GPS Handout 4 Adama University(ADU)

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4.0 DATUM, COORDINATE SYSTEM AND MAP PROJECTION

The ability of GPS to determine the precise location of user anywhere, under any
weather conditions, attracted millions of users worldwide from various fields and
backgrounds. However, one common problem that many newcomers to GPS face is
the issue of datum and coordinate systems. As many users are interested in the
horizontal component of the GPS position, the issue of map projection is also to be
understood. For the sake of completeness, the height systems are also required to
understand.
4.1 Datum and Coordinate System:
4.1.1 Datum:
 The fact that the topographical surface of the earth is highly irregular makes it
difficult for the geodetic calculation.
 Datum is a reference surface through which the position of any point is done
both horizontally and vertically.
 To understand how the size and shape of earth is determined, three surfaces
have to be understood clearly. These are:
 Earth Physical Surface: this is the actual topographical surface on which
earth measurements are made. It is not suitable for exact mathematical
calculations because of its highly irregular nature.

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 Geoid Surface: is an equi-potential surface that best approximate the mean sea

level (MSL). For each point on this surface the gravitational force is same. It
cannot be determined geometrically but must be determined by observations
point by point.

 At Geoidal surface, the direction of gravity and axis of a level Theodolite are
perpendicular to it. That is the reason why Geoid is used as reference datum
for measurements of heights.
 However, the surface has rather disagreeable mathematical properties and not
suitable as a surface on which to perform mathematical computations.
 Reference Ellipsoid: is a mathematical surface with arbitrarily defined
geometrical figure. It closely approximates the Geoid or the actual topographical
surface.
 Since the reference ellipsoids are smooth mathematical figures (user defined,
mainly ellipse), computations are quite easy to be performed on this surface.
 It is an ideal surface of referring the horizontal position of points on the earth
surface.
 The reference ellipse is defined by its semi major axis (a) equatorial radius and
its flattening constant (f) which is defined as

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f = a - b /a, Where ‘b’ is polar radius called semi minor axis.

 The parameters of this ellipsoid (a & f) are chosen depending upon the shape
of Geoid it is referred to fit.

An appropriate positioned reference ellipsoid is known as Geodetic Datum.

That is, geodetic datum is a mathematical surface or a reference ellipsoid with a well-
defined origin and orientation.

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 E.g. Geocentric Datum is a Geodetic Datum with its origin coinciding with the
centre of earth.
 Geodetic Datum is determined by specifying 8 parameters. 2 parameters to
define the dimension of reference ellipsoid (a and b), 3 parameters to define the
position of its origin and 3 parameters to define the orientation of three axes with
respect to earth.
 Relationship between Geoid and Ellipsoid: the following diagram would
illustrate the relationship between the actual irregular shape of earth, the Geoid
and the Ellipsoid.

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4.1.2 Coordinate System:

 The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude
and height system also known as Geodetic Coordinate system.
 The prime meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define the
latitude and longitude.
 The geodetic latitude (s) of a point is the angle from the equatorial plane to a
line normal to the reference ellipsoid.
 The geodetic longitude (d) of a point is the angle between a reference plane
and a plane passing through the point, both planes being perpendicular to the
equatorial plane.
 In a Geodetic Coordinate system, the third dimension is given by the
Ellipsoidal Height (h). The ellipsoidal height at a point is the distance from the
reference ellipsoid to the point in a direction normal to the ellipsoid.
 This height is not normally used, as they are difficult to determine. The
Orthometric height of a point is defined as the linear distance from that point to
the reference equi-potential surface of the earth’s gravity field (Geoid). The
difference between the Ellipsoidal height and the Orthometric height is referred
to as the Geoid – Ellipsoid separation (N).

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h = N + H, where h = Ellipsoidal Height, N = Geoid-ellipsoid separation

and H = Geoidal height
 Cartesian Coordinate System: earth centered X, Y, Z Cartesian coordinates
also known as Space coordinates define 3D position with respect centre of the
reference ellipsoid.
 Z-axis points towards North Pole. The X-axis is defined by the intersection of
the plane defined by the prime meridian and the equatorial plane. The Y-axis
completes a right-handed orthogonal system by a plane 90 0 east of the X-axis and
its intersection with the equator.

Relation between Cartesian and Geodetic Coordinate systems:

 Geodetic coordinates (Φ, λ, h) can easily be transformed into Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y and Z). To do this the ellipsoidal parameters (a and f) must be
known.
 It is also possible to transform Geodetic Coordinates (Φ and λ) into rectangular
grid coordinates (nothing and easting).

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4.2 GPS coordinates Systems:

 The world geodetic coordinates systems – 84 (WGS-84) are a 3D earth
centered reference system developed by U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, now
called NIMA (national Imagery and Mapping Agency).
 This system is an official GPS reference system. Any one uses GPS ephemeris
to obtain its position will get its position in WGS-84 coordinate system.
 It utilizes CTRS (conventional Terrestrial Reference System) combined with a
reference ellipsoid that is identical with the geodetic reference system – 1980.

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 CTRS is 3D geocentric coordinate system. That is its origin coincides with the
centre of the earth.
 The orientation of CTRS is defined as follows, Z-axis points towards the
conventional Terrestrial pole. X-axis is defined by intersection of terrestrial
equatorial plane and meridian plane that contains Prime Meridian.
 XZ plane contains the Mean Greenwich meridian.
 Y-axis is selected to make coordinates system right hand of the x axis.
 The three axes intersect at earth centre.
 WGS-84 is a global datum which best approximate the size and shape of the
earth globally.
4.3 Datum Transformation:
 WGS-84 is a Global Datum. However, local coordinates are used in a
particular country based on the local ellipsoid. This means for any area the
existing coordinates used for mapping purposes are in local coordinates.
 That is why transformation of Global Datum to local is required.
 Local datum is limited in accuracy to a fine area surrounding the point of
origin.
 Coordinates can be transformed from one datum to another using standard
formula/ equations if the relationship between the two datum are known.
 The relationship is established by:
 a set of values defining ‘a ‘ and ‘f’ of the two ellipsoids.
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 A set of parameters called transformation parameters pertaining to two

ellipsoids.
 Establishing the Transformation parameters:
- Identify at least three geodetic control points whose coordinates are
known accurately in local coordinate system (local datum)
- Set up GPS receivers at three stations and find the coordinates of these
points in WGS-84 coordinate system.
- Post process data in standard software using algorithm to compute the
transformation parameters.

 The latitude, longitude and height of point P on datum A will

certainly be different when it is expressed on datum B. This is because:
- The two ellipsoid is having different ‘a’ and ‘f’ values.
- The centers of the ellipsoid is different and
- The Cartesian coordinates axes of two datums are not parallel.
 Helmert Transformation: Helmert 7 parameters transformation is used to
convert WGS-84 coordinate system to local coordinate system.
 3 Translation parameters ( ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ) to relate the origin of the two systems.
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 3 Rotational parameters (ωx ωy, ωz) to relate the orientation of the axes
of two systems
 One scale parameter to account for any difference in scale between
the two systems.
 Other Transformation Approach:
 Helmert Transformation is mathematically correct but for accurate height,
Geoid-ellipsoid separation must be known.
 To overcome this, a height model is constructed to find out the Geoid-Ellipsoid
separation with the help of control points.
 WGS-84 coordinates are projected onto a temporary Transverse Mercator and
then shift, rotation and scale from temporary projection to real projection are
calculated.
 The height transformation is a single dimension height approximation and
limited to smaller area say 15 x 15 km.

4.4 Map Projection:

A map projection is a systematic representation of the parallels of latitude and

meridians of longitude of the spherical surface of earth on a plane surface. The
network of the parallels and the meridians so formed is called Graticule.
We cannot reproduce on plane surface a map or an exact copy of the parallels of
latitude and the meridians of longitude of a large part of globe. Therefore, earth
relationships such as shapes, areas of countries and direction of one place from other,
as maintained on globe are not maintained on a map.

4.4.1 Transverse Mercator Projection:

 Meridians not converge at poles i.e distance between meridians increases
towards the poles as we move towards poles.

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 Globe is kept inside a cylinder in such a way that tangent is perpendicular to

the meridian.
 G.Mercator in 1569 devised a mathematical formula by virtue of which
 Parallels are placed increasingly farther apart towards the pole
 i.e. increasing the length of meridian towards the pole
 The increase in length of meridian is in the same proportion as the length
of parallel increases.
 Based on the Mercator’s mathematical formulas – a table is used to draw
parallels based on the distance from equator.

Latitude Distance from equator

( r = radius of Globe)
100 0.175 x r
200 0.356 x r
300 0.549 x r
400 0.763 x r
500 1.011 x r
600 1.317 x r
700 1.733 x r
800 2.436 x r
900 Infinity

Properties:
1. Parallels and meridians are straight line and intersecting each other at 90 0

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2. The distance between parallels go on increasing towards the pole but the
distance between meridians remain the same
3. All the parallels are of the same length and are equal to length of equator
4. The meridians are longer than the corresponding meridians on globe.
5. The meridians length are made longer so as the scale along the meridian at any
point equal to the scale along the parallels at the same point (becase parallels also
increasing in length polewards)
6. Therefore east west stretching is accompanied by equal north-south stretching.
This property is called Conformality or orthomorphism.
7. Because of increase in parallels and meridian length towards the pole, size of
country in polar areas appear bigger than actual size. E.g. Greenland in this
projection becomes equal to the size of Africa.

4.4.2 Lambert’s Projection:

 Parallels and meridians are projected on a plane placed tangentially to it at one

of the poles or any other point.
 When the plane is tangent to equator it is called Azimuthal Projection equator
case. Similarly when it is tangent to pole or any other point between pole and
equaor it is called Azimuthal projection polar case and Azimuthal projection
oblique case.

General Properties (Polar Case)

 The pole is centre of the projection

 Parallels are cocentric circles
 Plane is tangent to the pole and centre of the pole coincides with the pole.
Therefore meridians represent true Azimuth and hence it is called Azimuthal
Projection. (Direction property of Globe is retained in this projection).

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 The meridians are staraight line radiating from the centre of the projection.
 The outline of map on this projection is circular.

Properties:
1. Parallels are cocentric circles. The pole is a point forming the centre of the
projection.
2. the meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole. The are spaced
correctly at the true angular interval. I.e. the Azimuths are true in this projection.
3. The distance between parallels decreases away from the pole. i.e The length of
meridians between parallels decreases away from the pole.
4. The distance between meridians increases away from the pole. i.e the length of
parallel increases away from the pole.
5. Therfore, scale along the meridian decreases and scale along parllel increases
away from the pole.
6. The decrease of scale along the meridian is in the same proportion as the
increase of scale along the parallel away from the pole. therefore the projection is
equal area.
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