Unit 4

SHEET METAL WORKING and Powder

Metallurgy
• Cutting Operations
• Bending Operations
• Drawing
• Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
• Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
• Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on
Presses
• Bending of Tube Stock
 Sheet Metalworking Defined
Cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal
• Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to
6 mm (1/4 in)
• Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
• Operations usually performed as cold working
 Sheet and Plate Metal Products
• Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
– Automobiles and trucks
– Airplanes
– Railway cars and locomotives
– Farm and construction equipment
– Small and large appliances
– Office furniture
– Computers and office equipment
 Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• For large quantities, economical mass
production operations are available
 Sheet Metalworking Terminology
1. “Punch-and-die”
– Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing
2. “Stamping press”
– Machine tool that performs most sheet metal
operations
3. “Stampings”
– Sheet metal products
 Three Major Categories of
Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
– Shearing to separate large sheets; or cut part
perimeters or make holes in sheets
2. Bending
– Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
– Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
 Cutting
Shearing between two sharp
cutting edges

Figure 20.1 - Shearing of sheet

metal between two cutting
edges:
(1) just before the punch
contacts work
Figure 20.1 - Shearing of sheet
metal between two cutting
edges:
(2) punch begins to push into
work, causing plastic
deformation
Figure 20.1 - Shearing of sheet
metal between two cutting
edges:
(3) punch compresses and
penetrates into work
causing a smooth cut
surface
Figure 20.1 - Shearing of sheet
metal between two cutting
edges:
(4) fracture is initiated at the
opposing cutting edges which
separates the sheet
 Shearing, Blanking, and Punching
Three principal operations in pressworking that
cut sheet metal:
• Shearing
• Blanking
• Punching
 Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight
line between two cutting edges
• Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller
sections for subsequent operations
 Figure 20.3 - Shearing operation:
(a) side view of the shearing operation
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade
Symbol v indicates motion
 Blanking and Punching
Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece
from surrounding stock
• Cut piece is the desired part, called a blank
Punching - sheet metal cutting similar to
blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a slug
• Remaining stock is the desired part
Figure 20.4 - (a) Blanking and (b) punching
 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
Distance between the punch and die
• Typical values range between 4% and 8% of
stock thickness
– If too small, fracture lines pass each other, causing
double burnishing and larger force
– If too large, metal is pinched between cutting
edges and excessive burr results
 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
• Recommended clearance can be calculated
by:
c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock
thickness

• Allowance a is determined according to type

of metal
 Allowance a for
Three Sheet Metal Groups

Metal group a
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all 0.045
tempers
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, 0.060
soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel

Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half 0.075

hard and full hard
 Punch and Die Sizes for
Blanking and Punching
For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
Figure 20.6 - Die size determines blank size Db; punch size determines
hole size Dh.; c = clearance
 Angular Clearance
Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through die
• Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side

Figure 20.7 - Angular

clearance
 Cutting Forces
Important for determining press size (tonnage)

F=StL
where S = shear strength of metal; t = stock
thickness, and L = length of cut edge
 Bending
Straining sheetmetal around a straight axis to
take a permanent bend

Figure 20.11 - (a) Bending of sheet metal

Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed, while
metal on outside of neutral plane is stretched

Figure 20.11 - (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the metal
occur in bending
 Types of Sheetmetal Bending
• V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die
• Edge bending - performed with a wiping die
 V-Bending
• For low production
• Performed on a press brake
• V-dies are simple and inexpensive

Figure 20.12 -
(a) V-bending
 Edge Bending
• For high production
• Pressure pad required
• Dies are more complicated and costly

Figure 20.12 - (b) edge bending

 Stretching during Bending
• If bend radius is small relative to stock
thickness, metal tends to stretch during
bending
• Important to estimate amount of stretching,
so that final part length = specified dimension
• Problem: to determine the length of neutral
axis of the part before bending
 Bend Allowance Formula

A
BA  2 (R  K bat )
360

where BA = bend allowance; A = bend angle;

R= bend radius; t = stock thickness; and Kba
is factor to estimate stretching
• If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
• If R  2t, Kba = 0.50
 Springback in Bending
Springback = increase in included angle of bent
part relative to included angle of forming tool
after tool is removed
• Reason for springback:
– When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy
remains in bent part, causing it to recover partially
toward its original shape
Figure 20.13 - Springback in bending shows itself as a decrease in bend
angle and an increase in bend radius: (1) during bending, the work is
forced to take the radius Rb and included angle Ab' of the bending
tool (punch in V-bending), (2) after punch is removed, the work
springs back to radius R and angle A'
 Bending Force

Maximum bending force estimated as follows:

K bf TSwt 2
F
D

where F = bending force; TS = tensile strength of sheet metal; w = part width in

direction of bend axis; and t = stock thickness. For V- bending, Kbf = 1.33; for edge
bending, Kbf = 0.33
Figure 20.14 - Die opening dimension D: (a) V-die, (b) wiping die
 Drawing
Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped,
box-shaped, or other complex-curved,
hollow-shaped parts
• Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity
and then punch pushes metal into opening
• Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels
 Types of Piercing and Blanking
• Lancing- piercing operation that forms either a
line cut or hole
• Perforating- piercing a large number of closely
spaced holes
• Notching- removes segments from along the
edge of an existing product
• Nibbling- a contour is progressively cut by
producing a series of overlapping slits or
notches
 Punching
Punching and blanking
and Blanking
operations are not metal
forming operations but are
discussed together with metal
forming because of their
similarity with deep drawing
operation.
Objective of punching and
blanking is to remove
material from the sheet metal
by causing rupture, the punch
and die corners are not
provided with the any radius.
Tool steel is the most
common material for tool and
die. Carbides are also used
when high production is
needed.
Figure 20.19 -
(a) Drawing of a
cup-shaped part:
(1) start of operation
before punch
contacts work
(2) near end of stroke

(b) Corresponding
workpart:
(1) starting blank
(2) drawn part
 Clearance in Drawing
• Sides of punch and die separated by a
clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
• In other words, clearance = about 10% greater
than stock thickness
 Drawing Ratio DR

Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:

Db
DR 
Dp

where Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch

diameter
• Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
– Upper limit = 2.0
 Reduction r

• Again, defined for cylindrical shape:

Db  Dp
r 
Db

• Value of r should be less than 0.50

 Thickness-to-Diameter Ratio

Thickness of starting blank divided by blank

diameter
Thickness-to-diameter ratio = t/Db
• Desirable for t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%
• As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling
increases
 Blank Size Determination
• For final dimensions of drawn shape to be
correct, starting blank diameter Db must be
right
• Solve for Db by setting starting sheet metal
blank volume = final product volume
• To facilitate calculation, assume negligible
thinning of part wall
Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
• Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),
• Stepped cups,
• Cones,
• Cups with spherical rather than flat bases,
• Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)

• Each of these shapes presents its own unique

technical problems in drawing
Other Sheet Metal Forming on Presses
Other sheet metal forming operations
performed on conventional presses
• Operations performed with metal tooling
• Operations performed with flexible rubber
tooling
 Ironing
• Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more
uniform
• Examples: beverage cans and artillery shells

Figure 20.25 - Ironing to achieve a more uniform wall thickness in a

drawn cup: (1) start of process; (2) during process
Note thinning and elongation of walls
 Embossing
• Used to create indentations in sheet, such as raised
(or indented) lettering or strengthening ribs

Figure 20.26 - Embossing: (a) cross-section of punch and die

configuration during pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs
 Guerin Process

Figure 20.28 - Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after

Symbols v and F indicate motion and applied force respectively
 Advantages of Guerin Process
• Low tooling cost
• Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or
other materials that are easy to shape
• Rubber pad can be used with different form
blocks
• Process attractive in small quantity production
 Dies for Sheet Metal Processes
Most pressworking operations performed with
conventional punch-and-die tooling
• Custom-designed for particular part
• The term stamping die sometimes used for
high production dies
Figure 20.30 - Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation
Figure 20.31 -
(a) Progressive die;
(b) associated strip
development
 Progressive Die Sets
• Progressive die sets- two or
more sets of punches and dies
mounted in tandem
• Transfer dies move individual
parts from operation to
operation within a single press
• Compound dies combine
processes sequentially during
a single stroke of the ram Figure 17-16 Progressive piercing and blanking die
for making a square washer. Note that the punches
are of different length.
 Design Example

Figure 17-18 Method for making a simple washer in a compound piercing and blanking die. Part is
blanked (a) and subsequently pierced (b) in the same stroke. The blanking punch contains the die for
piercing.
 Compound die
• Two or more operations
are performed at one
station
Combination die
• Cutting operation is
combined with bending
or drawing operation
Figure 20.32 - Components of a typical mechanical drive
stamping press
 Types of Stamping Press Frame
• Gap frame – configuration of the letter C and
often referred to as a C-frame
• Straight-sided frame – box-like construction
for higher tonnage
Figure 20.33 - Gap frame
press for sheet
metalworking
(photo courtesy of E. W.
Bliss Company)
Capacity = 1350 kN (150
tons)
Figure 20.34 -
Press brake with
bed width of
9.15 m (30 ft)
and capacity of
11,200 kN (1250
tons); two
workers are
positioning plate
stock for
bending
(photo courtesy of
Niagara Machine
& Tool Works)
Figure 20.35 - Several sheet metal parts produced on a turret press,
showing variety of hole shapes possible
(photo courtesy of Strippet, Inc.)
Figure 20.36 - Computer numerical control turret press
(photo courtesy of Strippet, Inc.)
Figure 20.37 -
Straight-sided frame press
(photo courtesy Greenerd
Press & Machine
Company, Inc.)
 Power and Drive Systems
• Hydraulic presses - use a large piston and
cylinder to drive the ram
– Longer ram stroke than mechanical types
– Suited to deep drawing
– Slower than mechanical drives
• Mechanical presses – convert rotation of
motor to linear motion of ram
– High forces at bottom of stroke
– Suited to blanking and punching
 Sheet Metal Operations
Not Performed on Presses
• Stretch forming
• Roll bending and forming
• Spinning
• High-energy-rate forming processes.
 Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously
bent to achieve shape change

Figure 20.39 - Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is pressed
into the work with force Fdie, causing it to be stretched and bent over the
form. F = stretching force
Force Required in Stretch Forming

F  LtYf

where F = stretching force; L = length of sheet

in direction perpendicular to stretching; t =
instantaneous stock thickness; and Yf = flow
stress of work metal
• Die force Fdie can be determined by
balancing vertical force components
 Roll Bending
Large metal sheets and plates are formed into
curved sections using rolls

Figure 20.40 - Roll bending

ISE 316 - Manufacturing

Processes Engineering
 Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing
rolls produce long sections of formed shapes
from coil or strip stock

Figure 20.41 - Roll

forming of a
continuous
channel section:
(1) straight rolls
(2) partial form
(3) final form
 Spinning
Metal forming process in which an axially
symmetric part is gradually shaped over a
rotating mandrel using a rounded tool or
roller
• Three types:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning
Figure 20.42 - Conventional spinning: (1) setup at start of process; (2)
during spinning; and (3) completion of process
 High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts of
energy over a very short time
• HERF processes include:
– Explosive forming
– Electrohydraulic forming
– Electromagnetic forming
 Explosive Forming
Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate)
metal into a die cavity
• Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
• Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
industry
 Figure 20.45 - Explosive forming:
(1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, and
(3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes water surface
 Electromagnetic Forming
Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force of
an electromagnetic field induced in workpart
by an energized coil
• Presently the most widely used HERF process
• Applications: tubular parts
Figure 20.47 - Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in which coil is inserted
into tubular workpart surrounded by die; (2) formed part
 POWDER METALLURGY
1. The Characterization of Engineering Powders
2. Production of Metallic Powders
3. Conventional Pressing and Sintering
4. Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques
5. Materials and Products for PM
 Powder Metallurgy (PM)

• Metal processing technology in which parts are

produced from metallic powders
• Usual PM production sequence:
1. Pressing - powders are compressed into desired
shape to produce green compact
• Accomplished in press using punch-and-die
2. Sintering – green compacts are heated to bond the
particles into a hard, rigid mass
• Temperatures are below melting point
 Why Powder Metallurgy is Important
• PM parts can be mass produced to net shape
or near net shape, eliminating or reducing the
need for subsequent machining
• PM process wastes very little material - ~ 97%
of starting powders are converted to product
• PM parts can be made with a specified level of
porosity, to produce porous metal parts
– Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
 More Reasons Why PM is Important
• Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by
other methods can be shaped by powder
metallurgy
– Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are
made by PM
• Certain alloy combinations and cermets made by
PM cannot be produced in other ways
• PM compares favorably to most casting processes
in dimensional control
• PM production methods can be automated for
economical production
 Limitations and
Disadvantages
• High tooling and equipment costs
• Metallic powders are expensive
• Problems in storing and handling metal powders
– Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals
• Limitations on part geometry because metal powders
do not readily flow laterally in the die during pressing
• Variations in density throughout part may be a
problem, especially for complex geometries
 PM Work Materials
• Largest tonnage of metals are alloys of iron,
steel, and aluminum
• Other PM metals include copper, nickel, and
refractory metals such as molybdenum and
tungsten
• Metallic carbides such as tungsten carbide are
often included within the scope of powder
metallurgy
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Principles of
Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Collection of PM Parts (courtesy of
Dorst America, Inc.)
 Engineering Powders
• A powder can be defined as a finely divided
particulate solid
– Engineering powders include metals and ceramics
– Geometric features of engineering powders:
• Particle size and distribution
• Particle shape and internal structure
• Surface area
 Measuring Particle Size
• Most common method uses screens of
different mesh sizes
• Mesh count - refers to the number of openings
per linear inch of screen
– A mesh count of 200 means there are 200
openings per linear inch
– Since the mesh is square, the count is equal in
both directions, and the total number of openings
per square inch is 2002 = 40,000
– Higher mesh count = smaller particle size
Screen Mesh for Sorting Particle
Sizes
Particle Shapes in PM
 Interparticle Friction and
Powder Flow
• Friction between particles
affects ability of a powder to
flow readily and pack tightly
• A common test of
interparticle friction is the
angle of repose formed by a
pile of powders poured from
a narrow funnel
• Larger angles mean greater
interparticle friction
 Observations About
Interparticle Friction
• Smaller particle sizes generally show greater
friction and steeper angles
• Spherical shapes have the lowest interpartical
friction
• As shape deviates from spherical, friction
between particles tends to increase
• Easier flow of particles correlates with lower
interparticle friction
• Lubricants are often added to powders to reduce
interparticle friction and facilitate flow during
pressing
 Particle Density Measures
• True density - density of the true volume of
the material
– The density of the material if the powders were
melted into a solid mass
• Bulk density - density of the powders in the
loose state after pouring
– Because of pores between particles, bulk density
is less than true density
 Packing Factor = Bulk Density Divided
by True Density
• Typical values for loose powders are 0.5 to 0.7
• If powders of various sizes are present, smaller
powders fit into spaces between larger ones
– Thus higher packing factor
• Packing can be increased by vibrating the
powders, causing them to settle more tightly
– Thus higher packing factor
• Pressure applied during compaction greatly
increases packing factor of powders
 Porosity
• Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in
the powder to the bulk volume
– In principle, Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0
• The issue is complicated by possible existence of closed
pores in some of the particles
• If internal pore volumes are included in above porosity,
then equation is exact
 Chemistry and Surface Films
• Metallic powders are classified as either
– Elemental - consisting of a pure metal
– Pre-alloyed - each particle is an alloy
• Possible surface films include oxides, silica,
adsorbed organic materials, and moisture
– As a general rule, these films must be removed
prior to shape processing
 Production of Metallic Powders
• In general, producers of metallic powders are
not the same companies as those that make PM
parts
• Any metal can be made into powder form
• Three principal methods by which metallic
powders are commercially produced
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
• In addition, mechanical methods are
occasionally used to reduce powder sizes
 Gas Atomization Method

• High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle,

siphoning molten metal and spraying it into chamber
 Water Atomization Method

 High velocity water

streams flow through
nozzles, rapidly
cooling and solidifying
molten metal into
collection chamber
 Iron Powders for PM

• Iron powders
produced by water
atomization (photo
courtesy of
T.F.Murphy and
Hoeganaes
Corporation)
 Conventional Press and Sinter

• Conventional PM part-making sequence

consists of:
1. Blending and mixing of powders
2. Compaction - pressing into desired shape
3. Sintering - heating to temperature below melting
point to cause solid-state bonding of particles and
strengthening of part
– In addition, secondary operations are sometimes
performed to improve dimensional accuracy,
increase density, and for other reasons
Conventional PM Production Sequence
• (1) Blending, (2) compacting, and (3) sintering
 Blending and Mixing of Powders
• For successful results in compaction and
sintering, the starting powders must be
homogenized
– Blending - powders of the same chemistry but
possibly different particle sizes are intermingled
• Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce
porosity
– Mixing - powders of different chemistries are
combined
 Compaction

• Application of high pressure to the powders to

form them into the required shape
– Conventional compaction method is pressing, in
which opposing punches squeeze the powders
contained in a die
– Work part after pressing is called a green compact,
the word green meaning not fully processed
– The green strength of the part when pressed is okay
for handling but far less than after sintering
 Conventional Pressing in PM

• Pressing in PM: (1)

filling die cavity with
powder by automatic
feeder; (2) initial and
(3) final positions of
upper and lower
punches during
pressing, (4) part
ejection
• 450 kN (50-ton)
hydraulic press for
conventional
pressing of PM
parts (photo
courtesy of Dorst
America, Inc.).
 Sintering
• Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles,
thereby increasing strength and hardness
– Usually carried out at 70% to 90% of the metal's
melting point (absolute scale)
– Generally agreed among researchers that the
primary driving force for sintering is reduction of
surface energy
– Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore
size reduction
Sintering Sequence on a Microscopic
Scale

• (1) Particle bonding initiated at contact points; (2) contact points

grow into "necks"; (3) pores between particles are reduced in
size; (4) grain boundaries develop between particles in place of
necked regions
 Densification and Sizing

• Secondary operations are performed on sintered

part to increase density, improve accuracy, or
accomplish additional shaping
– Repressing - pressing in closed die to increase density
and improve properties
– Sizing - pressing to improve dimensional accuracy
– Coining - pressing details into its surface
– Machining - for geometric features that cannot be
formed by pressing, such as threads and side holes
 Alternative Pressing and Sintering
Techniques
• Conventional press and sinter sequence is the
most widely used shaping technology in powder
metallurgy
• Some additional methods for producing PM
parts:
– Isostatic pressing - hydraulic pressure is applied from
all directions to achieve compaction
– Powder injection molding (PIM) - starting polymer has
50% to 85% powder content
• Polymer is removed and PM part is sintered
– Hot pressing - combined pressing and sintering
 Materials and Products for PM
• Raw materials for PM are more expensive
than for other metalworking because of the
additional energy required to reduce the
metal to powder form
• Accordingly, PM is competitive only in a
certain range of applications
• What are the materials and products that
seem most suited to powder metallurgy?
 PM Materials –
Elemental Powders

• A pure metal in particulate form

– Common elemental powders:
• Iron
• Aluminum
• Copper
– Elemental powders can be mixed with other
metal powders to produce alloys that are difficult
to formulate by conventional methods
• Example: tool steels
 PM Materials –
Pre-Alloyed Powders
• Each particle is an alloy comprised of the
desired chemical composition
– Common pre-alloyed powders:
• Stainless steels
• Certain copper alloys
• High speed steel
 PM Products

• Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical

contacts, cutting tools, and various machinery
parts
• Advantage of PM: parts can be made to near
net shape or net shape
• When produced in large quantities, gears and
bearings are ideal for PM because:
– Their geometries are defined in two dimensions
– There is a need for porosity in the part to serve as a
reservoir for lubricant