Econ 2011: Calculus For Economists

Chapter-5: Integration

Ephrem Andargie

Addis Ababa University

[email protected]

October 4, 2023

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The Area Problem

We begin by attempting to solve the area problem: Find the area of

the region that lies under the curve y = f (x) from a to b.
This means that S , illustrated in Figure , is bounded by the graph of a
continuous function f [where f (x) ≥ 0], the vertical lines x = a and
x = b, and the x-axis.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 2 / 61

The Area Problem

Figure
Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 3 / 61
The Area Problem

We start by subdividing S into n strips S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn of equal width

as in Figure .
The width of the interval [a, b] is b − a, so the width of each of the n
strips is
b−a
∆x =
n
Let's approximate the ith strip Si by a rectangle with width ∆x and
height f (xi ), which is the value of f at the right endpoint. Figure

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The Area Problem

Figure
Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 5 / 61
The Area Problem

Figure
Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 6 / 61
The Area Problem

Then the area of the ith rectangle is f (xi )∆x.

Hence the are of S can be approximated by the sum of the areas of
these rectangles, which is

Rn = f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x

Figure shows this approximation for n = 2, 4, 8 and 12.

Notice that this approximation appears to become better and better as
the number of strips increases, that is, as n → ∞.
Therefore, we dene the area A of the region S in the following way.

A = lim Rn = lim [f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x]

n→∞ n→∞

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The Area Problem

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 8 / 61

The Area Problem

In fact, instead of using left endpoints or right endpoints, we could

take the height of the ith rectangle to be the value of f at any
number x∗i in the ith subinterval [xi−1 , xi ].
We call the numbers x∗1 , x∗2 , . . . , x∗n the sample points.
Figure shows approximating rectangles when the sample points are

not chosen to be endpoints.

So a more general expression for the area of S is

A = lim [f (x∗1 )∆x + f (x∗2 )∆x + · · · + f (x∗n )∆x]

n→∞
n
X
= lim f (x∗i )∆x (1)
n→∞
i=1

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 9 / 61

The Area Problem

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Figure

Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 10 / 61
The Denite Integral

The limit in (1) is given a special name and notation.

Denition 5.1 (The Denite Integral)

If f is a function dened for a ≤ x ≤ b, we divide the interval [a, b] into n
subintervals of equal width ∆x = (b − a)/n. We let x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , . . . ,
xn (= b) be the endpoints of these subintervals and we let x∗1 , x∗2 , . . . , x∗n
be any sample points in these subintervals, so x∗i lies in the ith
subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the denite integral of f from a to b is
Z b n
X
f (x)dx = lim f (x∗i )∆x
a n→∞
i=1

provided that this limit exists. If it does exist, we say that is integrable on
[a, b].

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 11 / 61

The Denite Integral

Z
The symbol was introduced by Leibniz and is called an integral
sign. It is an elongated S and was chosen because an integral is a
limit of sums.
In the notation a f (x)dx, f (x) is called the integrand and a and b
Rb

are called the limits of integration; a is the lower limit and b is the
upper limit.
Rb
For now, the symbol dx has no meaning by itself; a f (x)dx is all one
symbol.
The dx simply indicates that the independent variable is x.
The procedure of calculating an integral is called integration.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 12 / 61

The Denite Integral

The sum
n
X
f (x∗i )∆x
i=1

that occurs in Denition 5.1 is called a Riemann sum after the

German mathematician Bernhard Riemann (18261866).
So Denition 5.1 says that the denite integral of an integrable
function can be approximated to within any desired degree of accuracy
by a Riemann sum.
Rb
From Denition 5.1 we see that the denite integral a f (x)dx can be
interpreted as the area under the curve y = f (x) from a to b. Figure

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 13 / 61

The Denite Integral

Rb
(a) The Riemann sum (b) The integral a
f (x)dx is the
Pn
i=1 f (x∗i )∆x is the sum of areas area under the curve y = f (x)
of rectangles. from a to b.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 14 / 61

The Denite Integral

Example
Evaluate the following denite integrals:
Z 1
(a) x2 dx
0
Z 3
(b) (x3 − 6x) dx
0

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The Denite Integral

Properties of the Denite Integral

Z a Z b
1 f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
Zb a a

2 f (x) dx = 0
a
Z a
3 c dx = c(b − a), where c is any constant
b
Z a Z b
4 cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx, where c is any constant
b a
Z b Z b Z b
5 [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Z c Z b Z b
6 f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a c a

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) establishes a

connection between the two branches of calculus: dierential calculus
and integral calculus.
Dierential calculus arose from the tangent problem, whereas integral
calculus arose from a seemingly unrelated problem,the area problem.
The FTC gives the precise inverse relationship between the derivative
and the integral.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 17 / 61

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

Let's start with a function dened by an equation of the form

Z x
g(x) = f (t)dt
a

where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x varies between a and

b.
Observe that g depends only on x, which appears as the variable
upper limit in the integral.
If f happens to be a positive function, then g(x) can be interpreted as
the area under the graph of f from a to x, where x can vary from to a
to b. Figure

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

Figure

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 19 / 61

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

To explore the relationship between g and f , let's consider a slight

increase in the value of x, from x to x + h, as shown in Figure .
Then, g(x + h) − g(x) is the area under the graph of f from x to
x + h (the colored area in Figure ).
For small h you can see from the gure that this area is approximately
equal to the area of the rectangle with height f (x) and width h:

g(x + h) − g(x) ≈ hf (x)

so
g(x + h) − g(x)
≈ f (x)
h

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

Figure

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 21 / 61

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

Intuitively, we therefore expect that

g(x + h) − g(x)
g ′ (x) = lim = f (x)
h→0 h
The fact that this is true, even when f is not necessarily positive, is
the rst part of the FTC.
Using Leibniz notation for derivatives,we can write FTC1 as
Z x
d
f (t) dt = f (x)
dx a

when f is continuous.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 22 / 61

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

The second part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which

follows easily from the rst part, provides us with a much simpler
method for the evaluation of integrals.

Theorem 5.1: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 2 (FTC 2)

If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

where F is any antiderivative of f , that is, a function such that F ′ = f .

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 23 / 61

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)
Proof
Let g(x) = ax f (t)dt. We know from the rst part that g ′ (x) = f (x); that is, g
R

is an antiderivative of f . If F is any other antiderivative of f on [a, b], then we

know that F and g dier by a constant (why?):
F (x) = g(x) + C (2)
for a < x < b. If we put x = a in the formula for g(x), we get
Z a
g(a) = f (t)dt = 0
a

So, using (2) with x = b and x = a, we have

F (b) − F (a) = [g(b) + C] − [g(a) + C]
= g(b) − g(a) = g(b)
Z b
= f (x)dx □
a
Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 24 / 61
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)

Example
Z 3
(a) Evaluate the integral ex dx.
1
(b) Find the area under the parabola y = x2 from 0 to 1.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 25 / 61

The Indenite Integral

Both parts of the Fundamental Theorem establish connections

between antiderivatives and denite integrals.
We need a convenient notation for antiderivatives that makes them
easy to work with.
Because of the relation given by the Fundamental Theorem between
antiderivatives and integrals, the notation f (x)dx is traditionally
R

used for an antiderivative of f and is called an indenite integral.

Thus Z
f (x) dx = F (x) means F ′ (x) = f (x)

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 26 / 61

The Indenite Integral

For example, we can write

x3 x3
Z  
d
x2 dx = +C because +C = x2
3 dx 3

So we can regard an indenite integral as representing an entire family

of functions (one antiderivative for each value of the constant C ).

NB. You should distinguish carefully

Rb between denite and indenite
integrals.R A denite integral a f (x) dx is a number, whereas an indenite
integral f (x) dx is a function (or family of functions).

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 27 / 61

The Indenite Integral
Rules of Integration
Z Z
1 cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx
Z Z Z
2 [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
Z
3 k dx = kx + C

xn+1
Z
4 xn dx = + C (n ̸= −1)
n+1
Z
1
5 dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
6 ex dx = ex + C
ax
Z
7 ax dx = +C
ln a
Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 28 / 61
The Indenite Integral

Example
Z
Evaluate (x3 − 6x) dx

Solution
Using Rules (1), (2) and (4),
Z Z Z
(x3 − 6x) dx = x3 dx − 6x dx

x4 x2
 
= −6
4 2
x4
= − 3x2 + C □
4

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 29 / 61

Techniques of Integration

In this section we present two common techniques of integration that

greatly expand the set of integrals that can be evaluated.

The Substitution Rule of Integration

Consider a function F (u), where u is in turn a function of variable x,
and so we write u = g(x). Let f (u) ≡ dF (u)/du, so that F (u) is the
antiderivative of f (u).
The chain rule of dierentiation implies that

dF (u) dF (u) du du
= = f (u) = f (u)g ′ (x)
dx du dx dx
Integrating over this expression gives us the chain rule of
antidierentiation or, as it is more commonly called, the substitution
rule of integration.

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Techniques of Integration

If F (u) is the antiderivative of f (u), namely dF (u)/du = f (u) and

u = g(x), then
Z Z
du
f (u) dx = f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = F (u) + C
dx

This rule is useful when the integrand can be decomposed into two
(multiplicative) parts where one part is the derivative of the other.

Example
Evaluate Z
(x3 + ex )(3x2 + ex ) dx

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Techniques of Integration

Solution
The integrand (x3 + ex )(3x2 + ex ) can be decomposed into two
multiplicative parts with the second being the derivative of the rst:

d(x3 + ex )
= 3x2 + ex
dx
Therefore, letting u = x3 + ex allows us to write the integral in the form
Z
du
f (u) dx = F (u) + C
dx

where f (u) = u, and so F (u) = u2 /2. Substituting back for u gives us the
result that
(x3 + ex )2
Z
(x3 + ex )(3x2 + ex ) dx = +C □
2

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Techniques of Integration
Integration by Parts
This method can be seen to follow from the product rule of
dierentiation or, equivalently, the product rule of total dierentials.
Consider the functions u = f (x) and v = g(x). It follows that

d(uv) = u dv + v du
Thus integrating this expression on both sides gives
Z Z Z
d(uv) = u dv + v du

which implies that Z Z

uv = u dv + v du
or Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

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Techniques of Integration

Noting that du = f ′ (x) dx and dv = g ′ (x) dx, we can also write this
expression as
Z Z
f (x)g(x) dx = f (x)g (x) − g(x)f ′ (x) dx
′

Example
Z
Evaluate xex dx.

Solution
Since dex /dx = ex , the derivative or antiderivative of ex is simply ex . Thus
the complication in this problem arises from the presence of the variable x.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 34 / 61

Techniques of Integration

Solution (continued )
However, since dx/dx = 1, if we choose u = x ( ⇐⇒ du = dx) and
dv = ex dx (which implies that dv/dx = ex and hence v = ex ), we can use
the formula for integration by parts to rewrite the problem in a way that
avoids having x and ex multiplied together. That is, by making these
substitutions we get
Z Z
(x)(e )dx = xe − (ex )dx
x x

= ex (x − 1) + C

(You can check the answer by dierentiating the result). □

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 35 / 61

Improper Integrals

Improper integrals are of two types.

The rst type we consider involves denite integrals that are computed
over an innite interval of integration, namely for which the lower limit
approaches −∞, or the upper limit approaches +∞, or both.
The other type involves integrals of functions that are discontinuous at
some point(s) of the interval.

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Improper Integrals
Innite Limits of Integration
When we have denite integrals of the form
Z ∞ Z b
f (x) dx and f (x) dx
a −∞

with one limit of integration being innite, we refer to them as

improper integrals.
In these cases, it is not possible to evaluate the integrals as,
respectively,

F (∞) − F (a) and F (b) − F (−∞)

because ∞ is not a number, and therefore it cannot be substituted for

x in the function F (x). Instead, we must resort once more to the
concept of limits.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 37 / 61

Improper Integrals

The rst improper integral can be dened to be the limit of another

(proper) integral as the latter's upper limit of integration tends to ∞;
that is, Z ∞ Z b
f (x) dx ≡ lim f (x) dx (3)
a b→∞ a

If this limit exists, the improper integral is said to be convergent. If

the limit does not exist, the improper integral is said to be divergent.
By the same token, we can dene
Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≡ lim f (x)dx
−∞ a→−∞ a

with the same criterion of convergence and divergence.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 38 / 61

Improper Integrals

Example
Evaluate Z ∞
dx
1 x2

Solution
First we note that b
b
−1 −1
Z
dx
2
= = +1
1 x x 1 b
Hence, using (3), the desired integral is
∞ b  
−1
Z Z
dx dx
= lim = lim +1 =1
1 x2 b→∞ 1 x2 b→∞ b

This improper integral does converge, and it has a value of 1. □

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 39 / 61

Improper Integrals

Innite Integrand
Even with nite limits of integration, an integral can still be improper
if the integrand becomes innite somewhere in the interval of
integration [a, b].
To evaluate such an integral, we must again rely upon the concept of
a limit.
Example
Evaluate Z 1
1
dx
0 x

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 40 / 61

Improper Integrals

Solution
This integral is improper because the integrand is innite at the lower limit
of integration (1/x → ∞ as x → 0+ ). Therefore, we should rst nd the
integral
Z 1
1
dx = ln x]1a = ln 1 − ln a = − ln a [for a > 0]
a x

and then evaluate the limit as a → 0+ :

Z 1 Z 1
1 1
dx = lim dx = lim (− ln a)
a x a→0+
a x a→0+

Since this limit does not exist (as a → 0+ , ln a → −∞), the given integral
is divergent. □

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 41 / 61

Double Integrals

Suppose that f (x, y) is a function of two variables that is integrable

on the rectangle R = [a, b] × [c, d].
Rd
We use the notation c f (x, y) dy to mean that x is held xed and
f (x, y) is integrated with respect to y from y = c to y = d.
This procedure is called partial integration with respect to y . (Notice
its similarity to partial dierentiation.)
Rd
Now c f (x, y) dy is a number that depends on the value of x, so it
denes a function of x:
Z d
A(x) = f (x, y) dy
c

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Double Integrals

If we now integrate the function A with respect to x from x = a to

x = b, we get
Z b Z b Z d 
A(x) dx = f (x, y)dy dx (4)
a a c

The integral on the right side of (4) is called an iterated integral.

Usually the brackets are omitted. Thus
Z bZ d Z b Z d 
f (x, y) dy dx = f (x, y) dy dx
a c a c

means that we rst integrate with respect to y from c to d and then

with respect to x from a to b.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 43 / 61

Double Integrals

Similarly, the iterated integral

Z dZ b Z d Z b 
f (x, y) dx dy = f (x, y) dx dy (5)
c a c a

means that we rst integrate with respect to x (holding y xed) from

x = a to x = b and then we integrate the resulting function of y with
respect to y from y = c to y = d.
Notice that in both (4) and (5) we work from the inside out.

Example
Evaluate the following double integrals.
Z 3Z 2 Z 2Z 3
(a) x2 y dy dx (b) x2 y dx dy
0 1 1 0

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Double Integrals

Solution
(a) Regarding x as a constant, we obtain
2 2 y=2 22 12
Z      
2 2y 2 2 3
x y dy = x =x −x = x2
1 2 y=1 2 2 2

Thus the function A in the preceding discussion is given by

A(x) = 32 x2 in this example. We now integrate this function of x
from 0 to 3:
Z 3Z 2 Z 3 Z 2 
2 2
x y dy dx = x y dy dx
0 1 0 1

3 3
x3
Z
3 2 27
= x dx = =
0 2 2 0 2

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 45 / 61

Double Integrals

Solution (continued )
(b) Here we rst integrate with respect to x:
Z 2Z 3 Z 2 Z 3  Z 2 3 x=3
x
x2 y dx dy = x2 y dx dy = y dy
1 0 1 0 1 3 x=0

2 2
y2
Z
27
= 9y dy = 9 = □
1 2 1 2

Notice that in the previous example we obtained the same answer

whether we integrated with respect to y or x rst.
In general, it turns out that the two iterated integrals in (4) and (5)
are always equal; that is, the order of integration does not matter.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 46 / 61

Double Integrals: Geometric Interpretation

Consider a function f of two variables dened on a closed rectangle

R = [a, b] × [c, d], and suppose that f (x, y) ≥ 0.
Let S be the solid that lies above R and under the graph of f . Figure

Then the volume V of the solid S that lies above the rectangle R and
below the surface z = f (x, y) is
ZZ Z bZ d
V = f (x, y) dA = f (x, y) dy dx
a c
R

The double integral is more precisely dened as the limit of a double

Riemann sum.
provides an intuition for the interpretation of the double
Figure

integral as a volume and why the order of integration does not matter.

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Double Integrals: Geometric Interpretation

Figure

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Double Integrals: Geometric Interpretation

Figure

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Economic Applications of Integrals

Integrals are used in economic analysis in various ways. Here we will

discuss only two applications.
1. From a Marginal function to a Total Function
Given a total function (e.g., a totalcost function), the process of
dierentiation can yield the marginal function (e.g., the marginalcost
function).
Because the process of integration is the opposite of dierentiation, it
should enable us, conversely, to infer the total function from a given
marginal function.

Example
If a rm spends $650 on xed costs what is its total cost function if its
marginal cost function is M C = 82 − 16q + 1.8q 2 ?

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Economic Applications of Integrals

Solution
The integral of marginal cost will give total variable costs plus a constant
of integration which should equal Total Fixed Cost (T F C ). Therefore
Z
T C = (82 − 16q + 1.8q 2 ) dq

= 82q − 8q 2 + 0.6q 3 + T F C

We are told that T F C = 650 and so

T C = 0.6q 3 − 8q 2 + 82q + 650 □

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Economic Applications of Integrals

If one is given a rm's marginal revenue function then one can

integrate this to nd the total revenue function.

Example
If M R = 360 − 2.5q what is the corresponding T R function ?

Solution
Z Z
TR = M R dq = (360 − 2.5q) dq

= 360q − 1.25q 2 + C

When q is zero, T R must also be zero. Thus C = 0 and so

T R = 360q − 1.25q 2 □

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 52 / 61

Economic Applications of Integrals

2. Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus

Consumer surplus is dened as the area below a demand schedule but
above the ruling price.
This dierence between what consumers are willing to pay for a good
and what they actually have to pay is often used as a measure of
welfare.
Producer surplus, on the other hand, equals the area below price and
above the supply curve up to the quantity sold.
In a perfectly competitive market, producer surplus equals prot
without accounting for xed costs.

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 53 / 61

Double Integrals: Geometric Interpretation

(a) (b)

Figure

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Economic Applications of Integrals

For a linear demand or supply function, like in Figure , consumer

surplus and producer surplus can be calculated as the area of a
triangle.
However, for a non-linear demand or supply function, we need to rely
on denite integrals to nd consumer and producer surplus. Figure

Figure: Consumer Surplus for a non-linear demand function

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 55 / 61

Economic Applications of Integrals

Let p = D−1 (q) be the inverse demand function, and let p = p0 be

the price of the good purchased. If q = q0 is the corresponding
amount of this good purchased, then the consumer's surplus (CS )
from the availability of this good (at price p0 ) is
Z q0
CS = D−1 (q) dq − p0 q0 (6)
0

Example
For the non-linear demand function p = 1800 − 0.6q 2 , nd the consumer
surplus when q is 10.

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Economic Applications of Integrals

Solution
When q = 10, p = 1800 − 0.6(10)2 = 1740. Then using (6)
Z 10
CS = (1800 − 0.6q 2 ) dq − (1740)(10)
0
10
= 1800q − 0.2q 3

0
− 17, 400

= (18, 000 − 200) − 17, 400

= 400 □

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 57 / 61

Economic Applications of Integrals

In calculating consumer surplus measures for the case of a constant

elasticity demand function we must compute improper integrals.
Recall that this demand curve can be written as q = ap−ϵ (a, ϵ > 0),
or, in terms of the inverse demand function p = (q/a)−1/ϵ where ϵ is
the own price elasticity of demand.
The graph of this demand curve illustrates that it never cuts the p or
q axis. Figure
This means that the consumer surplus received at price p = p0 is
Z q0  
q −1/ϵ
CS = lim dq − p0 q0 (7)
c→0 c a

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 58 / 61

Economic Applications of Integrals
Example
 1/2
50
For the demand function p = , nd the consumer surplus if
q
p = 10.

Solution
From the demand function, at p = 10, q = 1/2 = 0.5. Then
1/2
0.5  √ 0.5
Z  Z 
50 −1/2
CS = lim dq − 10(0.5) = lim 50 q dq − 5
c→0 c q c→0 c
√ h i0.5 √ h √ √ i
= 50 lim 2q 1/2 − 5 = 50 lim 2( 0.5 − c) − 5
c→0 c c→0
p
= 2 50(0.5) − 5 = 5

This is shown in Figure .

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 59 / 61
Economic Applications of Integrals

Figure: Consumer Surplus for the demand function p = (50/q)1/2 at price p = 10

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 60 / 61

 ************* End of Chapter Five *************

Ephrem Andargie (AAUSC) Ch 5: Integration October 4, 2023 61 / 61