Chapter 1

Introduction to Statistics
Introduction
 Statistics is the science of conducting
studies to
collect,
organize,
summarize,
analyze, and
draw conclusions from data.

2
1-1 Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
 A variable is a characteristic or attribute
that can assume different values.
 The values that a variable can assume
are called data.
 A population consists of all subjects
(human or otherwise) that are studied.
 A sample is a subset of the population.
3
1-1 Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
 Descriptive statistics consists of the
collection, organization, summarization,
and presentation of data.
 Inferential statistics consists of
generalizing from samples to populations,
performing estimations and hypothesis
tests, determining relationships among
variables, and making predictions.

4
1-2 Variables and Types of Data
Data

Qualitative Quantitative
Categorical Numerical,
Can be ranked

Discrete Continuous
Countable Can be decimals
5, 29, 8000, etc. 2.59, 312.1, etc.

5
1-2 Recorded Values and
Boundaries
Variable Recorded Value Boundaries
Length 15 centimeters 14.5-15.5 cm
(cm)
Temperature 86° Fahrenheit 85.5-86.5 °F
(°F)
Time 0.43 second 0.425-0.435
(sec) sec
Mass 1.6 grams (g) 1.55-1.65 g
6
1-2 Variables and Types of Data
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal – categorical (names)

2. Ordinal – nominal, plus can be ranked (order)

3. Interval – ordinal, plus intervals are consistent

4. Ratio – interval, plus ratios are consistent,

true zero

7
1-2 Variables and Types of Data

Determine the measurement level.

Variable Ratio Level
Hair Color Nominal
Zip Code Nominal
Letter Grade Ordinal
ACT Score Interval
Height Ratio
Age Ratio
Temperature (F) Interval

8
1-3 Data Collection and Sampling
Techniques
Some Sampling Techniques
 Random – random number generator
 Systematic – every kth subject
 Stratified – divide population into “layers”
 Cluster – use intact groups

9
1-4 Observational and
Experimental Studies
 In an observational study, the researcher
merely observes and tries to draw conclusions
based on the observations.
 The researcher manipulates the independent
(explanatory) variable and tries to determine
how the manipulation influences the dependent
(outcome) variable in an experimental study.
 A confounding variable influences the
dependent variable but cannot be separated
from the independent variable.
10
1-6 Computers and Calculators
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft Excel with MegaStat
 TI-83/84
 Minitab
 SAS
 SPSS

11
Frequency Distributions
and Graphs
12
Organizing Data
 Data collected in original form is called
raw data.
 A frequency distribution is the
organization of raw data in table form,
using classes and frequencies.
 Nominal- or ordinal-level data that can be
placed in categories is organized in
categorical frequency distributions.

13
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Twenty-five army indicates were given a blood
test to determine their blood type.

Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B

B,B,O,A,O A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

14
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Twenty-five army indicates were given a blood
test to determine their blood type.

Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B

B,B,O,A,O A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A

Class Tally Frequency Percent

A IIII 5 20
B IIII II 7 28
O IIII IIII 9 36
AB IIII 4 16
15
Grouped Frequency Distribution
 Grouped frequency distributions are
used when the range of the data is large.
 The smallest and largest possible data
values in a class are the lower and
upper class limits. Class boundaries
separate the classes.
 To find a class boundary, average the
upper class limit of one class and the
lower class limit of the next class.
16
Grouped Frequency Distribution
 The class width can be calculated by
subtracting
 successive lower class limits (or boundaries)
 successive upper class limits (or boundaries)
 upper and lower class boundaries

 The class midpoint Xm can be calculated

by averaging
 upper and lower class limits (or boundaries)

17
Rules for Classes in Grouped
Frequency Distributions
1. There should be 5-20 classes.
2. The class width should be an odd
number.
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
4. The classes must be continuous.
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width
(except in open-ended distributions).

18
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
The following data represent the record
high temperatures for each of the 50 states.
Construct a grouped frequency distribution
for the data using 7 classes.
112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

19
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 1 Determine the classes.
Find the class width by dividing the range by
the number of classes 7.
Range = High – Low
= 134 – 100 = 34

Width = Range/7 = 34/7 = 5

Rounding Rule: Always round up if a remainder.

20
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
 For convenience sake, we will choose the lowest
data value, 100, for the first lower class limit.
 The subsequent lower class limits are found by
adding the width to the previous lower class limits.
Class Limits
The first upper class limit is one
100 - 104
105 - 109 less than the next lower class limit.
110 - 114
The subsequent upper class limits
115 - 119
120 - 124 are found by adding the width to the
125 - 129 previous upper class limits.
130 - 134
21
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
 Theclass boundary is midway between an upper
class limit and a subsequent lower class limit.
104,104.5,105
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5
22
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 2 Tally the data.
STEP 3 Find the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
23
Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by
keeping a running total of the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
24
Histograms, Frequency Polygons,
and Ogives
3 Most Common Graphs in Research
1. Histogram

2. Frequency Polygon
3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

25
Histograms, Frequency Polygons,
and Ogives
The histogram is a graph that
displays the data by using vertical
bars of various heights to represent
the frequencies of the classes.

The class boundaries are

represented on the horizontal axis.

26
Histograms
Construct a histogram to represent the
data for the record high temperatures for
each of the 50 states .

27
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
frequencies of the classes.
Class Class
Frequency
Limits Boundaries
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1

28
Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and
frequencies of the classes.

29
Histograms, Frequency Polygons,
and Ogives
 The frequency polygon is a graph that
displays the data by using lines that
connect points plotted for the
frequencies at the class midpoints. The
frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.
 The class midpoints are represented on
the horizontal axis.
30
Frequency Polygons
Construct a frequency polygon to
represent the data for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states.

31
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints
and frequencies of the classes.
Class Class
Frequency
Limits Midpoints
100 - 104 102 2
105 - 109 107 8
110 - 114 112 18
115 - 119 117 13
120 - 124 122 7
125 - 129 127 1
130 - 134 132 1

32
Frequency Polygons
Frequency polygons use class midpoints
and frequencies of the classes.
A frequency polygon
is anchored on the
x-axis before the first
class and after the
last class.

33
Histograms, Frequency Polygons,
and Ogives
 The ogive is a graph that represents
the cumulative frequencies for the
classes in a frequency distribution.

 The upper class boundaries are

represented on the horizontal axis.

34
Ogives
Construct an ogive to represent the data
for the record high temperatures for each
of the 50 states .

35
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50

36
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Cumulative
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50

37
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.

38
Histograms, Frequency Polygons,
and Ogives
If proportions are used instead of
frequencies, the graphs are called
relative frequency graphs.

Relative frequency graphs are used

when the proportion of data values that
fall into a given class is more important
than the actual number of data values
that fall into that class.
39
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon,
and ogive using relative frequencies for the
distribution (shown here) of the miles that
20 randomly selected runners ran during a
given week.
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5 1
10.5 - 15.5 2
15.5 - 20.5 3
20.5 - 25.5 5
25.5 - 30.5 4
30.5 - 35.5 3
35.5 - 40.5 2
40
Histograms
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Relative Divide each
Frequency frequency
Boundaries Frequency
by the total
5.5 - 10.5 1 1/20 = 0.05 frequency to
10.5 - 15.5 2 2/20 = 0.10 get the
15.5 - 20.5 3 3/20 = 0.15 relative
20.5 - 25.5 5 5/20 = 0.25 frequency.
25.5 - 30.5 4 4/20 = 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 3 3/20 = 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 2 2/20 = 0.10
Σf = 20 Σrf = 1.00
41
Histograms
Use the class boundaries and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

42
Frequency Polygons
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Class Relative
Boundaries Midpoints Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 8 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 13 0.10
15.5 - 20.5 18 0.15
20.5 - 25.5 23 0.25
25.5 - 30.5 28 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 33 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 38 0.10

43
Frequency Polygons
Use the class midpoints and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

44
Ogives
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Cumulative Cum. Rel.
Frequency
Boundaries Frequency Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 1 1 1/20 = 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 2 3 3/20 = 0.15
15.5 - 20.5 3 6 6/20 = 0.30
20.5 - 25.5 5 11 11/20 = 0.55
25.5 - 30.5 4 15 15/20 = 0.75
30.5 - 35.5 3 18 18/20 = 0.90
35.5 - 40.5 2 20 20/20 = 1.00
Σf = 20
45
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Cum. Rel.
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 10.5 0.05
Less than 15.5 0.15
Less than 20.5 0.30
Less than 25.5 0.55
Less than 30.5 0.75
Less than 35.5 0.90
Less than 40.5 1.00

46
Ogives
Use the upper class boundaries and the
cumulative relative frequencies.

47
Shapes of Distributions

48
Other Types of Graphs
Bar Graphs

49
Other Types of Graphs
Time Series Graphs

50
Other Types of Graphs
Pie Graphs

51
Other Types of Graphs
Stem and Leaf Plots
A stem and leaf plots is a data plot that
uses part of a data value as the stem
and part of the data value as the leaf to
form groups or classes.
It has the advantage over grouped
frequency distribution of retaining the
actual data while showing them in
graphic form.
52
At an outpatient testing center, the
number of cardiograms performed each
day for 20 days is shown. Construct a
stem and leaf plot for the data.

25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

53
 25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

Unordered Stem Plot Ordered Stem Plot

0 2 0 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
2 5 0 3 2 0 3 5
3 1 2 6 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 6
4 3 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 5
5 7 2 1 5 1 2 7

54
55
1.3 Measures of Location
 A statistic is a characteristic or measure
obtained by using the data values from a
sample.
 A parameter is a characteristic or
measure obtained by using all the data
values for a specific population.

56
Measures of Location

Mean

Median

Mode

Percentile

Quartile

57
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean
 The mean is the quotient of the sum of
the values and the total number of values.
 The symbol X is used for sample mean.
X
X1 + X 2 + X 3 +  + X n
=
∑X
n n
 For a population, the Greek letter μ (mu)
is used for the mean.
µ
X1 + X 2 + X 3 +  + X N
=
∑X
N N
58
Example 3-1: Days Off per Year
The data represent the number of days off per
year for a sample of individuals selected from
nine different countries. Find the mean.
20, 26, 40, 36, 23, 42, 35, 24, 30

X
X1 + X 2 + X 3 +  + X n
=
∑X
n n
20 + 26 + 40 + 36 + 23 + 42 + 35 + 24 + 30 276
X
= = = 30.7
9 9

The mean number of days off is 30.7

59
Measures of Central Tendency:
Median
 The median is the midpoint of the data
array. The symbol for the median is x

 The median will be one of the data values th
 n +1 
if there is an odd number of values  2 
 The median will be the average of two
data values if there is an even number
th of
n
th
n 
values  
(average of   and  + 1 )
2 2 
60
Example 3-4: Hotel Rooms
The number of rooms in the seven hotels in
downtown Pittsburgh is 713, 300, 618, 595,
311, 401, and 292. Find the median.

Sort in ascending order.

292, 300, 311, 401, 596, 618, 713

Select the middle value.

Median = 401

The median is 401 rooms.

61
Example 3-6: Tornadoes in the U.S.
The number of tornadoes that have
occurred in the United States over an 8-
year period follows. Find the median.
684, 764, 656, 702, 856, 1133, 1132, 1303

Find the average of the two middle values.

656, 684, 702, 764, 856, 1132, 1133, 1303

764 + 856 1620

MD
= = = 810
2 2

The median number of tornadoes is 810.

62
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mode
 The mode is the value that occurs most
often in a data set.
 It is sometimes said to be the most typical
case.
 There may be no mode, one mode
(unimodal), two modes (bimodal), or many
modes (multimodal).

63
Example 3-9: NFL Signing Bonuses
Find the mode of the signing bonuses of
eight NFL players for a specific year. The
bonuses in millions of dollars are
18.0, 14.0, 34.5, 10, 11.3, 10, 12.4, 10

You may find it easier to sort first.

10, 10, 10, 11.3, 12.4, 14.0, 18.0, 34.5

Select the value that occurs the most.

The mode is 10 million dollars.

64
Example 3-10: Coal Employees in PA
Find the mode for the number of coal employees
per county for 10 selected counties in
southwestern Pennsylvania.
110, 731, 1031, 84, 20, 118, 1162, 1977, 103, 752

No value occurs more than once.

There is no mode.

65
Example 3-11: Licensed Nuclear
Reactors
The data show the number of licensed nuclear
reactors in the United States for a recent 15-year
period. Find the mode.
104 104 104 104 104 107 109 109 109 110
109 111 112 111 109

104 and 109 both occur the most. The data set
is said to be bimodal.

The modes are 104 and 109.

66
Properties of the Mean
 Uses all data values.
 Varies less than the median or mode
 Used in computing other statistics, such as
the variance
 Unique, usually not one of the data values
 Affected by extremely high or low values,
called outliers

67
Properties of the Median
 Gives the midpoint
 Used when it is necessary to find out
whether the data values fall into the upper
half or lower half of the distribution.
 Affected less than the mean by extremely
high or extremely low values.

68
Distributions

69
Percentiles
 Percentiles separate the data set into
100 equal groups.
 A percentile rank for a datum represents
the percentage of data values below the
datum.

Percentile
( # of values below X ) + 0.5 ⋅100%
total # of values
n⋅ p
c=
100

70
Example 3-32: Test Scores
A teacher gives a 20-point test to 10 students.
Find the percentile rank of a score of 12.
18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10
Sort in ascending order.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
6 values

Percentile
( # of values below X ) + 0.5 ⋅100%
total # of values
6 + 0.5 A student whose score
= ⋅100%
10 was 12 did better than
= 65% 65% of the class.
71
Example 3-34: Test Scores
A teacher gives a 20-point test to 10 students. Find
the value corresponding to the 25th percentile.
18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10
Sort in ascending order.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20

n ⋅ p 10 ⋅ 25
c == = 2.5 ≈ 3
100 100

The value 5 corresponds to the 25th percentile.

72
Quartiles and Interquartile Range
 Quartiles separate the data set into 4
equal groups. Q1=P25, Q2=Median, Q3=P75
 Q2 = median(Low,High)
Q1 = median(Low,Q2)
Q3 = median(Q2,High)

73
 Example 3-36: Quartiles
Find Q1, Q2, and Q3 for the data set.
15, 13, 6, 5, 12, 50, 22, 18

Sort in ascending order.

5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50

6 + 12
=Q1 median ( Low,= MD ) = 9
2
13 + 15
=Q 2 median ( Low, =
High ) = 14
2
18 + 22
=Q3 median ( MD,= High ) = 20
2
74
1.4 Measures of Variability

Range

Variance

Standard Deviation
Interquartile Range
Outliers

75
Measures of Variation: Range
 The range is the difference between the
highest and lowest values in a data set.

=R Highest − Lowest

76
Example 3-18/19: Outdoor Paint
Two experimental brands of outdoor paint are
tested to see how long each will last before
fading. Six cans of each brand constitute a
small population. The results (in months) are
shown. Find the mean and range of each group.
Brand A Brand B
10 35
60 45
50 30
30 35
40 40
20 25

77
Example 3-18: Outdoor Paint
Brand A Brand B ∑
µ= =
X 210
= 35
10 35 Brand A: N 6
60 45 R = 60 − 10 = 50
50 30
30 35 ∑
µ= =
X 210
= 35
40 40 Brand B: N 6
20 25
R = 45 − 25 = 20

The average for both brands is the same, but the range
for Brand A is much greater than the range for Brand B.

78
Measures of Variation: Variance &
Standard Deviation
 The variance is the average of the
squares of the distance each value is
from the mean.
 The standard deviation is the square
root of the variance.
 The standard deviation is a measure of
how spread out your data are.

79
Measures of Variation:
Variance & Standard Deviation
(Population Theoretical Model)
 The population variance is
∑ (X − µ)
2

σ 2
=
N
 The population standard deviation is
∑( X − µ)
2

σ=
N

80
Example 3-21: Outdoor Paint
Find the variance and standard deviation for the
data set for Brand A paint. 10, 60, 50, 30, 40, 20
∑ (X − µ)
2

Months, X µ X - µ (X - µ)2 σ 2
=
n
10 35 -25 625 1750
60 35 25 625 =
50 35 15 225 6
30 35 -5 25 = 291.7
40 35 5 25
20 35 -15 225 1750
σ=
1750 6
= 17.1
81
Measures of Variation:
Variance & Standard Deviation
(Sample Theoretical Model)
 The sample variance is
∑ ( X −X)
2
2
s =
n −1
 The sample standard deviation is
∑( X − X )
2

s=
n −1

82
Measures of Variation:
Variance & Standard Deviation
(Sample Computational Model)
 The sample variance is
n∑ X − ( ∑ X )
2 2
2
s =
n ( n − 1)

 The sample standard deviation is

s = s2

83
Example 3-23: European Auto Sales
Find the variance and standard deviation for the
amount of European auto sales for a sample of 6
years. The data are in millions of dollars.
11.2, 11.9, 12.0, 12.8, 13.4, 14.3
n∑ X − ( ∑ X )
2 2
X X 2
2
s =
11.2 125.44 n ( n − 1)
11.9 141.61
12.9 166.41
6 ( 958.94 ) − ( 75.6 )
2
12.8 163.84 2
s = s 2 = 1.28
13.4 179.56 6 ( 5) s = 1.13
14.3 204.49
75.6 958.94 s2 = ( )
6 ⋅ 958.94 − 75.62 / ( 6 ⋅ 5 )
84
Interquartile Range

 The Interquartile Range, IQR = Q3 – Q1.

85
Example 3-36: Quartiles
Find IQR for the data set.
15, 13, 6, 5, 12, 50, 22, 18

Sort in ascending order.

5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50

6 + 12 18 + 22
Q1 = 9
= =Q3 = 20
2 2

IQR
= Q3 − Q1
= 20 − 9
= 11 86
Outliers
 An outlier is an extremely high or low
data value when compared with the rest of
the data values.
 A data value less than Q1 – 1.5(IQR) or
greater than Q3 + 1.5(IQR) can be
considered an outlier.

87
 Example 3-36: Quartiles
Find outlier for the data set.
15, 13, 6, 5, 12, 50, 22, 18
Sort in ascending order.
5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50

6 + 12 18 + 22 IQR
= Q3 − Q1
Q1 = 9 =
= Q3 = 20
2 2 = 20 − 9
= 11
Q1 − 15( IQR) =
9 − 1.5(11) =
−7.5
Q3 + 15( IQR) =
20 + 1.5(11) =
36.5
50 is the outlier

88
Exploratory Data Analysis
 TheFive-Number Summary is
composed of the following numbers:
Low, Q1, Median, Q3, High
 TheFive-Number Summary can be
graphically represented using a
Boxplot.

89
Procedure Table
Constructing Boxplots
1. Find the five-number summary.
2. Draw a horizontal axis with a scale that includes
the maximum and minimum data values.
3. Draw a box with vertical sides through Q1 and
Q3, and draw a vertical line though the median.
4. Draw a line from the minimum data value to the
left side of the box and a line from the maximum
data value to the right side of the box.
90
Example 3-38: Meteorites
The number of meteorites found in 10 U.S. states
is shown. Construct a boxplot for the data.
89, 47, 164, 296, 30, 215, 138, 78, 48, 39

30, 39, 47, 48, 78, 89, 138, 164, 215, 296

Low Q1 Median Q3 High

Five-Number Summary: 30-47-83.5-164-296

47 83.5 164
30 296

91
92