MATH® Quantum

Concepts & Formulae

1) Number Properties

i) Integers

Numbers, such as -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3, that have no fractional part. Integers include
the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, …), their negative counterparts (-1, -2, -3, …), and
0.

ii) Whole & Natural Numbers

The terms from 0,1,2,3,….. are known as Whole numbers. Natural numbers do not
include 0.

iii) Factors

Positive integers that divide evenly into an integer. Factors are equal to or
smaller than the integer in question. 12 is a factor of 12, as are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.

iv) Factor Foundation Rule

If a is a factor of b, and b is a factor of c, then a is also a factor of c. For

example, 3 is a factor of 9 and 9 is a factor of 81. Therefore, 3 is also a factor of
81.

v) Multiples

Multiples are integers formed by multiplying some integer by any other integer.
For example, 6 is a multiple of 3 (2 * 3), as are 12 (4 * 3), 18 (6 * 3), etc. In
addition 3 is also a multiple of itself i.e. 3 (1*3). Think of multiples as equal to
or larger than the integer in question

vi) Prime Numbers

A positive integer with exactly two factors: 1 and itself. The number 1 does not
qualify as prime because it has only one factor, not two. The number 2 is the
smallest prime number; it is also the only even prime number. The numbers 2, 3,
5, 7, 11, 13 etc. are prime.

vii) Prime Factorization

Prime factorization is a way to express any number as a product of prime

numbers. For example, the prime factorization of 30 is 2 * 3 * 5. Prime
factorization is useful in answering questions about divisibility.
viii) Greatest Common Factor

Greatest Common FACTOR refers to the largest factor of two (or more)
integers. Factors will be equal to or smaller than the starting integers. The GCF
of 12 and 30 is 6 because 6 is the largest number that goes into both 12 and 30.

viii) Least Common Multiple (LCM)

Least Common Multiple refers to the smallest multiple of two (or more)
integers. Multiples will be equal to or larger than the starting integers. The
LCM of 6 and 15 is 30 because 30 is the smallest number that both 6 and 15 go
into.

ix) Odd & Even Numbers

Any number divisible by 2 is even and not divisible by 2 is odd.

Odd & Even number Rules

Function Result
even + even even
even + odd odd
odd + odd even
even - even even
even - odd odd
odd - odd even
even * even even
even * odd even
odd * odd odd
even ÷ even anything (even, odd, or not an integer)
even ÷ odd even or not an integer
odd ÷ even not an integer
odd ÷ odd odd or not an integer

Note:
Division rules are more complicated because an integer answer is not always
guaranteed. If the result of the division is not an integer, then that result cannot be
classified as either even or odd.
 x) Absolute Value

The distance from zero on the number line. A positive number is already in the
same form as that number‟s absolute value. Remove the negative sign from a
negative number in order to get that number‟s absolute value. For example the
absolute value of - 2 is 2.

xi) Positive-Negative Number Rules

Function Result
positive * positive positive
positive * negative negative
negative * negative positive
positive ÷ positive positive
positive ÷ negative negative
negative ÷ negative positive

xii) Product of n consecutive integers and divisibility

The product of n consecutive integers is always divisible by n! Given 5*6*7*8, we

have n = 4 consecutive integers. The product of 5*6*7*8 (=1680), therefore, is
divisible by 4! = 4*3*2*1 = 24.

xiii) Sum of n consecutive integers and divisibility

There are two cases, depending upon whether n is odd or even:

• If n is odd, the sum of the integers is always divisible by n. Given 5+6+7,

we have n = 3 consecutive integers. The sum of 5+6+7 (=18), therefore, is
divisible by 3.

• If n is even, the sum of the integers is never divisible by n. Given 5+6+7+8,

we have n = 4 consecutive integers. The sum of 5+6+7+8 (=26), therefore,
is not divisible by 4.

xiv) PEMDAS

First, perform all operations that are inside parentheses. Absolute value signs also fall
into this category. In addition, for any expression with fractions, add parentheses
around each distinct fraction.
Second, simplify any exponents that appear in the expression.

Third, perform any multiplication and division in the expression; if there are more
than one of these, perform the operations from left to right in the expression.

Fourth, perform any addition and subtraction in the expression; if there are more than
one of these, perform the operations from left to right in the expression.
2) Base & Exponent

In the expression bn, the variable b represents the base and n represents the exponent.
The base is the number that we multiply by itself n times. The exponent indicates how
many times to multiple the base, b, by itself. For example, 23 = 2 * 2 * 2, or 2
multiplied by itself three times.

Equations that include an exponent are called as exponential equations. When solving
equations with even exponents, we must consider both positive and negative
possibilities for the solutions. For example, for x2 = 25, the two possible solutions are 5
and -5.

i) Base of Zero

An exponential expression with base 0 yields 0, regardless of the exponent. 012 = 0.

ii) Base of One

An exponential expression with base 1 yields 1, regardless of the exponent. 112 = 1.

iii) Base of Negative One

An exponential expression with base -1 yields 1 when the exponent is even and -1
when the exponent is odd. (-1) 15 = -1 and (-1)16 = 1.

iv) Fractional Base

When the base is a fraction between zero and one, the value decreases as the
exponent increases. (1/3)3 = 1/3 * 1/3 * 1/3 = 1/27, which is smaller than the
starting fraction, 1/3.

v) Compound Base

When the base represents a product (multiplication) or quotient (division), we can

choose to multiply or divide the base first and then raise the base to the exponent,
or we can distribute the exponent to each number in the base. For example (3 * 4)2
= 122 = 144 OR (3*4)2 = 32 * 42 = 9 * 16 = 144.

vi) Exponent of Zero

Any non-zero base raised to the 0 yields 1. Eg. 150 = 1.

vii) Exponent of One

Any based raised to the exponent of 1 yields the original base. Eg. 151 = 15.

viii) Negative Exponents

Put the term containing the exponent in the denominator of a fraction and make the
exponent positive. For example 4-2 = (1/4)2

ix) Fractional Exponents

If the exponent is a fraction, the numerator reflects what power to raise the base to,
and the denominator reflects which root to take. For example 42/3 = CUBE ROOT
(42).

x) Simplification Rules for Exponents

Rule Result
34 * 33 = Add the exponents 37
34 / 32 = Subtract the exponents 32
(34)3 = Multiply the exponents 312

xi) Root/Radical

The opposite of an exponent (in a sense). For example, √25 means what number (or
numbers), when multiplied by itself twice, will yield 25?

Perfect square roots will yield an integer. Eg. √25 = 5. Imperfect square roots do
not yield an integer. √30 is not an integer, but it is between √25 and √36, or
between 5 and 6.

xii) Simplifying Roots

Roots can be combined or split apart if the operation between the terms is
multiplication or division. √(4 * 9) = √4 * √9.

Note: If the operation between the terms is addition or subtraction, you cannot
separate or combine the roots! √(4 + 9) DOES NOT EQUAL √4 + √9.
3) Decimals & Fractions

i) Decimal

Numbers that fall in between integers; expresses a part-to-whole relationship in

terms of place value.

Example: 1.2 is a decimal. The integers 1 and 2 are not decimals. An integer written
as 1.0, however, is considered a decimal.

ii) Digit

There are ten digits that make up all numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The
three-digit number 412 consists of the digits 4, 1, and 2.

iii) Place Value

Every digit in a given number has a particular place value. The place value depends
upon the digits location relative to the decimal point.

6 7 8 9 1 0 2 3 . 8 3 4

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iv) Place Value and Powers of 10

Place values decrease from left to right by powers of 10.

Table:

Words thousands hundreds tens ones tenths hundredths thousandths

Numbers 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
-1
Powers of 10 103 102 101 100 10 10-2 10-3

v) Rounding

Simplifying a number to a certain place value. Drop the extra decimal places, and if the
first dropped digit is 5 or greater, round up the last digit that you keep. If the first
dropped digit is 4 or smaller, round down (keep the same) the last digit that you keep.

Example: 9.1278 rounded to the nearest tenth = 9.1, since the dropped 2 is less than 5.

9.1278 rounded to the nearest hundredth = 9.13, since the dropped 7 is greater than (or
equal to) 5.

9.1278 rounded to the nearest thousandth = 9.128, since the dropped 8 is greater than
(or equal to) 5.

vi) Adding or Subtracting Decimals

Write the problem vertically and line up the decimal points. Add any necessary zeroes
to the right side of any numbers in order to make the numbers the same length.

Example:
71.2
+184.99
256.19

vii) Multiplying Decimals

Drop the decimal points and multiply normally (as you would multiply whole
numbers). At the end, count the total number of digits to the right of the decimal in the
original numbers. Insert the same number of decimal places into the answer.

Example:

0.7 * 3 = ?
 First, multiply normally: 7*3 = 21

Then count the decimals represented in the original numbers; in this case, we have one
decimal among the original numbers.

Insert one decimal into the answer, 21, to come up with 2.1

viii) Dividing Decimals (Dividend)

If there is a decimal in the dividend (the inner number), bring the decimal point up to
the answer and then divide normally.

Example:
3.09
4 | 12.36
12
03
0
36

ix) Re-writing Decimals Using Powers of 10

Decimals can be re-written in terms of powers of 10 or vice versa.

Example:
0.006 = 6 * 10-3

x) Terminating Decimals

Decimals that terminate, or end, at some point or decimals that do not go on forever.
Eg. 13.2 is a terminating decimal whereas 13.33 does not terminate but goes on and on.
π also does not terminate.

xi) Fraction

A way to express numbers that fall in between integers (though integers can also be
expressed in fractional form). A fraction expresses a part-to-whole relationship in
terms of a numerator (the part) and a denominator (the whole).

Example: (7/2) is equivalent to the decimal 3.5.

 xii) Numerator & Denominator

The top part of a fraction is called the numerator and the bottom part the denominator.
In the fraction (7/2), 7 is the numerator and 2 is the denominator.

xiii) Proper Fraction

Fractions that have a value between 0 and 1. The numerator is always smaller than the
denominator. Eg. (1/2) is a proper fraction whereas (3/2) is not a proper fraction.

xiv) Improper Fraction

Fractions that are greater than 1. These can also be written as a mixed number. (7/2) is
an improper fraction. This can also be written as a mixed number: 3 (1/2).

xv) Mixed number

An integer combined with a proper fraction. These can also be written as an improper
fraction. 3 (1/2) is a mixed number. This can also be written as an improper fraction:
(7/2)

xvi) Complex fraction

A fraction in which there is a sum or difference in the numerator or denominator.

Example:
• (3+6)/10
• 10/(3+6)

xvii) Simplifying Fractions

Reducing numerators and denominators to the smallest form. Dividing the numerator
and denominator by the same number does not change the value of the fraction.

Example:
Given (21/6), we can simplify by dividing both the numerator and the denominator by
3. The simplified fraction is (7/2).

xviii) Reciprocal

The product of a number and its reciprocal is always 1. To get the reciprocal of an
integer, put that integer on the denominator of a fraction with numerator 1. The
reciprocal of 3 is (1/3).
 Note:
To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator. The
reciprocal of (2/3) is (3/2).

xix) Dividing Fractions

Change the divisor into its reciprocal and then multiply.

Example:
Given (3/5) / 2, take the reciprocal of 2. The reciprocal is (1/2). Now multiply: (3/5) *
(1/2) = (3/10).

xx) Common Denominator

When adding or subtracting fractions, we first must find a common denominator,

generally the smallest common multiple of both numbers.

Example:
Given (3/5) + (1/2), the two denominators are 5 and 2. The smallest multiple that
works for both numbers is 10. The common denominator, therefore, is 10.

xxi) Adding or subtracting fractions

Adding or subtracting fractions: always simplify within a given numerator and

denominator, but do NOT simplify across fractions. Instead, find a common
denominator first and only then combine the two (or more) numerators.

Example:
Given (3/5) + (2/4), we can simplify (2/4) to (1/2). The simplified problem is (3/5) +
(1/2). The common denominator is 10. Multiply the first fraction by 2 and the second
fraction by 5 to get (6/10) + (5/10). Next, add the numerators and keep the same
denominator to get (11/10).
4) Miscellaneous Concepts

i) Percent

Literally, “per one hundred”. Percent expresses a special part-to-whole relationship

between a number (the part) and one hundred (the whole). A special type of fraction or
decimal that involves the number 100.

ii) Finding a percentage of a number

What is 25% of 40?

Translation: n = (25/100)*40.

30% of what is 50?

(30/100) * n = 50?

iii) Percent increase or decrease, or percent change

The percentage of the starting point that some number increased or decreased.

Formula: Change = Percent

Original 100

Example:
Given a starting point of 10 and an ending point of 14, the change is 4 and the original
is 10, so the percent increase is (4/10) = (2/5) = 40%.

iv) Simple Interest

Formula: Simple Interest = Principal Amount * Rate * Time /100

Example:
Given $1,000 invested for 6 years at an annual rate of 4%, $1,000 is the principal
amount, 4 is the rate per year (annual), and 5 years is the time (expressed in the same
units, years, as the time used in the rate).
Thus SI = 1000*4*5/100 = $200 per annum

vi) Compound Interest

Formula: P * (1+ (r/n))nt

Example:
 Given $1,000 invested for 2 years, compounded semi-annually, at an annual, or
yearly, rate of 4%, $1,000 is the principal amount, 0.04 is the rate, n is 2 (because it is
compounded twice in a year), and t is 2 (because the money is invested for 2 years).
The above problem is expressed as:

$1,000 * (1 + (0.04 / 2))^(2 * 2) = $1,082.43

vii) Rate formula

Rate * Time = Distance, where Rate is measured in units of distance per unit of time
(for example, miles per hour).

viii) Work Formula

Rate * Time = Work, where Rate is measured in units of output per unit of time (for
example, 5 cars produced per hour).