8.42  103 )

   R    = = =1.32 /m
d2 / 4 4 4(50.0  102 )
d dR 2d(D) d 0.1 0.01 0.1
= + + = +2× + = 0.00537 (0.52%)
 R D  100.0 8.42 50

1
Example 21. In a complete rotation, spindle of a screw gauge advances by mm. There are 50 divisions on
2
1 1 1
circular scale. The main scale has mm marks  (is graduated to mm or has least count = mm)
2 2 2
If a wire is put between the jaws, 3 main scale divisions are clearly visible, and 20 division of
circular scale co-inside with the reference line. Find diameter of wire in correct S.F.
1  1/ 2 mm 
Solution : Diameter of wire (3 × mm) + (20)   = 1.5 + 0.20 = 1.70 mm (The answer should be
2  50 
upto two decimal places because this screwgauges can measure upto 0.01 mm accuracy).
Example 22. In the previous question if the mass of the wire is measured as 0.53 kg and length of the wire is
measured by an mm scale and is found to be 50.0 cm, find the density of the wire in correct
significant figures.
m (0.53 103 )  4 8
Solution :  = g / m3 = 4.7×10 (2 S.F.)
 d2  (3.14) (1.70  103 )2 (50  102 )
  
 4 

Example 23. Two measure diameter of a wire, a screwgauge is used. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In
a complete rotation, the screw advances by 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 devisions.
The reading of screwgauge is as shown in figure.

If there is no error in mass measurement, but error in length measurement is 1%, then find
max. Possible error in density.

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
m
Solution : 
 d2 
  
 4 
   d 
  = 2 
   d 
1 mm
d = least count of =  0.01 mm
100
and d = 3.07 mm from the figure
    0.01 1 
so    2   100%
  max  3.07 100 
  
  = 1.65%.
  max
———————————————————————————————————
Zero Error :
If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws are in contact), the screwgauge should give zero
reading. But due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives some excess reading. This
excess.
Reading is called zero error :

Example 24. Find the thickness of the wire. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In a complete rotation, the
screw advances by 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 devisions.

Solution : Excess reading (Zero error) = 0.03 mm It is giving 7.67 mm in which there is 0.03 mm excess
reading, which has to be removed (subtracted)
so actual reading = 7.67 - 0.03 = 7.64 mm
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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Example 25. Find the thickness of the wire. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In a complete rotation, the
screw advances by 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 devisions. If no object is placed
between the jaws, the zero of main scale is barely visible and 93rd circular devision matches
with the main scale line.

Solution : Excess reading (Zero error) It is giving 7.95 mm in which there is -0.07 mm excess
= (–1 mm) + (93) (0.01) = – 0.07mm reading , which has to be removed ( subtracted)
so actual reading = 7.95 -(- 0.07) = 8.02 mm

———————————————————————————————————
ZERO CORRECTION :
Zero correction is invert of zero error :
zero correction = - (zero error)
Actual reading = observed reading - zero error
= observed reading + Zero correction

EXPERIMENT # 2
Vernier callipers
It is used to measure accurately upto 0.1 mm.

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
*On the upper plate, main scale is printed which is simply an mm scale.

*On the lower plate, vernier scale is printed, which is a bit compressed scale. Its one part is of 0.9 mm.

(10 vernier scale divisions = 9 mm  1 vernier scale division = 0.9 mm)

The object which is to be measured, is fitted between the jaws as shown.

How to read Vernier Callipers:

Now lets see How the slight difference between 1 MSD and 1 VSD reflects as least count

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Required length = 13 mm + x = ?
at point ‘A’ , main scale and vernier scale are matching
so length OA along main Scale = length OA along Vernier Scale
13 mm +3 (Main scale division) = ( 13 mm + x ) + 3 (vernier Scale division )
Get 13 mm + x = 13 mm + 3 (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 13 mm + 3 (1 mm – 0.9 mm )
= 13 mm + 3 (0.1 mm) = 13.3 mm
  
 main   vernier 
     Least 
 scale  +  scale   count 
 reading   reading   
   

(1 Main scale division – 1 vernier Scale division)
Hence the slight difference between 1 MSD (1 mm ) and 1 VSD (0.9 mm ) reflects as least count (0.1 mm)
Thicknes of object  main   vernier 
     Least 
 =  scale  +  scale   
Readingof vernier callipers  reading   reading   count 
   

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Example 26. Read the vernier. 10 division of vernier scale are matching with 9 divisions of main scale.

Solution : 10 vernier scale divisions = 9 mm

1 vernier scale division = 0.9 mm
 least count = (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 1 mm - 0.9 mm (from figure)
= 0.1 mm
Thickness of the object = (main scale reading) + (vernier scale Reading) (least count )
So thickness of the object = 15 mm + (6) (0.1mm ) = 15.6 mm Ans.
Example 27. Read the special type of vernier. 20 division of vernier scale are matching with 19 divisions of
main scale.

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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Solution : 20 vernier scale divisions = 19 mm
19
1 vernier scale division = mm
20
where least count = (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 1 mm – 19/20 mm (from fig.)
= 0.05 mm
Thickness of the object = (main scale reading) + (vernier scale Reading) (least count)
So thickness of the object = 13 mm + (12) (0.05mm )
= 13.60 mm Ans.

———————————————————————————————————
Zero Error:
If there is no object between the jaws (ie. jaws are in contact),the vernier should give zero reading. But
due to some extra material on jaws, even if there is no object between the jaws, it gives some excess
Reading. This excess reading is called zero error

Example 28. In the vernier caliperse, 9 main scale divisions matches with 10 vernier scale divisions. The
thickness of the object using the defected vernier calliperse will be :

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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Example 29. In the vernier caliperse, 9 main scale divisions matches with 10 vernier scale divisions. The
thickness of the object using the defected vernier calliperse will be :

Solution : From first figure, Excess reading (zero error ) = 0.6 mm

If an object is placed, vernier gives 14.6 mm in which there is 0.6 mm excess reading, which
has to be subtracted. So actual thickness = 14.6 – 0.6 = 14.0 mm we can also do it using the
formula

= 14.6 – 0.6 = 14.0 mm Ans.

Example 30. The least count of main scale is 1mm. In the vernier caliperse, 9 main scale divisions matches
with 10 vernier scale divisions. When no object is placed between the jaws, the zero of vernior
scale is slightly behind the zero of main scale. When a sphere is placed between the jaws, the
reading of the vernier is shown in the figure. The thickness of the object using the defected
vernier calliperse will be :

Solution : Zero error = main scale reading + ( vernier scale reading ) ( least count )
= –1 mm + 6 (0.1 mm) = – 0.4 mm
observed reading = 11.8 mm
So actual thickness = 11.8 – (–0.4) = 12.2 mm Ans.

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
——————————————————————————————————— 
Zero Correction :
Zero correction is invert of zero error.
Zero correction = – (zero error)

In example 28, zero error was 0.6 mm, so zero correction will be – 0.6 mm
In example 29, zero error was -0.4 mm, so zero correction will be + 0.4 mm

Example 31. The main scale of a vernier callipers reads 10 mm in 10 divisions. 10 divisions of Vernier scale
coincide with 9 divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the callipers touch each other,
the fifth division of the vernier coincides with some main scale divisions and the zero of the
vernier is to the right of zero of main scale. When a cylinder is tightly placed between the two
jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies slightly behind 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division
coincides with a main scale division. The diameter of the cylinder is.
Solution : Zero error = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm.
Observed reading of cylinder diameter = 3.1 cm + (4) (0.01 cm) = 3.14 cm
Actual thickness of cylinder = (3.14) – (0.05) = 3.09 cm Ans.
Example 32. In the previous question if the length of the cylinder is measured as 25 mm, and mass of the
cylinder is measured as 50.0 gm, find the density of the cylinder (gm/cm3) in proper significant
figures.
m
Solution :  2
(d / 4)h
(50.0)gm 3
= 2 1 3
= 2.7 gm/cm (in two S.F.) Ans.
3.14  (3.09 / 2)  (25  10 ) cm

———————————————————————————————————
EXPERIMENT # 3
Determining the value of ‘g’ using a simple pendulum
////////

 L

In this exp. a small spherical bob is hanged with a cotton thread. This arrangement is called sample
pendulum. The bob is displaced slightly and allowed to oscillate. To find time period, time taken for
50 oscillations is noted using a stop watch.
L L
Theoretically T = 2  g = 42 .....(1)
g T2
where L = Equivalent length of pendulum = length of thread () + radius (r) of bob,
Time taken for 50 oscillations
T = time period of the simple pendulum =
50
so ‘g’ can be easily determined by equation ...(1).
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